MULTIMEDIA UNIVERSITY OF KENYA (MMU)

Course Title: CCS/CSE 2111: Fundamentals of Computing/Software Applications

Instructor: Albert Opondo
Phone: 0726854146
eMail: [email protected]
LECTURE 1: Introduction to Computing and Understanding the ICT environment
Introduction to Computing:

What is computing?

“From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia” Computing is any goal-oriented activity requiring,
benefiting from, or creating computing machinery. It includes the study and experimentation
of algorithmic processes, and the development of both hardware and software. Computing
has scientific, engineering, mathematical, technological, and social aspects. Major computing
disciplines include computer engineering, computer science, cybersecurity, data science,
information systems, information technology, and software engineering.

The term computing is also synonymous with counting and calculating. In earlier times, it
was used in reference to the action performed by mechanical computing machines, and before
that, to human computers.

The basic components of computing include the Central Processing Unit (CPU), Random
Access Memory (RAM), Storage Drives (like HDDs and SSDs), a Monitor, a Keyboard,
and a Mouse. Understanding these components is crucial for basic computer literacy.

What is Fundamentals of Computing?

Fundamentals of computing refers to the basic principles and concepts that underpin the use
of computers and digital devices. This includes an understanding of computer hardware,
software, operating systems, and how these components interact with each other to process
data and produce information. It is essential for navigating and utilizing technology
effectively.

DEFINITION OF KEY COMPUTER TERMS

Definition of a Computer:

A Computer is an electronic device that operates (works) under the control of programs
stored in its own memory unit.
A computer is an electronic machine that processes raw data to give information as output.
An electronic device that accepts data as input, and transforms it under the influence of a set
of special instructions called Programs, to produce the desired output (referred to as
Information).
A programmable machine that receives input, processes it, stores it, and produces output
based on pre-set instructions.
A computer automatically accepts data & instructions as input from an Input device, stores
them temporarily in its memory, then processes that data according to the instructions given,
and finally transfers the processed data (Information) to an Output device.
Computer: An electronic device that operates (works) under the control of programs stored
in its own memory unit, to process data, perform tasks such as calculations, data storage,
retrieval, and communication.
Explanations;
A computer is described as an electronic device because; it is made up of electronic
components and uses electric energy (such as electricity) to operate.
A computer has an internal memory, which stores data & instructions temporarily awaiting
processing, and even holds the intermediate result (information) before it is communicated to
the recipients through the Output devices.
It works on the data using the instructions issued, means that, the computer cannot do any
useful job on its own. It can only work as per the set of instructions issued.
A computer will accept data in one form and produce it in another form. The data is
normally held within the computer as it is being processed.
Program:
A computer Program is a set of related instructions written in the language of the computer
& is used to make the computer perform a specific task (or, to direct the computer on what to
do).
A set of related instructions which specify how the data is to be processed.
A set of instructions used to guide a computer through a process.
Data:
Data is a collection of raw facts, figures or instructions that do not have much meaning to the
user.
Data may be in form of numbers, alphabets/letters or symbols, and can be processed to
produce information
Data Processing:
It is the process of collecting all items of data together & converting them into information.
Processing refers to the way the data is manipulated (or handled) to turn it into information.
The processing may involve calculation, comparison or any other logic to produce the
required result.
The processing of the data usually results in some meaningful information being produced.
Information:
Information is the data which has been refined, summarized & manipulated in the way you
want it, or into a more meaningful form for decision-making.
The information must be accurate, timely, complete and relevant.

Comparison between Data and Information.

Aspect Data Information

Definition . Unprocessed raw facts or figures Processed data, arranged in a
meaningful format.
Nature Unorganized and unstructured. Organized and structured for
specific use.
Meaning Has little to no meaning in its raw Meaningful and interpretable
form. by the user.
Decision-making Cannot be used directly for Can be used to make
decision-making. informed decisions.
Examples Numbers, dates, symbols (e.g., Sales reports, profit analysis
"45", "12/01/2024"). (e.g., "Revenue increased by
10%").
Dependence Data exists without processing. Information depends on data
for creation.
Form Random and disorganized Aggregated, sorted, and
collection of facts. processed data.
Representation Raw facts (e.g., a dataset with Interpreted results (e.g., a
numbers). graph showing trends).
Contextualization Lacks context and relevance in Contextualized within a
isolation. specific framework or
problem.
Accuracy May contain errors or irrelevant Processed to remove errors
data. and present accurate insights.
Usage Collected for potential future use. Used immediately for
decision-making or analysis.

Hardware: The physical components of a computer system, such as the CPU, RAM, hard
drive, monitor, keyboard, etc.

Software: The programs and operating systems that run on a computer and perform tasks or
solve specific problems.
CPU (Central Processing Unit): The brain of the computer that processes instructions from
software.

RAM (Random Access Memory): A temporary storage area that holds data and instructions
that the CPU can access quickly.

Operating System (OS): The system software that manages computer hardware, software
resources, and provides common services for computer programs.

Input Devices: Hardware used to enter data into a computer (e.g., keyboard, mouse,
scanner).

Output Devices: Hardware used to display or output data from a computer (e.g., monitor,
printer).

Storage: The component where data is saved for future use. Includes hard drives, SSDs, CDs,
USBs.

Network: A collection of computers and devices connected together to share resources and
information. The most common network configurations include:

- LAN (Local Area Network): A network within a small geographical area such as an
office or building.
- WAN (Wide Area Network): A larger network that spans cities, countries, or even
continents (e.g., the internet).

Internet: A global network of interconnected computers that communicate via standardized

protocols.

Cybersecurity: Measures taken to protect a computer or computer system against

unauthorized access or attack.
CHARACTERISTICS / FEATURES OF A COMPUTER.
Before 20th century, most information was processed manually or by use of simple machines.
Today, millions of people are using computers in offices and at home to produce and store all
types of information
The following are some of the attributes that make computers widely accepted & used in the
day-to-day activities in our society:
1. Speed .
Computers operate at very high speeds, and can perform very many functions within a very
short time.
They can perform a much complicated task much faster than a human being.
The speed of a computer is measured in Fractions of seconds.
Millisecond - a thousandth of a second (103)
Microsecond - a millionth of a second (106)
Nanosecond - a thousand millionth of a second (109)
Picosecond - a million millionth of a second (1012)
The speed of a computer is usually linked to the technology used to build it.
a). 1st Generation computers (1940s & early 1950s).
The computers were built using Vacuum tubes, and the speed was measured in
Milliseconds. E.g., a computer could perform 5,000 additions & 300 multiplications
per second.
b). 2nd Generation computers (1950s & early 1960s).
Were built using Transistors. Their operation speeds increased & were measured in
Microseconds. E.g., a computer could perform 1 million additions per second.
c). Mid 1960s
Integrated Circuit (IC), which combined a no. of transistors & diodes together on a
silicon chip, was developed.
The speed increased to tens of millions of operations per second.
d). In 1971, Intel Corporation produced a very small, single chip called a
Microprocessor, which could perform all the operations on the computer’s processor.
The chip contained about 1,600 transistors.
e). Today’s microprocessors are very powerful, cheaper & more reliable due to the use of
the Large Scale Integration (LSI) & Very Large scale Integration (VLSI)
technologies, which combines hundreds of thousands of components onto a single chip.
The computer speeds are now measured in Nanoseconds & Picoseconds.
2. Accuracy:
Unlike human beings, computers are very accurate, i.e., they almost never make mistakes.
A computer can work for very long periods without going wrong. However, when an error
occurs the computer has a number of in-built, self-checking features in their electronic
components that can detect & correct such errors.
Usually errors are committed by the users entering the data to the computer, thus the saying
Garbage in Garbage Out (GIGO).
This means that, if you enter incorrect data into the computer and have it processed, the
computer will give you misleading information.
3. Reliability .
The computer can be relied upon to produce the correct answer if it is given the correct
instructions & supplied with the correct data.
Therefore, if you want to add two numbers, but by mistake, give the computer a “Multiply”
instruction, the computer will not know that you intended to “ADD”; it will multiply the
numbers supplied.
Similarly, if you give it the ADD instruction, but make a mistake and enter an incorrect data;
let say, 14 & 83 instead of 14 & 38; then the computer will produce the “wrong” answer 97
instead of 52. However, note that, 97 is ‘correct’ based on the data supplied.
Therefore, the output produced by a computer is only as reliable as the instructions used &
the data supplied.
4. Consistency:
Computers are usually consistent. This means that, given the same data & the same
instructions, they will produce the same answer every time that particular process is repeated.
5. Storage:
A computer is capable of storing large amounts of data or instructions in a very small space.
A computer can store data & instructions for later use, and it can produce/ retrieve this data
when required so that the user can make use of it.
Data stored in a computer can be protected from unauthorized individuals through the use
of passwords.
6. Diligence :
Unlike human beings, a computer can work continuously without getting tired or bored.
Even if it has to do a million calculations, it will do the last one with the same speed and
accuracy as the first one.
7. Automation :
A computer is an automatic device. This is because, once given the instructions, it is guided
by these instructions and can carry on its job automatically until it is complete.
It can also perform a variety of jobs as long as there is a well-defined procedure.
8. Versatile :
A computer can be used in different places to perform a large number of different jobs
depending on the instructions fed to it.
9. Imposition of a formal approach to working methods :
Because a computer can only work with a strict set of instructions, it identifies and imposes
rigid rules for dealing with the data it is given to process.
DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTERS.
HISTORY OF COMPUTING.
Before 1900, most data processing was done manually using simple tools like stones & sticks
to count and keep records.
Around 2000 years ago, Asian merchants came up with a special calculating tool called
Abacus
that could be used to calculate large figures. The earliest known tool for use in computation is
the abacus, and it is thought to have been invented in Babylon circa between 2700 and 2300
BC. Abaci, of a more modern design, are still used as calculation tools today.
An Abacus is made up of a rectangular frame and a crossbar at the middle. It is fitted with
wires or strings running across from the frame to the crossbar.

