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Directional Training

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100% found this document useful (1 vote)
126 views546 pages

Directional Training

Uploaded by

Andy lee
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Measurement While Drilling I

Mud Pulse
Training Curriculum
CRCM_111_revB_0208
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MWD I
Abu Dabhi
Course #111 (Mud Pulse)

Day One

Introduction 1 hour
Registration, Introductions, and Course Description

Directional Drilling Basics 2 hours


Directional Drilling Applications
Conventional Rotary BHA Configurations
Positive Displacement Motors

Petroleum Geology Primer 2 hours


Rocks and Minerals
Transport and Deposition
Sedimentary Rock Classifications
Origin of Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbon Migration
Hydrocarbon Accumulation

Data Acquisition Methods 3 hours


Recorded Data Measurement Process
o Recorded Data Advantages / Disadvantages
Real-time Data Measurement Process
Real-time Telemetry Methods
o Mud Pulse Telemetry Theory of Operations
Positive Pulse Telemetry
Negative Pulse Telemetry
Mud Pulse Telemetry Advantages / Disadvantages
o Electromagnetic Telemetry Theory of Operations
Electromagnetic Telemetry Advantages / Disadvantages

CROL_111_revB_0208 (Abu Dabhi) 1


Day Two

Surveying Essentials and Quality Control 8 hours


Importance of Directional Surveying
Directional Surveying Terminology
Directional Sensor Hardware
Sensor Axes and Orientation
Sensor Calibration
Directional Sensor Response versus Orientation
Magnetic Field Strength, Dip Angle, Horizontal and Vertical Components
Calculations of Toolface, Inclination, Hole Direction
Survey Quality Parameters - Gtotal, Btotal, Goxy, Boxy, Mag Dip
Azimuth to Quadrant Conversions
Magnetic Declination

Day Three

Surveying Essentials and Quality Control (continued) 6 hours


Grid Convergence
GEODEC Examples
Factors Affecting Inclination and Hole Direction
NMDC Spacing Calculations
Survey Quality Control techniques
Well Plan Parameters (Horizontal & Vertical Projections) and Calculation Methods

The Borehole Environment 2 hours


Drilling Fluid Properties
o Drilling Fluid Advantages
o Drilling Fluid Disadvantages
Formation Properties
o Formation Porosity
o Formation Permeability
o Pore Fluid Saturation and Density
o Lithology
o Formation Thickness
o Shale Content
Pressure Differential
o Overbalanced
o Underbalanced

CROL_111_revB_0208 (Abu Dabhi) 2


Day Four

Sensor Theory, Application, and Interpretation


Gamma Ray Logging 2 hours
o Applications Overview
o Gamma Ray Theory
o Sensor Hardware Functions
o Environmental Effects on the Gamma Ray Measurement
o Sensor Response versus Lithology & Fluid Type
o Data Interpretation
o Factors Affecting Gamma Log Quality
o Applications Details
Resistivity Logging 2 hours
o Applications Overview
o Resistivity Theory
o Sensor Hardware Functions
o Environmental Effects on the Resistivity Measurement
o Sensor Response versus Lithology & Fluid Type
o Data Interpretation
o Factors Affecting Resistivity Log Quality
o Applications Details
Pressure Logging 2 hours
o Applications Overview
o Pressure Theory
o Sensor Hardware Functions
o Environmental Effects on the Pressure Measurement
o Sensor Response versus Lithology & Fluid Type
o Data Interpretation
o Factors Affecting Pressure Log Quality
o Applications Details

Log Presentations and Formats 2 hours


Log Heading
Bit Run Summary
o Run Specific Data
o Mud Data
o Environmental Data
o Sensor Specific Data
Disclaimer and Remarks
Bottomhole Assembly Diagrams
Main Log
o Vertical Scale
Time Based
Depth Based
• Measured Depth
• True Vertical Depth

CROL_111_revB_0208 (Abu Dabhi) 3


Correlation Log
Detail Log
o Log Tracks
Linear and Logarithmic
Curve Scaling and Units
Track 1 – Lithology
Track 2 – Resistivity
Track 3 – Porosity
Track 4 – Resistivity or Porosity
Track 5 - Depth
o Annotations
o Typical Presentations
Standard
Triple Combo
Repeat Sections
Calibration Data
Survey Report and Plots (TVD log)

Day 5

Circulation System Hydraulics 2 hours


Function of Borehole Fluids
Pressure Balance Equation
Using the Hydraulic Slide Ruler to Calculate System Pressure Loss

Mud Pulse Detection & Troubleshooting 2 hours

Operational Issues 2 hours


Toolface Offset Procedure (PP)
Open Discussion

Review for Exam 2 hours

Day Six

Written Exam 4 hours

Lithium Battery Safety (Course #080) 4 hours

CROL_111_revB_0208 (Abu Dabhi) 4


DAY 1
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Directional Drilling Basics

Introduction to Directional Drilling

• Directional drilling is defined as the practice of


controlling the direction and deviation of a well bore
to a predetermined underground target or location.