FIGURE 1: ABACUS

After Abacus, the first machine that is usually regarded as the forerunner of modern
computers was named the Analytical Engine, and was developed by an English
mathematician called Charles Babbage.

FIGURE 2: ANALYTICAL ENGINE, THE FIRST MECHANICAL COMPUTER BY

CHARLES-BABBAGE
In 1939, Professor Howard Aiken of Harvard University designed the first computer-like
machine named IBM’s Harvard Mark I computer (Mark 1)

FIGURE 3: IBM’S HARVARD MARK I COMPUTER (MARK 1) AND PHOTO OF

PROFESSOR HOWARD AIKEN OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY

Since then, a series of advancements in electronics has occurred. With each breakthrough,
the computers based on the older form of electronics have been replaced by a new
“generation” of computers based on the newer form of electronics.
COMPUTER GENERATIONS.
A Computer generation is a grouped summary of the gradual developments in the computer
technology. The historical events are not considered in terms of individual years, but are
classified in durations (a period of more than a year).
First Generation (1940–1956): Used Vacuum Tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for
memory.
These early computers were huge/large, slow, consuming a lot of electricity, generating heat
during processing due to overheating and were expensive.
The computers constantly broke down due to the excessive heat generated, hence were short-
lived, and were not very reliable.
Cards were used to enter data into the computers.
Their internal memory capacity was limited. The maximum memory size was approx. 2 KB
(2,000 bytes).
They were very slow - their speed was measured in Milliseconds. E.g., ENIAC (the earliest
electronic computer) could perform 5,000 additions per second & 300 multiplications per
second.
The computers were very costly - they costed millions of dollars.
Example: ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer) built in 1946 for use in
World War II. It contained 18,000 Vacuum tubes, one of the first general-purpose computers,
which weighed over 30 tons and the computer used big physical devices in their circuitry;
hence they were very large in size, i.e. the computer could occupy several office blocks. For
example, ENIAC occupied an area of about 150m2 - the size of an average 3-bedroom house.
Examples of 1ST Generation computers:
- EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) developed in 1945 by
Dr. John
Von Neumann. It was the first computer that used instructions stored in memory.
- UNIVAC (UNIVersal Automatic Computer).
- IBM 650.
- LEO (Lyon’s Electronic Office).
Second Generation (1957–1963): The 2nd generation computers used tiny, solid-state
electronic devices called Transistors (From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia: A transistor is
a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electrical signals and power. It is one of the
basic building blocks of modern electronics. It is composed of semiconductor material,
usually with at least three terminals for connection to an electronic circuit.).
Transistors replaced vacuum tubes.
The transistors were relatively smaller, more stable & reliable than vacuum tubes, making
computers smaller, faster, more energy-efficient (consumed less power), more reliable and
produced less heat.
They used Magnetic core memories. RAM Memory size expanded to 32 KB.
Their operation speed increased to between 200,000 – 300,000 instructions per second. Their
speeds were measured in Microseconds. E.g., a computer could perform 1 million additions
per second, which was comparatively higher than that of the 1st generation computers.
The computers were smaller in size & therefore, occupied less space compared to the 1st G
Computers. They were less costly than the 1st G computers.
Examples of 2nd Generation computers:

- UNIVAC II, which could handle both numbers and text.

 - NCR 501, IBM 300, IBM 1401, IBM 7070, IBM 7094 Series & CDC-6600
Mainframe
- computers.
- ATLAS LEO Mark III.
- UNIVAC 1107.
- HONEYWELL 200.
Third Generation (1964–1971): Used electronic devices called Integrated Circuits (ICs),
which were made by combining thousands of transistors & diodes together on a
semiconductor called a Silicon chip. Integrated Circuits replaced transistors, allowing for
more compact, reliable computers, improving the speed and capacity of computers.
The processing speed increased to 5 Million instructions per second (5 MIPS).
The storage capacity of the computers (i.e., the RAM memory sizes) expanded to 2 MB.
They were smaller in size compared to 2nd generation computers.
The computers used a wide range of peripheral devices.
The computers could support more than user at the same time. They were also able to
support remote communication facilities.
Magnetic disks were developed for storage purposes.
The 1st microcomputer was produced during this period (1974).
Examples of 3rd Generation computers:
- IBM 360, 370; [IBM System/360, a family of computers that was compatible across a
wide range of applications.]
- ICL 1900 Series;
- 8-bit Microcomputers & PDP-11 Mainframe computers.
Fourth Generation (1971–present): Microprocessors were introduced, where all the
processing units are placed on a single chip (e.g., Intel 4004), bringing down the size of
computers and making them affordable and available for personal use (This led to the
personal computer revolution.).
The 4th generation computers used Large Scale Integrated (LSI) circuits & Very Large Scale
Integrated (VLSI) circuits. These circuits were made by compressing more tiny circuits and
transistors into even smaller space of the silicon chip.
Microprocessors are a type of integrated circuit (IC) that typically utilize Very Large Scale
Integration (VLSI) technology. LSI circuits refer to Large Scale Integration, which is an older
technology that packs hundreds to thousands of transistors on a single chip, while VLSI
significantly advances this technology by integrating millions or billions of transistors into a
single integrated circuit,
The computers were small, and very fast. Their processing speeds increased to 50 Million
instructions per second. Had large storage capacity, i.e., their memory sizes expanded to
several hundred Megabytes.
Memories used included Magnetic disks, Bubble memories & Optical disks.
Examples of 4th Generation computers:
- The introduction of Apple I in 1976, which was among the first personal computers
available to the general public.
- IBM 308 and 4300;
- Amdahl 580
- Honeywell DPS-88
- Burroughs 7700, and the 16-bit & 32-bit microcomputers. The first microcomputer
was called Apple II.
Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond): Focuses on Artificial Intelligence (AI), with
developments in machine learning, neural networks, and advanced processing technologies,
with quantum computing being a significant field of research.
Quantum computing refers to a cutting-edge multidisciplinary field comprising aspects of
computer science, physics, and mathematics that utilizes the principles of quantum mechanics
to process information. Unlike classical computers, which use bits as the smallest unit of
data, quantum computers use quantum bits, or qubits, which can exist in multiple states
simultaneously. This allows them to solve complex problems faster and more efficiently than
traditional computing methods. Quantum computers promise to solve complex problems that
current classical computers cannot handle efficiently.
The technologies used are Parallel architectures, 3-Dimensional circuit design & super
conducting materials. These technologies have led to the development of computers referred
to as Supercomputers, which are very powerful, and have very high processing speeds. Their
speeds are measured in Nanoseconds & Picoseconds.
They are able to perform parallel (or multi-processing) whereby a single task is split among a
number of processors.
The memory sizes range between 1 Gigabyte & 1 Terabyte.
The computers are designed using VLSI and the Microchip technology that has given rise to
the smaller computers, known as Microcomputers used today.
The computers have special instruction sets that allow them to support complex programs
that mimic human intelligence often referred to as Artificial Intelligence.
By definition, Artificial intelligence (AI) is a technology that enables machines, particularly
computer systems, to simulate human intelligence processes such as learning,
comprehension, problem-solving, image analysis, visual perception, speech recognition,
decision-making, and translation between languages.
Such programs can help managers to make decisions and also provide critical expert services
to users instead of relying on human professionals.
FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE TYPE OF COMPUTER.
1) Type of processor (Central processing unit – CPU)
Microcomputers use microprocessors, which are manufactured on a single chip, as their
CPU.
In larger computers such as supercomputers, mainframe & minicomputers, the processing is
carried out by a number of separate, high-speed components instead of a single processor.
2) Processing speed.
Every computer has a clock that drives its operations.
Larger computers have faster clocks and therefore can process many instructions per second
compared to small computers, which have slower clocks.
3) Amount of Main memory (RAM).
All computers have some amount of RAM (Random Access memory), which is used to
hold the instructions required to perform a task.
Larger computers have more RAM and therefore can handle large volumes of data & also
support many and sophisticated programs which might require large memory sizes.
4) Storage capacity of the Hard disk.
The storage capacity is the amount of space that is available for storing the instructions
required to manipulate data.
Larger computers have higher storage capacities than microcomputers.
5) Cost of the computer.
The cost of computers is directly related to the size. Microcomputers are less costly
compared to minicomputers, mainframes or Supercomputers.
6) Speed of Output devices.
The speed of an output device is determined by the amount of information that can be
printed in a specified amount of time.
The speed of microcomputer output device is less than that of the larger computers in that:
For a microcomputer, the speed of its output device is measured by the number of
characters printed per second (cps). For larger computers, their output devices are faster
and their speeds are measured depending on the number of lines or pages printed per
minute (lpm / ppm).
7) Number of users who can access the computer at the same time.
Most microcomputers can support only 1, 2 or 3 users at the same time. However, they can
be networked to share resources.
Larger computers can support hundreds of users at the same time.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be classified according to the following factors:
1. Physical size & processing power.
2. Purpose for which they are designed.
3. Functionality (Method/ mode of operation).
1. Classification According to Physical Size.
Computers can be classified into 5 main groups according to their size as:
 Supercomputers.
 Mainframe computers.
 Minicomputers.
 Microcomputers.
 Portable computers (Laptops, Notebooks & Palmtops).
Supercomputers.
Supercomputers are the fastest, largest, most expensive & also the most powerful computers
available.
They are very fast in processing. They can perform many complex calculations in a fraction
of a second. They have high processing speed compared to other computers. The speed of a
supercomputer is generally measured in FLOPS (FLoating point Operations Per Second).
Some of the faster supercomputers can perform trillions of calculations per second.
Most Supercomputers use multiple processors (interconnecting thousands of processors that
can work in parallel). In this case, a single task is split among the processors for faster
execution. However, all the processors are controlled by a single central processor.
Supercomputers generate a lot of heat, & therefore require special cooling systems.
Sometimes, the whole CPU is deeped in a tank containing liquid Fluorocarbon to provide
cooling.
Supercomputers are very large & heavy, and are usually kept under special environmental
conditions (i.e., in a special room).
They are operated by computer specialists. A Supercomputer can be operated by over 500
users at the same time.
FIGURE 4: SAMPLE EXAMPLE OF A MODERN SUPERCOMPUTER IBM
SUMMIT SUPERCOMPUTER

Areas where supercomputers are used:

Supercomputers are mainly used for complex scientific applications that involve many
calculations & require a lot of computational power. Some of the applications that use
supercomputers include;
- Weather forecasting.
- Petroleum research.
- Defence and weapon analysis.
- Aerodynamic design and simulation.
Note. These tasks use large amounts of data, which need to be manipulated within a very
short time.
Examples of Supercomputers:
- CRAY T3D, NEC-500.
Mainframe computers.
Mainframes are less powerful & less expensive than supercomputers.
They are big in size but smaller compared to Supercomputers.
Are powerful computers with very high capacities of Main storage. They also have a large
backing storage capacity.
Have a very high processing speed, i.e., can process large amounts of data very quickly.
They can support a large number of peripherals of different types (can support between 5–
300 terminals).
They can handle hundreds of users at the same time, e.g., they can be operated by 200 users
at a time.
Mainframe computers are general-purpose, and can handle all kinds of problems whether
scientific or commercial.
FIGURE 5: SAMPLE EXAMPLE OF A MODERN MAINFRAME COMPUTER

Areas where mainframe computers are used:

Mainframe computers are mostly found in government departments, big organizations and
companies which have large information processing needs, e.g., they are used;
In Banks & Hospitals for preparing bills, Payrolls, etc.
In communication networks such as the Internet where they act as Servers.
By Airline reservation systems where information of all the flights is stored.
Examples of Mainframes:
- IBM 4381.
- ICL 39 Series.
- CDC Cyber series.
Minicomputers.
A Minicomputer is physically smaller than a mainframe. However, it can support the same
peripheral devices supported by a mainframe.
A Minicomputer can support several users at a time, e.g., can be operated by 6 users at a
time. Several workstations/ terminals are connected to one central minicomputer so that the
users connected can share its resources (C.P.U time, storage, etc).
Minicomputers are easier to manufacture & maintain compared to mainframes.
Minicomputers are cheaper than the mainframes, but more costly than the microcomputers.
They handle small amounts of data, are less powerful, & have less memory than the
mainframes.
Minicomputers are slow compared to mainframe computers.
FIGURE 6: SAMPLE EXAMPLE OF A MINIFRAMECOMPUTER: Raytheon RDS
500

Areas where minicomputers are used:

Minicomputers are used mainly in:
Scientific laboratories & research institutions.
Engineering plants/factories to control of chemical or mechanical processes.
Space industry.
Insurance companies & Banks for accounting purposes.
Smaller organizations as Network Servers.
Example of Minicomputer:
- PDP-8 built in 1965 by Digital Equipment Corporation in U.S.
Microcomputers.
Microcomputers are the PCs mostly found today in homes, schools & many small offices.
They are called Personal Computers (PCs) because they are designed to be used by one
person at a time.
They consist of very few connected units, i.e. can support very few peripheral devices
(usually 1 or 2).
The data processing in microcomputers is done by a Microprocessor (a single chip
containing the Arithmetic Logic unit & Control unit).
Microcomputers are smaller in size & also cheaper than minicomputers. Their design is
based on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) that confines several physical components
into an IC.
They are less powerful than minicomputers & their internal memory is smaller than that of
minicomputers.
FIGURE 6: SAMPLE EXAMPLE OF A MICROCOMPUTER

Areas where microcomputers are used:

Microcomputers are commonly used in:
Training and learning institutions such as schools.
Small business enterprises, and
Communication centres as terminals.
Microcomputers have become very popular because of the following reasons:
1) Are cheaper than both mini & mainframe computers.
2) Are very fast (i.e. have high processing speeds).
3) Small in size, hence they occupy less space in an office.
4) Are more energy efficient (i.e., consume less power).
5) Are more reliable than the early Mainframe computers.
Examples:
- IBM PCs such as Apple Macintosh, Dells, Compaq, Hp etc.

Portable computers (Laptops, Notebooks & Palmtops).

Laptops & Notebooks.
A Laptop is a PC sufficiently small & light such that a user can use it comfortably on his/her
lap. It is designed to be used by placing it on the lap.
-Laptops are very small in size & are portable. They are small enough to fit inside a
briefcase; still leaving room for other items.
-A Laptop computer operates mainly on electricity or by rechargeable batteries.
-Laptops normally have in-built disk drives & Flat screens (Liquid Crystal Displays).
-Can only support a limited number of peripheral devices.
-Have limited storage capacities.
Note. The smaller computers like Laptops tend to be more expensive than Desktop
computers because of the following reasons:
1) The technology of producing smaller devices is expensive.
2) They are convenient because they are portable.
3) They have advanced power management capabilities (they consume less power since a
laptop can operate on rechargeable batteries).

FIGURE 7: SAMPLE EXAMPLE OF A LAPTOP & NOTEBOOK

A netbook is a type of laptop that is slimmer, lighter, and offers a more simplified set of
tools. It’s often referred to as a “notebook,” but many people call it a “laptop” as well. In
fact, many netbooks actually have the term “laptop” in their name. The important thing to
remember is that it’s usually the lightest and most affordable offering from a company, and
it’s typically favoured by students and beginning computer users.
Netbooks vary by the operating system, but most run on software that’s designed to work
from the internet. With most of the functionality happening online, there’s less to store on the
computer’s hard drive. This allows the netbook to have a more modest processor and less
memory, too. With a slimmed-down set of features, it usually costs much less than its full-
sized laptop counterparts.
These computers are usually much smaller as well and weigh just a few pounds. They lack
the heavier components that make gaming laptops or business workstations so bulky, making
them a favorite tool for those who like to travel light.
Netbook vs laptop explained
Depending on whom you ask, you may get different definitions of a netbook and laptop. The
widely-accepted rule about what makes each type of product different is size and
functionality. Netbooks are often considered a subcategory of laptop. You may hear people
call their netbook a laptop, and that’s because they are designed to do similar tasks.
In practical terms, the netbook has certain advantages over a standard laptop. They are
usually:
 Lighter
 Quieter
 Easier for beginners to start using
 Have less unnecessary software installed
 Work seamlessly with popular cloud-based apps and tools

Palmtops.
 Palmtops are small enough to fit in the pocket, and can be held in the palm when being used.
Have limited storage capacities.
Palmtops are mainly used as Personal Organizers, with some minimal programs for
calculations, Word processing, Spreadsheets, & E-mail.
FIGURE 8: SAMPLE EXAMPLE OF A PALMTOP

Example of a Palmtop; Personal Digital Assistant (PDA).

COMPARISON OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF COMPUTER

Type of Processing Users

Description Size Cost Typical Use Example
Computer Power Supported

The fastest and

most powerful Weather
Extremely high, IBM
computers, forecasting,
trillions of Very Thousands Summit,
Supercomputers capable of Largest scientific
calculations per expensive of users Cray
trillions of research,
second Titan
calculations per cryptography
second.

Large systems Banking,

used for bulk High, capable Hundreds government IBM Z
Mainframe data processing of processing to data Series,
Large Expensive
Computers and large-scale vast amounts of thousands processing, HP
computing data of users transaction NonStop
tasks. systems

Mid-sized
Medium-sized, organizations,
multi-user Moderate, can Dozens to PDP-11,
Moderately industrial
Minicomputers computers for support Medium hundreds IBM
expensive control,
specific multiple users of users AS/400
server
business tasks, applications
Type of Processing Users
Description Size Cost Typical Use Example
Computer Power Supported

smaller than
mainframes.

General-
Desktop
purpose Individual
PCs,
computers Moderate, use, office
Typically Apple
Microcomputers (PCs), smaller sufficient for Small Affordable applications,
one user iMac,
and less individual tasks entertainment,
Raspberry
powerful than education
Pi
minicomputers.