1
Directional Wells

• Slant
• Build and
Hold
• S-Curve
• Extended
Reach
• Horizontal

Applications of Directional Drilling

• Multiple wells from offshore structure


• Relief wells
• Controlling vertical wells

2
Applications of Directional Drilling

• S-Curve

Applications of Directional Drilling

• Extended-Reach Drilling

• Replace subsea wells and tap offshore reservoirs


from fewer platforms
• Develop near shore fields from onshore, and
• Reduce environmental impact by developing
fields from pads

3
Directional Drilling Tools

• Steerable motors
• Instrumented motors for geosteering applications
• Drilling tools
• Surveying/orientation services
• Surface logging systems
• At-bit inclination

Applications of Directional Drilling

• Sidetracking

• Inaccessible locations

4
Applications of Directional Drilling

Applications of Directional Drilling

• Drilling underbalanced

• Minimizes skin damage,


• Reduces lost circulation and stuck pipe incidents,
• Increases ROP while extending bit life, and
• Reduces or eliminates the need for costly
stimulation programs.

5
Directional Drilling Limitations

• Doglegs
• Reactive Torque
• Drag
• Hydraulics
• Hole Cleaning
• Weight on Bit
• Wellbore Stability

Methods of Deflecting a Wellbore

• Whipstock operations
• Still used
• Jetting
• Rarely used today, still valid and inexpensive
• Downhole motors
• Most commonly used, fast and accurate

6
Whipstock Operations

Jetting

7
Effect of Increased Bit Weight

• Increase Weight on Bit –


Increase Build Rate

Effect of Increased Bit Weight

• Decrease Inclination -
Decrease Weight on Bit

8
Reasons for Using Stabilizers
• Placement / Gauge of stabilizers control directional
• Stabilizers help concentrate weight on bit
• Stabilizers minimize bending and vibrations
• Stabilizers reduce drilling torque less collar contact
• Stabilizers help prevent differential sticking and
key seating

Stabilizer Forces

9
Directional Control

• BHA types • Design principles

• Building assembly • Side force


• Dropping assembly • Bit tilt
• Holding assembly • Hydraulics
• Combination

Building Assemblies
• Two stabilizer assemblies
increase control of side force
and alleviate other problems

10
Building Assemblies

Dropping Assemblies

• To increase drop rate:


• increase tangency length
• increase stiffness
• increase drill collar weight
• decrease weight on bit
• increase rotary speed

• Common TL:
• 30 ft
• 45 ft
• 60 ft
• 90 ft

11
Dropping Assemblies

Holding Assemblies
• Designed to minimize side force and decrease
sensitivity to axial load

12
Stabilization Principle

• Stabilizers are placed at specified points to control


the drill string and to minimize downhole deviation

• The increased stiffness on the BHA from the added


stabilizers keep the drill string from bending or
bowing and force the bit to drill straight ahead

• The packed hole assembly is used to maintain angle

Special BHA’s

• Tandem Stabilizers
• Provides greater directional control
• Could be trouble in High Doglegs

• Roller Reamers
• Help keep gauged holes in hard formations
• Tendency to drop angle

13
Application of Steerable Assemblies

• Straight - Hole
• Directional Drilling / Sidetracking
• Horizontal Drilling
• Re - entry Wells
• Underbalanced Wells / Air Drilling
• River Crossings

Steerable Assemblies

• Build

• Drop

• Hold

14
Mud Motors

Turbine PDM

Commander TM PDM Motors

15
Motor Selection

• These are the three common motor


configurations which provide a broad range
of bit speeds and torque outputs required
satisfying a multitude of drilling applications
• High Speed / Low Torque - 1/2 Lobe
• Medium Speed / Medium Torque - 4/5 Lobe
• Low Speed / High Torque - 7/8 Lobe

Components of PDM Motors

• Dump Subs
• Motor Section
• Universal Joint Assembly
• Adjustable Assembly
• Bearing Assembly

16
Dump Sub Assembly

• Hydraulically actuated valve located at the


top of the drilling motor
• Allows the drill string to fill when running in
hole
• Drain when tripping out of hole
• When the pumps are engaged, the valve
automatically closes and directs all drilling
fluid flow through the motor

Dump Sub

• Allows Drill String


Filling and Draining
• Operation
- Pump Off - Open
- Pump On - Closed
• Discharged Ports
• Connections

17
Motor Section

• Positive
Displacement
Motor ( PDM )
• Lobe
Configurations
• Stages
Performance
Characteristics

Motor Section

• Positive Displacement Motor


PDM

18
Universal Joint Assembly

• Converts Eccentric Rotor Rotation


in to Concentric Rotation

– Universal Joint

» Flex Rod

Constant Velocity Joint --

Adjustable Assembly

• Two Degree and


Three Degree
• Field Adjustable in
Varying Increments
to the Maximum
Bend Angle
• Used in Conjunction
with Universal Joint o
H = 1.962
Assembly

19
Bearing Assembly

• Transmits Bit Axial and Radial Loads to the


Drill String
• Thrust Bearing
• Radial Bearing
• Oil Reservoir
• Balanced Piston
• High Pressure Seal
• Bit Box Connection

Motor Specifications

• Motor Specifications
• Dimensional Data
• Ultimate Load Factors
• Performance Charts

20
Motor Specifications

Motor Specifications

21
Performance Charts

Operational Constraints

• Servicing
- Hours
• Drilling Fluid
-Percentage Sands - 0.5 %
- Percentage Solids - 5 %
• Circulation Rate
• Full Load ( Differential Pressure)