Mobile versions
of Mobile
microcomputers Moderate, computing,
Affordable MacBook,
Portable (laptops, similar to Small to Typically business
to Dell XPS,
Computers notebooks, microcomputers handheld one user work,
moderate iPad
palmtops), but portable personal
designed for productivity
use on the go.

OTHERS -> Desktop Computer.

This is the name given to any computer designed to be used when placed on a desk in an
office environment.
They are not portable.
Examples of desktop computers:
1) Home computer.
This is a low-cost microcomputer of limited capability designed for domestic use. It has
programs that are used typically for computer games or controlling family finances.
2) Personal computer (PC).
This is a microcomputer designed for independent use by an individual at work or in the
home mainly for business purposes.
A PC can support only 1 user at a time.
PCs are mostly used in offices, schools, business premises, and at home for various
applications like computer literacy, Games, Database management, Accounting, Word
processing, Telecommunications, etc.
A PC can be connected to a mini & mainframe computer so as to enable the user access
the facilities offered by the larger machines.
3) Workstation.
A workstation is usually a desktop computer with all the facilities but interlinked to a
network.
A typical workstation works in a similar way to a Personal computer. However, it is
more advanced than a typical PC in the following ways:
i). It is larger & more powerful than a PC. E.g., workstations use 32-bit
microprocessors, while PCs use 16-bit microprocessors.
ii). It has in-built capabilities for its interconnection & operation with other computers,
i.e., it is fully connected to a computer network as any other computer on the
network in its own right.
iii). It has high resolution graphics.
iv). It has a Multi-tasking operating system, i.e. it is able to run multiple applications at
the same time.
OTHERS -> An Embedded computer.
This is a computer that is within another device or system but is not accessed directly. E.g.,
there are embedded computers operating within Petrol pumps, Watches, Cameras & Video
recorders.
2. Classification According To Purpose.
Digital computers can be classified further according to the tasks they perform either as:
- General-purpose.
- Special purpose
- Dedicated computers.

General-Purpose Computers.
General-purpose computers are designed to perform a wide variety of tasks. They use
specifically written instructions (programs) to carry out the desired processing tasks.
Example;
A single computer can be used to process documents, perform calculations, process the
Payroll, simulate the loading on a bridge, process Insurance policies, and play games, among
others.
The programs used in a general-purpose computer are exchangeable. This means that, to
perform a particular task, the appropriate set of instructions required to perform that
particular task are loaded into the computer memory.
E.g., if you want to play a game, the appropriate program is loaded into the computer’s
memory & the computer is instructed to execute the instructions which make up the game.
Examples of general-purpose computers: Mainframes, Minicomputers, Microcomputers &
Laptops used in most offices & schools.
Special-Purpose Computer.
A special-purpose computer is designed to handle/accomplish a particular specific task only.
Such computers cannot perform any other task except the one they were meant to do.
Therefore, the programs which are used in a special-purpose computer are fixed (hard-wired)
at the time of manufacture.
For example;
In a computer Network, the Front End Processor (FEP) is only used to control the
communication of information between the various workstations and the host computer.
A Special-purpose computer is dedicated to a single task; hence it can perform it quickly &
very efficiently.
Examples of special-purpose computers:
- Robots used in a manufacturing industry for production only.
- Mobile phones used for communication only.
- Calculators that carry out calculations only.
- Computers used in Digital watches.
- Computers used in Petrol pumps.
- Computers used in Washing machines.
- An Automatic pilot – a computer dedicated to the task of operating an aircraft.
- A Word processor – a special-purpose computer used in the production of office
documents, letters, etc.
Reasons why a Mobile phone is regarded to be a computer.
It is electronic.
Has a screen.
It has a Keypad.
Has a Memory.
It is programmable.
Dedicated Computer.
A Dedicated computer is a general-purpose computer that is committed to some processing
task; though capable of performing a variety of tasks in different application environments.
E.g., the computer can be dedicated to carrying out Word processing tasks only.
3. Classification According To Functionality.
Usually, there are two forms of data; Digital data, and Analogue data. Computers can be
classified according to the type of data they can process as either.
- Digital computers.
- Analogue computers, or
- Hybrid computers.
Digital Computers.
This is the most commonly used type of computers.
A Digital computer is a computer that operates on discrete data only. It can process both
numeric & alphabetic data within the computer, e.g., 0, 1, 2, 3…, A,B,C….
Their operation is based on 2 states, “ON” & “OFF” or on digits “1” & “0”. Therefore, any
data to be manipulated by a digital computer must first be converted to digital form.
Their output is usually in form of numbers, alphabets, & symbols.
Digital computers are usually general-purpose computers; hence, they are widely used in
different areas for data processing.
Most of the devices found at homes today are digital in nature.

Digital computers are less accurate, i.e. may not solve all your problems since the facilities
provided are generalized.
Examples:
- A Television with a button which is pressed to increase or decrease the volume.
- Digital watches.
- Calculators.
- Microcomputers. They are said to be digital because they posses the ALU.
Analogue Computers.
An Analogue computer is a computer that operates on continuous data.
They carry out their data processing by measuring the amount of change that occurs in
physical attributes/quantities, such as changes in electrical voltage, speed, currents, pressure,
length, temperature, humidity, etc.
An Analogue computer is usually a special-purpose device that is dedicated to a single task.
For example, they are used in specialized areas such as in:
Scientific or engineering experiments,
Military weapons,
Controlling manufacturing processes like monitoring & regulating furnace temperatures
and pressures.
Weather stations to record & process physical quantities, e.g., wind, cloud speed,
temperature, etc.
The output from analogue computers is in form of smooth graphs produced by a plotting pen
or a trace on a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) from which the information can be read.
Note: Analogue computers usually use one characteristic, e.g. a length, to give information
about another physical characteristic, such as weight.
Analogue computers are very accurate & efficient since they are dedicated to a single task.
They are very fast since most of them use multiple processors.
Examples of analogue devices:
 The computer used to control a flight simulator for training pilots.
The computer responds to the Cockpit simulator control movements made by the pilot to
physically change the environment so that the pilot feels as if he were controlling an
actual aeroplane.
 A Bathroom scale.
It uses the weight of a person to move a pointer smoothly/continuously over calibrated
scale, which shows the person’s weight.
 Thermometer.
It uses a volume of Mercury to show temperature. The Thermometer is calibrated to give
an exact temperature reading.
 Speedometer.
In Speedometer, the rotation of the wheel is converted to a voltage, which causes a
pointer to rotate over a dial calibrated in Km/h or Miles/h.
 A Petrol pump measures the rate of flow of Gasoline (petrol) & converts the volume
delivered to 2 readings; one showing the volume & the other showing the cost.
 A Post-office scale converts the weight of a parcel delivered into a charge for posting.
 A Monitor with knobs that are rotated to increase brightness.
 A Television with knobs that are rotated to increase or decrease the volume.
 A Radio with a knob that slides in a slot to increase volume.
Hybrid Computers.
Hybrid computers are designed to process both analogue & digital data. They combine
both the functional capabilities of the digital and analogue computers.
Hybrid computers are designed by interconnecting the elements of a digital computer &
analogue computer directly into one processor, using a suitable interfacing circuitry.
Hybrid computers are more expensive.
Example;
In a hospital Intensive Care Unit, an analogue device may be used to measure the
functioning of a patient’s heart, temperature and other vital signs. These measurements may
then be converted into numbers and send to a digital device, which may send an immediate
signal to the nurses’ station if any abnormal readings are detected.
Comparison between a Computer and Calculator.
Aspect Computer Calculator
Costly due to advanced Cheaper due to simpler
Cost
technology. technology.
Size Larger in size. Smaller in size.
Speed Operates at very high speeds. Slower than computers.
Highly accurate, up to over 10 Less accurate, typically up to 8
Accuracy
decimal places. decimal places.
Can solve a wide range of Primarily used for numerical
Flexibility
problems. calculations.
Programmable and can run Generally non-programmable, or
Programmability
various programs. limited if programmable.
Supports a variety of peripherals Limited to display and basic
Peripheral Support
(keyboard, mouse, printer). keyboard input.
Large internal memory (several Very small internal memory,
Internal Memory
KBs). usually just registers.
Supports large backing storage Limited or fixed backing storage
Backing Storage
media. (if any).
Can support multiple users Can serve only one user at a
User Support
simultaneously. time.
Telecommunication Has telecommunication Lacks telecommunication
Capabilities capabilities. capabilities.
Environmental Requires well-monitored Does not require specific
Conditions environmental conditions. environmental conditions.

CLIENT AND SERVER COMPUTERS

Client Computers:

- A client is a computer or device that requests and consumes services from a server.
- Client computers are typically used for everyday tasks like browsing, document
editing, and gaming.
- They rely on servers to access shared resources such as files, databases, or websites.
- Examples: Personal computers, laptops, smartphones.

Server Computers:
 - A server is a powerful computer that provides services to clients over a network.
- It manages resources, processes data, and supports multiple users or devices.
- Servers are built for continuous operation and handle tasks like file hosting, email,
and web services.
- Examples: Database servers, web servers, file servers.

Key Differences:

- Clients consume resources, while servers provide resources.

- Clients typically serve one user, while servers support many users simultaneously.