22
Operational Constraints Cont’d

• Temperature - 200 Degrees F


• Motor Stalling
• No Spudding

Disadvantages of PDM

• Low Maximum Temperature Capability

• Susceptible to Oil Based Mud Damaged

23
Operational Features

• Stabilization
• Off - set Pad
• Rotor Bypass

Stabilization

• Improves Well - bore Straightness and


Control
• Screw - on Stabilizer
• Integral Blade Stabilizers

24
Offset - Set Pad

• Adjustable PAD Located Below


Adjustable Bend
• Oriented with Center of Pad on Low
Side of Bend
• Provides Lower Point on Drilling
Motor to Increase Build Rate Capacity

Rotor Bypass

• Used to Increase the Flow Rate Through the


Drilling Motor Beyond the Capacity of the
Power Section
» All Multi - lobe Motors from 3 3/8’’ and
Larger Use Ported Rotors
» May be Field Installed if Required

25
Trouble Shooting

• Pressure Increases
• Pressure Losses
• Lack of Penetration

Pressure Increases

• Bearing Pack Seized


• Motor or Bit Plugged
• Tight Hole

26
Pressure Losses

• Twist - off
• Dump Sub Inoperable
• Stater Worn Out
• Washhing

Lack of Penetration

• Bit Wear
• Stator Wear (Weak Motor)
• Internal Motor Damage
• Incorrect WOB
• Formation Change
• Stabilizer Hanging Up

27
Motor Performance Test

Motor History

28
Motor Service Report

Planning a Directional Well


• Geology
• Completion and Production
• Drilling Constraints

29
Geology

• Lithology being drilled through


• Geological structures that will be drilled
• Type of target the geologist is expecting
• Location of water or gas top
• Type of Well

Completion and Production

• Type of completion required (“frac job”,


pumps and rods, etc.)
• Enhanced recovery completion requirements
• Wellbore positioning requirements for future
drainage/production plans
• Downhole temperature and pressure

30
Drilling

• Selection of surface location and well layout


• Previous area drilling knowledge and
identifies particular problematic areas

Drilling

• Casing size and depths


• Hole size
• Required drilling fluid
• Drilling rig equipment and
capability
• Length of time directional services
are utilized
• Influences the type of survey
equipment and wellpath

31
Planning
• Build rates
• Build and hold profiles should be
at least 50m
• Drop rate for S-curve wells is
preferably planned at 1.5 o/30m
• KOP as deep as possible to
reduce costs and rod/casing wear
• In build sections of horizontal
wells, plan a soft landing section

Planning

• Avoid high inclinations


through severely faulted,
dipping or sloughing
formations
• On horizontal wells clearly
identify gas / water contact
points
• Turn rates in lateral
sections of horizontal
• Verify motor build rates

32
Planning

• Where possible start a


sidetrack at least 20m
out of casing
• Dogleg severity could
approach 14o/30m
coming off a whipstock
• Identify all wells within
30m of proposed well
path and conduct anti-
collision check

33
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DIRECTIONAL DRILLING FUNDAMENTALS
Introduction to Directional Drilling
When preparing to drill a vertical or directional well, all operational components of the process are
reviewed, optimized and included in a drilling program. The surface location is scouted to determine
the best site that will allow for any natural drift, provide suitable access for drilling rig, service rig,
production facilities and can be constructed for a reasonable cost. A casing program is prepared to
provide 1) adequate well control, 2) prevent water table contamination, 3) maintain wellbore integrity,
4) plan for varying formation fracture gradients, and 5) provide hydraulic isolation of various
producing zones.

Mud programs are developed to provide good wellbore cleaning, reasonable filter cake development
and minimal formation damage. Cement programs are required to provide good hydraulic isolation
and casing support given the bottom hole temperature and pressure.

Since the highest possible rate of penetration possible is desired, considerable time is spent preparing
an effective bit program to optimally drill the well. Previous wells drilled in the area are reviewed, to
determine any potential drilling problems. Finally a proper BHA and drill string design is prepared to
provide sufficient design safety parameters.

A directional drilling company will review most of these same components or ask the operator what he
is selecting and apply it to the well profile and equipment limitations. For example the drilling fluid
needs to be compatible with the Measurement While Drilling (MWD) equipment and motors. With
their area knowledge it will also be reviewed for hole cleaning capability for high inclination wells. A
drilling motor is selected that will provide optimum performance for the planned hydraulics or
modifications are recommended.

A bottom hole assembly (BHA) and drill string design is suggested that will allow the best ROP for the
different drilling conditions (rotating versus orient or slide drilling). In some cases the desired well
path cannot be optimally drilled with the drill string currently available on the rig and changes are
recommended.

Bit selection for a standard vertical well may not be suitable for the planned directional well path.
Although a particular PDC bit provides the best ROP for the area, it may not provide the directional
control needed. Also special drilling motors may be required to provide sufficient horsepower. If the
project involves sidetracking of the horizontal legs special diamond sidetrack bits may be required.

Area formation integrity knowledge while it is being directional drilled through (sloughing, loss of
inclination, inability to control direction, potential for differential sticking to name a few) is extremely
important to minimize drilling time or potential problems. Let’s assume a directional plan with a very
tight target size is prepared that kicks off very low in a formation that has a history of erratic build
rates. Several things could happen in this scenario:

• Planned build rates are attained and target reached


• Very aggressive oriented drilling operations are required (full single slides) and the ROP is
half of normal
• Trips required to change the motor setting (increase or decrease the adjustable housing setting)

July 2001 1 Chapter 4


• Erratic doglegs are created that may cause problems later when running casing
• Target is missed and well must be plugged back and sidetracked

When permitted, a directional company also reviews the well pad layout and provides their
recommendations to reduce directional costs for multiple well pads. When they are involved with a
project from the start and are aware of future re-entries, multi-laterals, sidetracks and production
requirements a more optimally tuned well path can be designed.

APPLICATIONS OF DIRECTIONAL DRILLING


Multiple Wells From Offshore Structure
One of today's more common applications of directional drilling techniques is in offshore drilling.
Many oil and gas deposits are situated beyond the reach of land based rigs. To drill a large number of
vertical wells from individual platforms is impractical and would be uneconomical. The conventional
approach for a large oilfield has been to install a fixed platform on the seabed, from which as many as
sixty directional wells may be drilled. The bottomhole locations of these wells can be carefully spaced
for optimum recovery. This type of development greatly improves the economic feasibility of the
expensive offshore industry by reducing the number of platforms required and simplifying the
gathering system.

In a conventional development, the wells cannot be drilled until the platform has been constructed and
installed in position. This may mean a delay of 2 - 5 years before production can begin. Pre-drilling
some of the wells through a subsea template while the platform is being constructed can considerably
reduce this delay. These wells are directionally drilled from an offshore rig, usually a semi-
submersible, and tied back to the platform once it has been installed.

Relief Wells

Directional techniques are used to drill relief


wells in order to "kill" blowout wells. The
relief well is deviated to pass as close as
possible in the reservoir to the uncontrolled
well: it is not generally targeted to hit the out
of control well as costs to do this would be
prohibitive. Heavy mud is pumped into the
reservoir to overcome the pressure and bring
the wild well under control.

Controlling Vertical Wells


Directional techniques are used to "straighten crooked holes". In other words, when deviation occurs
in a well which is supposed to be vertical, various techniques are used to bring the well back to
vertical. This was one of the earliest applications of directional drilling.

July 2001 2 Chapter 4


Sidetracking

Sidetracking out of an existing wellbore is another


application of directional drilling. This sidetracking may be
done to bypass an obstruction (a "fish") in the original
wellbore or to explore the extent of the producing zone in a
certain sector of a field.

Inaccessible Locations

Directional wells are often drilled because the surface


location directly above the reservoir is inaccessible,
either because of natural or man-made obstacles.
Examples include reservoirs under cities, mountains,
lakes, etc.

Other Applications
Directional wells are also drilled to avoid drilling a vertical well through a steeply inclined fault plane,
which could slip and shear the casing.

Potential
Shear Point

July 2001 3 Chapter 4


Directional Wells may also be used to overcome the
problems of salt dome drilling. Instead of drilling
through the salt, the well is drilled at one side of the
dome and is then deviated around and underneath the
overhanging cap.

Directional wells may also be used where a reservoir


lies offshore but quite close to land, the most
economical way to exploit the reservoir may be to drill
directional wells from a land rig on the coast.

Reservoir Optimization

Horizontal drilling is the fastest growing


branch of directional drilling. Horizontal
wells allow increased reservoir
penetration, especially in thinner
reservoirs, allow increased exposure of the
pay zone and allow higher production
rates at equivalent drawdowns. Numerous
specific applications for horizontal
drilling are being developed with major
advances occurring in the tools and
techniques used.

July 2001 4 Chapter 4


Multilateral Wells
Within the science of horizontal drilling, multilateral hole drilling is rapidly becoming a common
occurrence. Wells are drilled horizontally to total depth and laterals drilled from them in various
directions. These laterals remain essentially horizontal and are directionally controlled to ensure
maximum pay zone exposure.

DIRECTIONAL DRILLING LIMITATIONS


Any drilling limit described in a textbook written today would be simply broken tomorrow by some
operator. We have drilled horizontal wells with laterals over 6,100m long; extended reach wells with
over 10,000m of horizontal reach (horizontal to vertical ratio of 6 or 7 to 1); multi-lateral horizontal
wells with 10 legs; purposefully turned horizontal wells 180o in bearing; drilled 27 wells off a single
land based pad location; re-entered just about every wellbore configuration to drill to a new target and
are now drilling stacked well pairs within 3m (10’) of each other. Coiled tubing drilled wells are also
setting new records with lateral sections in excess of 1,200m. Just about anything can be drilled
provided you have the financial support. It is better to know the potential equipment or wellbore
limitations. The following is a list of some of the factors considered when planning a directional well:
1.) Through experience many operators have established their own maximum inclination
and/or dogleg severity limits to minimize rod and casing wear.
2.) Open-hole and cased hole logging equipment have limits on dogleg severity the tools can
safely pass through that depends upon the tool OD, hole OD and tool length.
3.) It may be impossible to get sufficient weight on bit (WOB) to drill the well depending
upon factors such as drag, drill string assembly design, mud type and hole geometry to
name a few.
4.) Key seat and differential sticking potentials.
5.) Maximum dogleg directional equipment can be rotated or slid through (bending stresses).
6.) Wellbore stability (tectonic conditions, sloughing, boulders)
7.) Ability to steer the BHA along the required course (reactive torque).
8.) Ability for equipment to build inclination at the required rates

As directional drilling technologies continue to develop, new applications will emerge. Although oil
and gas drilling applications will continue to dominate the future of the directional industry,
environmental and economic considerations will force other industries to consider directional drilling
alternatives to conventional technologies.