COMPARISON BETWEEN A NORMAL COMPUTER (CLIENT) AND A SERVER:

Feature Normal Computer (Client) Server

Personal use (browsing, Provides services to multiple clients (file
Purpose
gaming, productivity). storage, website hosting).
Lower processing power, High processing power, optimized for
Performance
optimized for single-user tasks. handling multiple requests.
Operating Consumer-grade OS (e.g., Server OS (e.g., Linux, Windows
System Windows, macOS). Server) for managing resources.
Robust hardware with redundancy
Less robust, built for daily
Hardware features (RAID, hot-swappable
personal use.
components).
Typically supports one user at a Can support hundreds or thousands of
Users Supported
time. users simultaneously.
High storage capacity with advanced
Storage Small storage for personal data.
backup and redundancy solutions.
Basic security measures like Advanced security protocols, including
Security
firewalls and antivirus. encryption and authentication.
Network Basic connectivity features Advanced network management (VPN,
Management (Wi-Fi, Ethernet). load balancing, remote access).
Requires basic maintenance by Requires regular, specialized
Maintenance
the user. maintenance and monitoring.
Cheaper, designed for personal Expensive due to enterprise-level
Cost
or small office use. features and scalability.
Single power supply, not
Often has multiple power supplies and
Power Supply designed for continuous
designed to run 24/7.
operation.
 Feature Normal Computer (Client) Server
Limited scalability, suitable for Highly scalable to meet enterprise-level
Scalability
small applications. demand and future growth.
Advanced backup solutions with
Backup Basic backups (external drives,
automated backups and disaster
Solutions cloud storage).
recovery.

ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS.

Computers have many advantages over other types of office and business equipments that are
used for data processing functions. Some of the advantages are:
1) Computers process data faster:
The processing speed of a computer when measured against other devices like typewriters &
calculators is far much higher.
2) Computers are more accurate & reliable:
Computers produce more accurate results as long as the correct instructions & data are
entered. They also have the ability to handle numbers with many decimal places.
3) Computers are more efficient:
A computer requires less effort to process data as compared to human beings or other
machines.
4) Computers can quickly and effectively store & retrieve large amounts of data.
5) They are very economical when saving information, for it can conserve a lot of space.
6) Computers occupy very little office space.
7) Computers help to reduce paper work significantly.
8) Computers are flexible:
A computer can perform a variety of jobs as long as there is a well-defined procedure.
9) Computers are cheap:
They can be used to perform a number of organizational functions/ activities, which are
meant for individual persons, hence reducing the number of employees & the costs.
10) Computers enhance security & confidentiality:
Data stored in a computer can be protected from unauthorized individuals.
11) Have made communication easier.
12) Computers produce better information:
Computer output is usually tidy and error-free (accurate).
13) Computers reduce the problems of data or information duplication:
14) Computers can operate in risky environments, e.g. volcanic sites, dangerous chemical
plants, where human life is threatened:
DISADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS.
1) Computers are very costly in terms of purchase & maintenance.
2) Computers can only be used areas where there is source of power.
3) Requires skilled manpower to operate, i.e., one has to have some knowledge so as to
operate a computer.
4) The records are usually kept in a form that is not visible or human-readable. This makes it
difficult to control the contents of the computer’s master file.
5) A computer, like any other machine can break down.
6) Information stored in computers can easily get lost due to power interruptions or machine
breakdown.
7) A computer doesn’t have its own intelligence, i.e., it cannot do any useful job on its own,
but can only work as per the set of instructions issued.
8) Installation of computers causes retraining or retrenchment of staff/ employees.
9) The computer technology is changing very fast such that the already bought computers
could be made obsolete/ out dated in the next few years.
In addition, this rapid change in the computer technology makes computers & related
facilities to become outdated very fast, hence posing a risk of capital loss.
10) The emergence of computers has increased the rate of unemployment since they are now
being used to perform the jobs, which were done by human beings.
11) Computers have led to increase in computer crimes especially in Banks. The computer
criminals steal large amounts of funds belonging to various companies by transferring them
out of their company accounts illegally. In addition, they destroy vital data used in running
the companies.
AREAS WHERE COMPUTERS ARE USED.
The following are some of the areas where computers are used:
1. Supermarkets.
Supermarkets and other retail stores use computers for stock control, i.e., to help them
manage their daily activities.
The stock control system keeps record of what is in store, what has been sold, and what is
out of stock. The Management is automatically alerted when a particular item or items are
running out of stock and need to be reordered.
For calculating customer’s change.
For production of receipts.
It can be used as a barcode reader.
2. Industries.
The use of computers has made Industries more productive & efficient. They are used:
To monitor and control industrial processes. The industries use remote controlled devices
called Robots. A Robot is a machine that works like a human being, but performs tasks that
are unpleasant, dangerous, and tedious to be done by human beings.
For management control, i.e. to keep track of orders, bills and transactions.
By companies as a competitive tool. E.g., they are used to assist in defining new products
& services. They also help industries form new relationships with suppliers and therefore,
enable the producers maintain a competitive edge against their competitors.
For advertisement purposes, which enable an industry to attract more customers.
3. Banks/Insurance industries
Computers are used by Banks & Insurance industries:
To manage financial transactions. They use special cash dispensing machines called
Automated Teller Machines (ATMs) to enable them provide cash deposit & withdrawal
services.
For processing of Cheques.
For preparation of Payrolls.
For better record keeping and processing of documents.
To provide electronic money transfer facilities.
4. Process control.
Computers are used in production environments such as factories to control chemical &
mechanical processes. The computers are usually loaded with specialized programs & each
computer is designed to do a specific job.
5. Hospitals.
Computers are used in hospitals:
To keep & retrieve patient’s medical records.
For automatic diagnosis of diseases like Cancer, electro-cardiogram screening &
monitoring.
They are used to get a cross-sectional view of the patient’s body that enables physicians to
properly diagnose the affected part of the body with high levels of accuracy.
In medical equipments, e.g. blood pressure monitors, blood analyzers, etc.
To control life-supporting machines in the Intensive Care Units (ICU).
To enable medical experts in different countries to share their expertise or labour, thus
reducing the transportation of patients & professionals.
6. Offices.
For receiving & sending of messages through e-mails, fax, etc.
Production of documents.
Keeping of records.
7. Government Institutions.
Computers are used in government ministries & agencies:
To store/keep records and improve the efficiency of work within the Civil service.
If computers were not used, the large number of files in government registries would make
information recovery extremely difficult.
To produce bills & statements.
8. Education.
Computers are widely used in the teaching & learning process. Learning and teaching using
computers is referred to as Computer Aided Learning (CAL) and Computer Aided Teaching
(CAT).
Computers are used in learning institutions (schools & colleges) as teaching aids, i.e. to
help in teaching various subjects.
E.g., they are used to demonstrate experiments in subjects like Chemistry or Physics using a
special program that can illustrate them on the screen through a process called Simulation.
To assist the Long distance learning in universities usually referred to as the Open
University Concept.
To analyze academic data.
Computers are used in Aviation for training of pilots. Flight simulators are used to
monitor the control movements made by the pilot while the computer is used to physically
change the environment so that the pilot feels as if he were controlling an actual aircraft.
9. Research.
Computers can be used for research in various fields. They are used by:
Scientists to analyse their experimental data, e.g., in weather forecasting.
Engineers & Architects to design & test their work.
Computers have greatly assisted in space exploration.
 They are used to study the movement of stars.
 They have made manned & unmanned space exploration possible – they are used to
launch space vehicles and monitor the flights & activities both onboard and around
them.
10. Communication industry.
The integration of computers & telecommunication facilities has made the transmission and
reception of messages very fast and efficient.
They are used in telephone exchanges to switch incoming & outgoing calls.
For sending & receiving electronic messages, e.g. fax and e-mails, if connected to a
computer network.
11. Transport industry.
Computers are used in:
Automobile traffic control, e.g., to monitor vehicle traffic in a busy town.
Railway corporations to co-ordinate the movement of their goods & wagons.
Shipping control. The computers are used for efficient management of fleets &
communication.
Airports (Airline industry). The computers are used;
 To control the movement of aircrafts, take off & landing through the use of radar
equipment.
 Making reservations (booking purposes).
 Storing flight information.
12. Police (Law enforcement agencies).
Computers are widely used in fighting crime. The Police use computers to keep databases
on fingerprints and also analysed them.
The Police also use computers for face recognition, scene monitoring & analysis, which
help them to arrest traffic offenders and criminals.
The information held in computers such as fingerprints, photographs and other identification
details helps law enforcers to carry out criminal investigations speedily.
13. Defence.
Computers are used in electronic news gathering, efficient communication, detecting and
tracking of targets; in radar systems, warning systems & in guided missile systems.
Computers are used in military defence equipments, e.g. Fighter jets, Rockets, Bombers,
etc.
14. Multimedia applications.
Computers are used to prepare business presentations for advertisement purposes.
The presentations are done using overhead projectors attached to computers running slide
shows & digital video clips taken using a Camcorder. An overlaid voice is used to describe
the product.
Computers are used in music related equipment such as Synthesizers.
In entertainment (i.e., games & movies), computers are used to add stereo sound & digital
video clips, which make games more realistic.
In Education & Training, Multimedia discs are used as teaching aids for all types of
subjects.
15. Domestic and Entertainment systems.
Computers are used at homes:
For watching movies, playing music and computer games.
For storing personal information.
For calculating and keeping home budgets.
For shopping purposes. They provide people with lists of shopping items as well as their
prices. They also provide electronic money transfer facilities.
In household items, such as, Microwave ovens, Televisions, etc.
16. Library services.
Computers can be used in a library:
To enable the library personnel to easily access & keep updated records of books and other
library materials.
To search for book titles instead of using the manual card catalogue.
17. Employment.
The emergence of computers has provided employment opportunities to very many people.
STARTING-UP (BOOTING) A COMPUTER.
1. Before switching on a computer, make sure that all the components are properly
connected, and that the computer is connected to an active power source.
2. Turn on the switch at the source of the power supply. If your computer is connected to a
constant voltage Stabilizer or an Uninterrupted power supply (UPS), turn it on after switching
the main supply.
3. Turn on the switches on the System unit and the Monitor. Switch on the power button on
the Monitor first, then followed by that of the System unit.
After the power is on, the computer automatically goes through a process called Booting.
Booting is a term used to describe the starting up of a computer. It is the entire process that
makes the computer ready for use.
Types of Booting.
There are 2 types of booting, namely;
a). Cold booting.
b). Warm booting.
Cold booting.
This happens when a computer that was originally off is switched on by pressing the power
button on the system unit.
Warm booting.
This happens when a computer that was originally on is forced to restart by pressing the
Restart button on the System unit or by pressing a combination of keys on the keyboard
(Ctrl+Alt+Del).
In Windows operating systems, one can use the Restart option on the Shutdown dialog box to
perform a warm boot.
When Power is switched on, the computer starts by checking all its components to determine
whether they are available for use and whether they are functioning correctly. It does this by
executing a small program called the Power-On-Self-Test (POST) that is permanently stored
in ROM.
POST prepares the computer for use by instructing it to perform a number of diagnostic tests
when booting up. It instructs the computer to check the memory (RAM) to make sure it is
operating correctly; check the CMOS (BIOS), Hard disk controller, Floppy disk drive
controller & the Keyboard.
During this process, some monitors display information showing the status of each device
being tested. If a problem is found, e.g., in case one of the devices is faulty or missing, the
process will halt and display an appropriate error message on the screen indicating to the user
where the problem is located. Sometimes, an error code is displayed with the message, or an
abnormal number of beeps are sounded.
The special program that directs the POST process is called the Basic Input Output System
(BIOS).
Shutting Down a Computer.
After finishing working with the computer, the user must follow the correct procedure of
shutting down the computer in order to ensure that loss of data, damage of programs and
computer components does not occur.
1. Save all the work done on the computer, and close all programs that may be currently
running.
2. Remove any floppy disk/CDs/USB you might have inserted in the computer.
3. Follow the proper shut-down procedure required before switching off the computer.
For example;
To turn off any computer running Windows operating systems:
a). Click the Start button on the screen, then select Shut Down from the list.
b). In the prompt that appears, select Shut down, then press the Enter key on the
keyboard.
c). After a few seconds, the message “It is now safe to turn off the computer” appears on
the screen. Switch off the System unit, then the Monitor.
Note. Some system units switch themselves off automatically. In such a case, press the
button on the Monitor to turn off the screen.
4. Press the button on the monitor to turn off the screen.
5. Switch off your Printer and any other output devices.

UNDERSTANDING THE ICT ENVIRONMENT

Computer Environment (Information and Communication Technology - ICT)

ICT refers to technologies that provide access to information through telecommunications. It

encompasses the use of electronic devices such as computers, mobile phones, and digital
communication platforms to gather, store, process, and share information.

ICT Components:

 Hardware: Physical devices required for ICT functionality.

o Example: Desktop computers, smartphones, routers, data centers.
 Software: Programs that instruct hardware to perform tasks.
o Example: Operating systems (Windows, macOS), productivity software (MS
Office).
 Networks: Infrastructure enabling communication between devices.
o Example: Local Area Networks (LAN), Wide Area Networks (WAN),
internet.
 Data Storage Solutions: Technologies for saving and managing data.
o Example: Cloud storage (Dropbox), on-premises systems (network-attached
storage).
  Communication Technologies: Tools facilitating digital communication.
o Example: Email systems (Gmail), messaging platforms (Slack), video
conferencing (Zoom).
 Virtualization: Creation of virtual versions of devices or resources.
o Example: Virtual machines using VMware, cloud computing (AWS EC2).
 Artificial Intelligence (AI): Machines simulating human intelligence to perform
tasks.
o Example: Chatbots, image recognition software.
 Cybersecurity: Measures and tools that protect systems and networks from threats.
o Example: Firewalls (Palo Alto), encryption (AES), intrusion detection
systems.
 Internet of Things (IoT): Networked devices communicating autonomously.
o Example: Smart thermostats, wearable fitness trackers/devices, and industrial
machinery.

 Cloud Computing: Remote computing resources (servers, databases, storage)

accessed over the internet, enabling services like Google Cloud and Amazon Web
Services (AWS).
 Big Data: The management and analysis of large datasets to derive insights. This has
applications in healthcare, marketing, and research.

Uses of ICT in Organizations

ICT is essential in modern organizations to streamline processes, improve efficiency, and

enhance communication.

 Enhanced Communication: Facilitates instantaneous communication within and

outside organizations.

- Video Conferencing tools like Zoom and Microsoft Teams facilitate

remote meetings and collaboration across the globe.
- Email remains a fundamental tool for business communication.

o Example: Corporate emails, instant messaging platforms (Slack, Teams).

 Data Management: Centralizes storage and retrieval of data for analysis and
operations help manage, analyse, and process large amounts of data.
o Example: Databases, ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) systems (SAP),
CRM (Customer Relationship Management) platforms (Salesforce).
 Data-Driven Decision Making: Businesses use Business Intelligence (BI) tools like
Tableau and Power BI to analyse large datasets and make informed decisions.
Supports management decisions through data analysis and reporting tools.
o Example: Business Intelligence tools (Tableau, Power BI).

 Automation of Tasks: Reduces human error and enhances operational efficiency by

automating repetitive tasks.
- ERP Systems (Enterprise Resource Planning): Integrates core business
processes like accounting, supply chain, and HR into a single system.
- Automated Manufacturing: Robotic systems are used for precision
and efficiency, reducing human error and increasing productivity.
 o Example: Automated payroll systems, robotic process automation (UiPath).
 Marketing: Facilitates targeted digital marketing and brand promotion.
o Example: Social media ads (Facebook Ads), email marketing (Mailchimp).
 Remote Work: Enables employees to collaborate and work from various locations.
o Example: Cloud-based collaboration tools (Google Drive, Microsoft 365).
 Collaboration Tools: Streamlines teamwork through real-time document sharing and
task management.
o Example: Trello, Asana.
 Training and Development: ICT enables e-learning for employee skills
enhancement.
o Example: Online training platforms (LinkedIn Learning, Coursera).
 Supply Chain Management: Monitors and optimizes the flow of goods and services.
o Example: Inventory management software (Oracle SCM).
 Customer Support: Enhances customer service using ICT tools like chatbots and
automated help desks.
o Example: Zendesk, live chat integrations.
 Cybersecurity in Business: To protect sensitive data, companies invest in firewalls,
encryption technologies, and regular security audits.

Positive Impact of ICT in the Community

ICT offers numerous societal benefits, enhancing access to resources, education, and
services.

 Access to Information: Expands public access to vast information resources.

o Example: Wikipedia, Google Search.
 Education: E-learning and online resources make education accessible globally.
Schools and universities can offer online courses and distance learning.
o Example: Khan Academy, MOOCs (edX, Coursera).
 Economic Growth: Creates new jobs, drives innovation, and opens global markets.
o Example: E-Commerce has transformed retail and global trade, allowing
businesses to reach international markets through platforms like Amazon and
Alibaba. Freelance job sites (Upwork).
 Healthcare: Improves patient care and access to medical information.

o Example: Telemedicine services allows patients to consult with healthcare

professionals remotely, improving access to care in rural or underserved areas.
Electronic Health Records (EHR) enhance the quality of patient care by
providing doctors with a comprehensive digital record.

 Social Connectivity: Connects people globally via social networks and

communication apps.
o Example: WhatsApp, Facebook.
 Innovation: Encourages new ideas and technologies in various industries.
o Example: FinTech solutions (cryptocurrency), AI-driven healthcare tools,
biotechnology, finance, manufacturing.
 E-Government Services: Citizens can access and complete government services
online increasing transparency and efficiency.
o Example: Tax filing portals, online voting registration, licensing, and passport
applications online.
  Disaster Management: ICT enables efficient disaster response and early warnings.
o Example: Tsunami warning systems, emergency notification apps.
 Cultural Exchange: Facilitates cross-cultural interaction and learning.
o Example: YouTube, online cultural forums.
 Environmental Monitoring: ICT supports real-time monitoring of environmental
data.
o Example: Climate sensors, smart energy grids.

Negative Impact of ICT in the Community

ICT poses challenges related to access, privacy, and health.