Methods of Deflecting a Wellbore


There are several methods of deflecting a wellbore. Deflecting means changing the inclination and/or
direction of a wellbore. Three common methods of accurately kicking off a well are whipstock
operations, jetting, and downhole motors. The mud motor techniques are most commonly used
because they are fast and accurate, however the whipstock is still used. Jetting is rarely used today, but
it is still a valid and inexpensive technique.
Rotary bottomhole assemblies are the least expensive method of deflecting a well and should be used
whenever possible. Unfortunately, the exact response of a rotary bottomhole assembly is very difficult
to predict and left or right hand “walk” is almost impossible to control. When refinements of the
wellbore course are critical, a mud motor is typically used.

July 2001 5 Chapter 4


Openhole Whipstock
The whipstock was the first widely used deflection tool for changing the wellbore trajectory, and is
seldom used in open-hole deflections today. A whipstock is selected according to the wedge needed to
effect the desired deflection. A bit that is small enough to fit in the hole with the whipstock is then
chosen; at the start of the running mode, the bit is locked to the top of the whipstock. When the
whipstock is positioned at the kickoff depth, whether it is the total depth of the wellbore or the top of a
cement plug, it is carefully lowered to bottom, and the centerline of the toe is oriented in the desired
direction by a conventional nonmagnetic collar with a mule-shoe sub and by a single-shot survey. With
the whipstock assembly oriented, enough weight is applied to the toe of the wedge so that it will not
move when rotation begins.

Additional weight is applied to shear the pin that holds the drill collars to the wedge; then rotation can
begin. Forcing the bit to cut sideways as well as forward, the wedge deflects the bit in an arc set by the
curvature of the whipstock. When the bit reaches the end of the wedge, it ordinarily continues in the
arc set by the wedge. Drilling continues until the top of the whipstock assembly reaches the stop.

The whipstock is then retrieved and the hole is opened with a pilot bit and a hole-opener. The wellbore
is enlarged to the original hole size, and the assembly is pulled again. A full gauge directional BHA is
then run and standard drilling is resumed.

Retrievable Whipstock Operations

Jetting
The jet bit method of deflecting a well was, at one time, the most common method used in soft
formations. Jetting has been successfully used to depths of 8,000 feet (2,400m); however the
economics of this method and the availability of other directional drilling tools limit its use.

July 2001 6 Chapter 4


Geology is the most important influence on where jetting can be used; next in importance is the
amount of hydraulic energy available for jetting. Sandstones and oolitic limestones that are weakly
cemented are the best candidates for jetting. Unconsolidated sandstones and some other types of very
soft rocks can be jetted with some degree of success. Very soft rocks erode too much, making it
difficult to jet in the desired direction; when rotation begins, the stabilizers cut away the curved, jetted
section and return to a nearly vertical well path.

Even though shales may be soft, they are not good candidates for jetting. Most medium-strength rock
is too well cemented to jet with conventional drilling rig pumps, so it limits the depth to which jetting
can be applied. Higher pressures and more hydraulic energy can extend the depth to which jetting is
practical.

A major drawback to jetting is that the formation must be favorable at a shallow depth or in the desired
kickoff interval; otherwise, the technique is no better than the use of a mud motor with a deflecting
device. Another problem is that if jetting is continued too long without conventional drilling being
resumed, large doglegs can be created.

There are special bits made for jetting including those with two
Large cones and an elongated jet nozzle replacing the third cone. The
TFA elongated nozzle provides the means to jet the formation while
Nozzle
the two cones provide the mechanism for drilling. Other tri-cone
deflection bits are available with an enlarged fluid entrance to
one of the jets. This allows a greater amount of fluid to be
pumped through one of the jets during jetting operations.

To deflect a well using the jet method, the assembly is run to the
bottom of the hole, and the large jet is oriented in the desired
direction. The kelly should be high to allow rotary drilling after
the deflection is started. The center of the large nozzle represents
the toolface and is oriented in the desired direction. Maximum
circulation rate is used while jetting. Jet velocity for jetting
should be 150 m/sec (500 ft/sec).

Jetting Bit

The drill string is set on bottom and if the formation is sufficiently soft, the WOB drills off. A pocket is
washed into the formation opposite the large nozzle. The bit and near-bit stabilizer work their way into
the pocket (path of least resistance). Enough hole should be jetted to “bury” the near-bit stabilizer. If
required, the bit can be pulled off bottom and the pocket spudded. The technique is to lift the string
about 1.5m (5’) off bottom and then let it fall, catching it with the brake so that the stretch of the string
(rather than the full weight of the string) causes it to spud on bottom. Spudding can be severe on a
drillstring, drilling line and derrick and should be kept to a minimum. Another technique that may help
is to ‘rock’ the rotary table a little (15o) right and left of the orientation mark while jetting.