 Digital Divide: Unequal access to technology and the internet creates disparities.
Socioeconomic disparities affect access to ICT, with rural and less developed areas
facing barriers to technology adoption, limiting education, healthcare, and job
opportunities.
o Example: Rural areas lacking broadband infrastructure.
 Job Displacement: Automation, robotics, and AI have eliminated jobs in traditional
sectors such as manufacturing, customer service, and retail.
o Example: Automated assembly lines, AI-driven customer support.
 Privacy and Security Risks: ICT systems are vulnerable to cyberattacks and data
breaches.

- Cybercrime: The rise of ICT has also increased cyber threats such as
hacking, identity theft, and phishing attacks.
- Social Engineering is used by attackers to manipulate individuals into
divulging confidential information.

o Example: Phishing attacks, data breaches (Equifax breach).

 Addiction and Mental Health Issues: Overuse and over-reliance on technology,
especially social media, can contribute to mental health issues like anxiety,
depression, and addiction.
o Example: Social media addiction, online gaming addiction.
 Environmental Impact: The production and disposal of electronics contribute to e-
waste, while data centres require significant energy, contributing to a larger carbon
footprint.
o Example: Discarded smartphones, obsolete laptops.
 Health Issues: Prolonged use of devices leads to physical health problems.
o Example: Eye strain, back pain from poor ergonomics.
 Fake News and Misinformation: ICT tools allow rapid spread of false information.
o Example: Social media sharing of false news stories.
 Digital Overload: Constant connectivity can lead to mental exhaustion and burnout.
o Example: Work-related emails and notifications outside of work hours.
 Social Isolation /Loss of Social Interaction: Over-reliance on ICT diminishes face-
to-face socialization. Overuse of ICT devices, especially social media, can lead to
reduced interpersonal communication, affecting mental health and social well-being.
o Example: People preferring to text rather than meet in person.

Equipment and Facilities Found in an ICT Organization

Organizations rely on a variety of ICT tools and infrastructure to operate efficiently.

 Servers: Centralized systems for storing and processing data. High-performance

computers designed to process requests and deliver data to other computers over a
network. Web servers, file servers, and application servers are common types
found in organizations.
o Example: Cloud servers (AWS, Google Cloud), local servers (Linux servers).
 Networking Equipment: Devices facilitating communication between different
hardware.

- Routers: Direct data packets between different networks, such as

between a home network and the internet.
- Switches: Connect devices within a local network to allow
communication.
- Firewalls: Security devices that monitor and control incoming and
outgoing network traffic based on predefined security rules.

o Example: Cisco routers, TP-Link switches.

 Data Centers: Centralized facilities that host/house large amounts of servers and
storage devices. They often feature redundant power supplies, high-security measures,
and climate-controlled environments to ensure operational efficiency.
o Example: Google data centers, Amazon Web Services (AWS) facilities.
 Workstations: Employee desktop, laptop computers or devices connected to the
organization's central network, often used for daily tasks such as document creation,
communication, and data processing.
o Example: Dell desktops, MacBook Pros.

 Peripheral Devices: Printers, scanners, and photocopiers are essential for

documentation in many organizations. Devices for managing physical documents.

o Example: HP printers, Canon multifunction scanners.

 Communication Tools: Systems for enabling internal and external communication.
o Example: Polycom video conferencing systems, Cisco VoIP phones.
 Backup Systems: Equipment used for backing up important organizational data, such
as external hard drives or cloud storage solutions. Systems used to safeguard data
through redundancy.
o Example: RAID storage arrays, cloud backups (Dropbox). Organizations
invest in backup solutions such as Network-Attached Storage (NAS) or
cloud-based services to ensure data is recoverable in case of hardware failure
or cyberattacks.
 Security Systems: Hardware and software used to secure the organization’s ICT
infrastructure.
o Example: Firewall systems (Palo Alto), antivirus software (McAfee),
intrusion detection systems.
 Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS): Devices providing emergency power during
outages.
o Example: APC UPS systems.
 Data Recovery Tools: Solutions used to restore lost or corrupted data.
o Example: RAID recovery software, Backup Exec.
 Cloud Platforms: Systems for managing data and applications over the internet.
 o
Example: AWS, Microsoft Azure.
 Video Conferencing Tools: Hardware and software for remote communication.
o Example: Logitech webcams, Zoom conferencing software, Polycom systems.
 Network Monitoring Tools: Systems that track network performance and health.
o Example: SolarWinds, PRTG Network Monitor, Nagios.

COMPUTER LABORATORY. (Reading Assignment)

Definition:
A Computer laboratory is a room that has been specially prepared to facilitate installation
of computers and provide a safe conducive environment for teaching & learning of Computer
Studies.
SAFE USE & CARE OF COMPUTERS (COMPUTER HYGIENE)
Computer systems are expensive to acquire & maintain, and should therefore be handled with
great care. Most computer breakdowns are caused by failure to follow the correct
instructions on use of equipment, carelessness, and neglect. Computer hygiene involves
keeping the computers in good care & order.
Factors to consider when preparing a computer laboratory.
The following factors must be considered when preparing a computer laboratory:
1. Security of the computers, programs and other resources.
2. Reliability of the source of power.
3. Number of computers to be installed, and the amount floor space available.
4. The maximum number of users that the laboratory can accommodate.
Requirements of a Computer Laboratory.
i). Standard and Enough furniture.
ii). Good ventilation.
iii). Reliable & Enough source of power supply.
iv). Free from Dust and Moisture.
v). Enough floor space.
vi). Proper cabling of electric wires.
vii). Fire fighting equipment.
viii). Good lighting equipment.
ix). Strong rooms & doors for the security of computers.
Review Questions.
1. Define a computer Laboratory.
2. Give three factors to be considered when preparing a computer laboratory.
3. What are the requirements of a computer laboratory?
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS & PRACTICES IN A COMPUTER LABORATORY.
After establishing the computer laboratory, a number of safety precautions, rules, and
practices need to be observed in order to avoid accidental injury to the users, damage of
computers or lack of a conducive environment for teaching and learning.
The safety precautions and practices include;
1. BEHAVIOUR IN THE COMPUTER LABORATORY.
The following rules must be followed in and around a computer laboratory.
a). Entering the computer room.
Only authorized people should enter the computer room.
Remove your shoes before entering the computer room to prevent dust.
Avoid smoking or exposing computers to dust. This is because; smoke & dust
contain small abrasive particles that can damage computer components and cause
wearing of the moving parts.
Do not carry foods such as Toffees, chocolates, chewing gums, & drinks/beverages
to the computer room.
Food particles may fall into the moving parts of the computer and damage them.
Liquids may spill into the computer parts causing rusting or electrical faults.
Collect any waste materials (e.g., paper bits) which might be lying in the computer
room & put them into the dustbin.
Avoid unnecessary movements, because you may accidentally knock down the
peripheral devices.
Computer users should be trained on how to use computers frequently.
Computer illiterates should not be allowed to operate the computers.
Shut the door of the computer room properly.
b). Starting and shutting down the computer.
Always follow the proper procedure for starting & shutting down the computer to
avoid loss of data and damage to computer programs.
Avoid turning the computer on & off frequently as it is harmful. Every time a PC is
turned on, the internal components get heated and again cool down when the
computer is turned off. As a result, the circuit boards expand & contract and this can
badly affect the solder-joints of the computer.
Do not open up the metallic covers of computers or peripheral devices without
permission and particularly when the computer’s power is still on.
2. PROTECTION AGAINST FIRE AND ACCIDENTS.
Fire outbreaks in the laboratory can be caused by either:
a). Inflammable chemicals, such as those used for cleaning & servicing the computer
equipment.
b). Electrical faults, such as open wires or cables.
c). Smoking.
Keep the chemicals away in a store after using them to avoid any accidents.
Ensure that all electrical wires are properly insulated. Open wires or cables must be
properly covered with an Insulating tape or replaced with new ones as they can cause fire
leading to damage of equipment.
The computer room must always have a gaseous fire extinguisher especially those
containing Carbon dioxide in case of any accidents.
Note. Water based or Powder extinguishers should not be used in the computer room
because; they can cause damage to computer components.
Water causes rusting of the metallic parts and short circuits, while Powder particles normally
settle on storage devices and may scratch them during read/write operations.
Any incidence that may result in damage to equipment should be reported to the person in
charge of the laboratory.
No student should attempt to repair the equipment as this may lead to complete damage of
the equipment.
3. INSULATION OF CABLES.
All power cables in the computer room must be properly insulated and laid away from
busy pathways in the room (i.e., preferably along the walls). This prevents the user from
stumbling on the cables, which might cause electric shock or power interruptions.
System cables should be of the best quality & type, and should also be properly clipped
(fixed).
The cables should be handled carefully especially at the ends to avoid breaking the pins.
4. STABLE POWER SUPPLY.
Computers are delicate devices that require a stable source of power.
Ensure that there is a steady flow of input power to the computer in order to prevent loss
of data or information & also prevent damaging the computer’s secondary storage media.
Note: Power from main supply is not always stable and may sometimes experience power
surges or under voltage (also referred to as Brownout). To protect the computer from being
damaged due to power instabilities especially in areas where power fluctuates, avoid
connecting it directly to the main supply. Instead, it is important to connect the computer to a
special power correction equipment or device such as a Stabilizer or Uninterrupted power
supply /source (UPS), then connect the UPS to the main supply.
The UPS gets charged when the main power is on. When the main power goes off, the UPS
gives some sound (usually a beep) to alert the user.
Functions of the UPS
1. It regulates power from an unstable power source to the required clean stable voltage.
2. It prevents power surges and brownouts that might destroy the computer.
3. It temporarily provides power to the computer in case of the main power failure. This
allows the user to save his/her work and shutdown the computer using the correct
procedure.
4. Alerts the user of any power loss (by beeping).
To ensure that work continues even in the absence of main power, organizations that give
important services such as banks, schools, & hospitals usually install devices that provide
alternative sources of power such as standby generators, solar panels, rechargeable
batteries, etc that automatically comes on in case of a power failure. Such devices are
referred to as Power backups.
However, note that, power from a generator must pass through a UPS before being fed to the
computer, because it is also not stable.
Ensure that all power or electrical sockets are firmly fixed.
5. BURGLAR PROOFING.
Physical access to the computer room should be restricted to ensure that only authorized
persons get access to the computers.
To prevent unauthorized access to the computer room, the following controls should be
implemented:
Fit strong metallic grills and locks on the doors, windows & roofs (in case the roofing is
weak).
Lock the doors, (i.e., keep the computers in a strong room, which should remain firmly
locked when not in use).
Avoid welcoming strangers into the computer room.
Use of Personal Identification cards.
Use of fingerprint identification.
Install security alarms at strategic access points so as to alert the security personnel in case
of a break in.
Use of special voice recorders that would be able to analyse the voice of a trespasser &
check against the database containing the voice patterns of valid users.
Secure/protect the computers with Passwords to minimize chances of theft.
6. VENTILATION.
Both computers and human beings emit heat energy into the environment. Therefore, the
computer room must have good circulation of air to avoid overheating and suffocation.
Proper ventilation enables the computers to cool, and therefore, avoids damaging the
electronic parts.
The following facilities can ensure proper ventilation in a room:
- The room should have large & enough windows & doors.
- Installing an air-conditioning system.
- Installing cooling fans.
- Avoid overcrowding of either machines or people in the room.
7. DUST CONTROL
Set up the computer laboratory in a location away from excessive dust.
Remove your shoes before you enter the computer room to prevent dust.
The computer room should be fitted with special curtains that would reduce entry of dust
particles.
The floor should be covered with Carpets in order to absorb dust, and also absorb the
noise made by chairs.
Cover the computer devices with Dust covers when not in use or when cleaning the
computer room.
NB: If the environment is dusty, the computers should be regularly serviced to get rid of
harmful dust.
The service should include; blowing dust from the System unit, cleaning the floppy drives,
cleaning the Keyboard, cleaning the Monitor externally, and also cleaning all peripheral
devices such as Printers and Mouse.
8. DUMP CONTROL.
 Humidity in the computer laboratory must be regulated to remain at an optimum 50%. If the
humidity is low, it allows static electricity to build up and causes damage to sensitive
electronic components. Similarly, high humidity of over 70% causes rusting of the metallic
parts of the computer system.
To eliminate low humidity, place humidifiers in the room, while high humidity can be
controlled by installing dehumidifiers in the room.
9. HANDLING OF MATERIALS & EQUIPMENT.
Computer devices must be handled with a lot of care as they are extremely fragile and can
easily get damaged. Dropping or bumping can cause permanent damage on the device, e.g.,
to transport the System unit always handle it on its frame.
Always use the manufacturer’s shipping carton when transporting the devices.
Do not place heavy objects on the computers.
Protect the computer devices especially the Monitor & the disks from any electrostatic
discharge.
The computer devices should not be exposed to direct sunlight or warm objects. This
causes the internal components of the computer to get heated, and as a result, effects the
computer’s solder-joints.
Students should only perform operations on the computer that they are sure of and under
supervision. If in doubt, the student should ask to ensure that no damage is caused due to
lack of proper knowledge.
Computer equipment should be regularly checked and serviced.