July 2001 7 Chapter 4


Jetting Operations
After a few feet have been jetted, the pumps are cut back to about 50% of that used for jetting and the
drill string is rotated. It may be necessary to pull off bottom momentarily due to high torque (near-bit
stabilizer wedged in the pocket). High WOB and low RPM are used to try to bend the collars above
the near-bit stabilizer and force the BHA to follow through the trend established while jetting. The
remaining length on the kelly is drilled down. Deflection is produced in the direction of the pocket i.e.
the direction in which the large jet nozzle was originally oriented.

To clean the hole prior to connection/survey, the jet should be oriented in the direction of deviation.
After surveying, this orientation setting (toolface setting) is adjusted as required, depending on the
results achieved with the previous setting. Dogleg severity has to be watched carefully and reaming
performed as required.

The operation is repeated as often as is necessary until sufficient inclination has been achieved and the
well is heading in the desired direction. The hole inclination can then be built up to maximum angle
using 100% rotary drilling and an appropriate angle build assemble.

Rotary Bottomhole Assemblies


There are three basic types of rotary bottomhole assemblies used in directional drilling: Building
Assemblies, Dropping Assemblies, and Holding Assemblies

A building assembly is intended to increase hole inclination, a dropping assembly is intended to


decrease hole inclination, and a holding assembly is intended to maintain hole inclination. It should be
noted that a building assembly might not always build angle. Formation tendencies may cause the
assembly to drop or hold angle. The building assembly is intended to build angle. The same is true for
the dropping and holding assemblies.

Before the invention of measurement while drilling (MWD) tools and steerable motors, rotary
bottomhole assemblies (BHA) were used to deflect wellbore. A bottomhole assembly is the
arrangement of the bit, stabilizer, reamers, drill collars, subs and special tools used at the bottom of the
drill string. Anything that is run in the hole to drill, ream or circulate is a bottomhole assembly. The
simplest assembly is a bit, collars and drill pipe and is often termed a slick assembly. The use of this

July 2001 8 Chapter 4


assembly in directional drilling is very limited and usually confined to the vertical section of the hole
where deviation is not a problem.

In order to understand why an assembly will deviate a hole, let’s consider the slick assembly, which is
the simplest and easiest to understand. The deviation tendency in this assembly is a result of the
flexibility of the drill collars and the forces acting on the assembly causing the collars to bend. Even
though drill collars seem to be very rigid, they will bend enough to cause deviation.

The point at which the collars contact the low side of the hole is called the tangency point. The
distance L from the bit to the tangency point is dependent upon collar size, hole size, applied bit
weight, hole inclination, and hole curvature. Generally, the distance L is less than 50m (150 feet).

Above the tangency point of the slick assembly, the remainder of the drill string generally has no
effect on deviation. As weight is applied to the bit, the tangency point will move closer to the bit.

Because of the bending of the drill collars, the resultant force applied to the formation is not in the
direction of the hole axis but is in the direction of the drill collar axis. As bit weight is applied, the
tangency point moves toward the bit increasing the angle. It can readily be seen that an increase in bit
weight leads to an increase in deviation tendency.

Effect of Increased Bit Weight

Unfortunately, the direction of the resultant force is not the only force involved. The resultant force
can be broken up into its components. The primary force would be the drilling force in line with the
axis of the borehole. The bit side force is caused by the bending of the collars and is perpendicular to
the axis of the borehole. The force due to gravity (acting on the unsupported section of drill collars) is
in the opposite direction and counteracts the side force. The net deviation force is then equal to the
summation of the bit side force and the force due to gravity. If the force due to gravity is greater than
the bit side force the angle will drop.

Changing the weight on bit can control the deviation tendency. Increasing the bit weight will lower the
tangency point increasing the angle. Since resultant force is proportional to the sine of angle, an
increase in bit weight increases the bit side force and ultimately the deviation tendency. Of course, a
decrease in bit weight will decrease the deviation tendency.

July 2001 9 Chapter 4


Another factor affecting deviation tendency is the stiffness of the drill collars. Stiffer collars will bend
less, which increases the height to the tangency point. If the tangency point moves up the hole, then
the deviation tendency will be reduced. Therefore, small diameter drill collars will enhance the
deviation tendency.

The addition of a stabilizer above the bit significantly affects the deviation tendency of a bottomhole
assembly. The stabilizer acts as a fulcrum around which the unsupported section of the bottomhole
assembly reacts. The addition of the moment arm between the bit and stabilizer increases the bit side
force. In fact, the single stabilizer assembly is a very strong building assembly.

Reasons for Using Stabilizers


1.) The placement and gauge of stabilizers are used as the fundamental method of controlling
the directional behavior of most bottom hole assemblies.
2.) Stabilizers help concentrate the weight of the BHA on the drill bit.
3.) Stabilizers resist loading the bit in any direction other than the hole axis.
4.) Stabilizers minimize bending and vibrations, which cause tool joint wear and damage to
BHA components such as, MWD tools.
5.) Stabilizers reduce drilling torque by preventing collar contact with the side of the hole and
by keeping the collars concentric in the hole but also add torque due to their side-loading.
6.) Stabilizers help prevent differential sticking and key seating.