General Handling Precautions for All Storage Devices

Storage devices are used to store data, and if properly taken care of, they reduce the
likelihood of destroyed or corrupted data.
Note. Data is very difficult & expensive to reconstruct, unlike application software, which
can easily be re-loaded.

i. Proper Insertion/Removal: Insert and remove storage devices gently, ensuring correct
alignment. Never force them in or out.
ii. Avoid Touching Exposed Surfaces: Refrain from touching connectors or exposed parts
to prevent damage.
iii. Data Protection: Always safely eject storage devices after use to avoid data corruption.
iv. Labeling: Clearly label storage devices with meaningful names to avoid confusion and
facilitate organization.
 v. Write Protection: Use write-protection mechanisms (if available) to prevent accidental
data modification or deletion.
vi. Limited Use: Avoid overusing older storage media, as they can degrade over time.
vii. Storage Conditions: Keep storage devices away from extreme heat, sunlight, or humidity
to prevent damage.
viii. Magnetic Interference: Keep magnetic storage devices away from magnets or magnetic
fields that could corrupt data.
ix. Safe Transport: Transport storage devices in protective cases to prevent dust and
physical damage.
x. Vertical Storage: Store storage media vertically in cases or containers to avoid
deformation.
xi. Avoid Heavy Pressure: Do not place heavy objects on top of storage devices.
xii. Virus Protection: Regularly scan storage devices for malware and viruses, especially
when transferring files from other systems.
xiii. Physical Handling: Do not bend or mishandle storage devices.
xiv. Avoid Static Electricity: Use antistatic bags for sensitive devices like solid-state drives
to prevent damage from static electricity.

10. LABORATORY LAYOUT.

The computer laboratory should have enough floor space to facilitate free movement from
one place to another.
The laboratory furniture must be well arranged to prevent accidents.
Your working surface must be large enough to hold the computer equipment & any other
additional items required. This prevents squeezing the devices together & also minimizes
breakages.
The sitting arrangement of users should be proper.
11. STANDARD FURNITURE & POSTURE.
The table/bench on which a computer is placed must be strong and wide enough to bear the
weight and accommodate all the peripheral devices.
The seat for the user must be comfortable, and have a straight backrest that allows someone
to sit upright. This prevents muscle pains & backaches caused by poor sitting posture.
Adjust the furniture to meet your needs for comfort.
For example;
Adjust the height of the chair or working surface so that your forearms are parallel with the
floor and your wrists are straight.
The seat must be high enough relative to the table to enable the user use the hands on the
keyboard comfortably.
The eyes must be at the same level with the top of the screen when the user is seated upright.
You should be able to maintain your proper arm position and place your feet firmly flat on
the floor.
Adopt a relaxed, upright working posture. Avoid slouching (bending) forward or leaning
far backwards.
The Chairs should have low back support & footrest and should also be adjustable.
Keyboard, Mouse and Input devices: Place frequently used work materials within easy reach.
For example;
The Keyboard, Mouse & other input devices should be positioned such that your hands are
in a relaxed, comfortable position.
Position the Keyboard directly in front of you. This makes it possible to type with your
shoulders relaxed and your upper arms hanging freely at your sides.
Position the Mouse at the same level as the keyboard.
12. LIGHTING & VISION CARE.
A computer room must be well lit to avoid eyestrain that eventually leads to headaches,
stress, and fatigue. Similarly, when you work at your computer for long periods of time, your
eyes may become irritated. Therefore, special care should be given to your vision.
Tilt the computer so that the display faces away from the windows. This will minimize
glare (or bright reflections) on the screen.
Position the lighting equipment or sources of light such that glare (or bright reflections) on
the display are minimized. Where necessary, use indirect lighting to avoid bright spotson the
display.
Use/fit radiation filter screens that are specially tinted to reduce the light that reaches the
eye.
Avoid using a flickering monitor. This causes extreme eyestrain that can damage your
eyesight.
The wall paints used should not be very bright as they reflect too much light causing
eyestrain.
Use the brightness & contrast controls on the Monitor to adjust the brightness of the
computer monitor until the eyes feel comfortable, and also to improve image quality of your
display.
Turn off the screen when not in use or reduce its brightness in order to prevent screen
burnout.
If the room has windows, use blinds or shades to control the amount of daylight in the
room.
Take frequent breaks and rest your eyes.
You should have glasses that are specifically suited for working with the computer display.
Keep your glasses and the display clean.
Have your eyes examined regularly by a vision care specialist.
The distant between the user & screen should be between 450 – 500 mm.

Review Questions.
1. List down THREE safety precautions one should observe when entering a Computer
laboratory.
2. Why must foods and beverages be kept out of the computer room?
3. Discuss TWO main causes of fire or accidents in the computer laboratory and give the
precautions that should be taken to guard against them.
4. (a). Give Six safety precautions you should take when handling diskettes.
(b). Where should the arrow on a diskette point when being inserted into the floppy drive.
5. List THREE things that can spoil a Printer if they are not of the correct specification, and
explain what damage may be caused.
6. Why are powder based and water-based fire extinguishers not allowed in the computer
room?
7. Identify three facilities that will ensure proper ventilation in a room.
8. Give THREE reasons why it is important to regularly service the computer.
9. Explain precisely how the Keyboard, mouse, and other Input devices should be arranged
to avoid strain while working on the computer.
10. (a). What name is given to alternative sources of power in a computer.
(b). Name any THREE sources of power in a computer system.
11. State two reasons why a computer needs to be connected to a stable power supply.
12. State two functions of the UPS.
13. State two reasons that are likely to cause eye-strain in the computer room.
14. Identify three proper sitting postures while using the computer