The side cutting ability of a bit is proportional to the side force exerted at the bit. Under static
conditions, the side force on the bit can be calculated using a computer program. When the entire
bottomhole assembly is considered, it can also be shown the stabilizers in the assembly exert a side
force. The stabilizers have a side-cutting ability too. One would think the deviation tendency could
then be calculated. Unfortunately, the side forces will change under dynamic conditions. Both the bit
and the stabilizers cut sideways reducing the side force on each until equilibrium is reached.

Under dynamic conditions, the relative


side-cutting of the bit and stabilizers
becomes complicated which, in turn,
makes the deviation tendency very
difficult to calculate. The relationship
between the bit and stabilizer side-cutting
is dependent upon the type of bit, type of
stabilizer, penetration rate, rotary speed,
lithology, hole size, and bottomhole
assembly type.

Stabilizer Forces

July 2001 10 Chapter 4


The side-cutting ability of soft formation bits is generally considered better than for hard formation
bits. Diamond bits have a greater side-cutting ability because they are designed with more of a cutting
structure along the lateral face of the bit.

The magnitude and direction of the formation deviation tendency will depend upon bed dip. Generally,
the bit will walk up dip when beds are dipping 0o to 45o and down dip when beds are dipping 65o to
90o. Bed dips between 45o and 65o can cause either an up dip or down dip walk. Bed strike can cause
the bit to walk left or right.

Building Assemblies
As previously stated, the building assembly uses a stabilizer acting as a fulcrum to apply side forces to
the bit. The magnitude of that force is a function of the distance from the bit to the tangency point. An
increase in bit weight and/or decrease in drill collar stiffness will increase the side force at the bit
increasing the rate of build.

The strongest building assembly consists of one stabilizer placed 3 to 6 feet above the bit face with
drill collars and drill pipe above the stabilizer. This assembly will build under the majority of
conditions. Of course, the rate of build will be controlled by formation tendencies, bit and stabilizer
types, lithology, bit weights, drill collar stiffness, Drillstring RPM’s, penetration rate, and hole
geometry.

Building Assemblies
Another strong to moderate building assembly consists of a bottomhole stabilizer placed 3 to 6 feet
from the bit face, 60 feet of drill collars, stabilizer, collars, and drill pipe. This is the most common
assembly used to build angle. The second stabilizer tends to dampen the building tendency. This
assembly can be used when the previous assembly builds at an excessive rate. Other building
assemblies can be seen above.

July 2001 11 Chapter 4


Dropping Assemblies
A dropping assembly is sometimes referred to as a pendulum assembly. In this assembly, a stabilizer is
placed at 30, 45, or 60 feet from the bit. The stabilizer produces a plumb bob or pendulum effect;
hence the name pendulum assembly. The purpose of the stabilizer is to prevent the collar from
touching the wall of the hole causing a tangency point between the bit and stabilizer.

An increase in the length of the bottomhole assembly (the length below the tangency point) results in
an increase in the weight. Since the force is determined by that weight, the force is also increased
exceeding the force due to bending. The net result is a side force on the bit causing the hole to drop
angle.

Additional bit weight will decrease the dropping tendency of this assembly because it increases the
force due to bending. Should enough bit weight be applied to the assembly to cause the collars to
contact the borehole wall (between the stabilizer and the bit), the assembly will act as a slick assembly.
Only the section of the assembly below the tangency point affects the bit side force.

If an increase in dropping tendency is required, larger diameter or denser collars should be used below
the stabilizer. This increases the weight of the assembly, which results in an increase in dropping
tendency. As an example, suppose a dropping assembly with 7” (178mm) drill collars was being used
in a 12 ¼” (311mm) hole. By substituting 9” (229mm) collars for the 7” collars, an increase in
dropping tendency can be achieved.

Dropping assemblies will have a higher rate of drop as hole inclination increases.

Dropping Assemblies

July 2001 12 Chapter 4


Holding Assemblies
Holding the inclination in a hole is much more difficult than building or dropping angle. Under ideal
conditions, most assemblies either have a building or dropping tendency. Most straight hole sections of
a directional well will have alternating build and drop tendencies. When holding inclination, these
build and drop sections should be minimized and spread out over a large interval. The most common
assemblies are indicated below indicating their strength at holding inclination.

Holding Assemblies
When selecting a hold assembly, research the well records in the area to find out which assembly
works best for the types of formations being drilled. If no formation is available, use a medium
strength assembly and adjust it as necessary.

These build and drop assemblies are still used on directional wells but generally limited to slant hole
drilling. The hold assemblies are very commonly used on deep vertical wells to minimize the amount
of directional drilling required.

SPECIAL BHA’S
Tandem Stabilizers
It’s fairly common to run a string stabilizer directly above the near-bit stabilizer. This is normally for
directional control purposes. An alternative is to run a near-bit with a longer gauge area for greater
wall contact. High rotary torque may result in either case. It is dangerous to run tandem stabilizers
directly after a more limber BHA due to the reaming required and potential sticking.

July 2001 13 Chapter 4


Roller Reamers
In medium/hard formations where rotary torque is excessive, it may be necessary to dispense with
some to all of the stabilization. Roller reamers are a good alternative however they behave different
then stabilizers. As a rule they tend to drop angle.

APPLICATIONS OF STEERABLE ASSEMBLIES


A steerable assembly is defined as a bottomhole assembly whose directional behavior can be modified
by adjustment of surface controllable drilling parameters including rotary speed and weight on bit. The
ability to modify behavior in this way enables the assembly to be steered toward a desired objective
without its removal from the wellbore. To some extent, rotary assemblies are steerable if the build or
drop tendency is weight sensitive. However, the ability to control a rotary assembly is limited
especially controlling walk.

The most common steerable assembly consists of a Positive Displacement Motor (PDM) that
incorporates a fixed or adjustable bent housing on top of the bearing housing below the stator. With the
smaller displacement of the bit as compared to using a bent sub, the motor can be safely rotated at
RPM’s up to 50 depending upon the bend setting and formation. The motor housing may also
incorporate an 3mm (1/8”) undergauge stabilizer. With the bent housing, the stabilizer is not required
but the hold tendency of the assembly in the rotary mode is improved.

The steerable system operates in two modes; sliding and rotary drilling. In the slide mode, the motor
acts like a typical motor run. The motor is oriented in the desired direction (tool face), and drilling
progresses without drill pipe rotation. The change in inclination and or direction is derived from the bit
tilt from the bent housing and the side force created from the stabilizer or the wall contact with the
motor.

In the rotary drilling mode, the assembly is rotated per normal but at lower values (30 to 50 RPM) and
the side force is cancelled by this rotary action. In some formations the assembly will change
inclination/direction even in the rotary mode. Because of the bit offset or the side force associated with
a steerable system, the assembly will drill an overgauge hole in the rotary mode.

Advances in downhole motor reliability have made the steerable system economical in many
applications. Typically, the mean time between failures is in excess of 2000 hours for the motor and
excess of 800 hours for the measurement while drilling equipment thereby exceeding the life of a tri-
cone bit. Where feasible, the tri-cone bit has been replaced with a PDC or diamond bit. When properly
matched to the formation and motor torque output, a PDC bit can last much longer than a tri-cone bit;
however, a PDC bit cannot always be used. They are applicable to soft and medium hardness
formations with consistent lithology. In areas where formation hardness changes a lot, PDC bits do not
perform as well as tri-cone bits. Also the ability or ease of controlling build and turn rates of a PDC
vary considerably.

In some cases, the penetration rate of a steerable system will out perform that of a rotary assembly.
The majority of the time, it is used in soft formations. As formation hardness increases, rotary
assemblies will drill faster than a steerable system unless special high torque performance motors are
used. Harder formations are less sensitive to rotary speed, and bit weight is the predominant drilling
parameter. In hard formations, the penetration rate for a motor can be half that of a rotary assembly. In
soft to medium hard formations, the penetration rate for a downhole motor has been twice that of a
rotary assembly.

July 2001 14 Chapter 4


As the torque and drag in a directional well increases, the rate of penetration for a steerable system
while sliding can be considerably less than while rotating. In some cases it will be half the rate seen
while rotating. Therefore, it is advantageous to rotate a steerable system as much as possible especially
when approaching TD.

The directional plan can be followed much more closely with a steerable system. Since trips are not
required, corrections in the slide mode are made much more frequently. The frequent corrections will
keep the wellbore closer to the planned path. In the hold section, the directional driller will often rotate
for a portion of a connection and slide for the remainder of the connection. He must first get a feel for
how much the assembly is walking and building or dropping while in the rotary mode. Once he gets a
feel for that then he can determine how much he needs to slide per connection and what the tool face
orientation must be.

This does not mean that the dogleg severity is very low. It only means that the changes are small and
frequent. Surveys at 20m to 30m intervals will not pick up the actual dogleg severity in the well,
whereas with rotary assemblies and motor corrections, the dogleg severity is picked up by the surveys.
Frequent motor corrections (short dogleg intervals) will minimize problems associated with keyseats.
The doglegs are not long enough for keyseats to form easily.

The steerable system should be designed to generate a dogleg severity 25 percent greater than that
required to accomplish the objectives of the directional plan (a more aggressive bent housing setting).
Formation tendencies can cause the dogleg severity of a steerable system to change. If it decreases the
dogleg severity generated by the system, then a trip may be require to pick up a more aggressive
assembly. However if the assembly is designed to be more aggressive, then the assembly will still be
able to produce a dogleg severity sufficient to keep the wellbore on course and less slide drilling is
required resulting in a higher average ROP. Reducing the dogleg severity of a steerable system is not a
problem. Alternately sliding and rotating the assembly will reduce the overall dogleg severity.

The most significant advantage of the steerable system is that a trip does not have to be made in order
to make a course correction. When a correction is required, the motor is oriented and drilling continues
in the slide mode until the correction is complete. Then drilling in the rotary mode continues until the
next correction is required. If a steerable system is not used, a trip would be required to pick up a
motor assembly before making the correction. After the correction is made, another trip would be
required to pick up the rotary assembly.

Another advantage of the steerable system is that it provides the ability to hit smaller targets at a
reasonable cost. Because a trip is not required to make a course correction, the steerable system can hit
a smaller target with less cost. It’s not that a small target can not be hit using rotary assemblies and
motor corrections; it’s that the costs increase significantly as the target gets smaller.
Steerable systems are typically used in drilling multi-target directional and horizontal wells. Drilling
through a cluster of wells is another good application for a steerable system. Drilling out from under a
crowded platform may require building, dropping and turning at various rates over a relatively short
distance in order to avoid other wellbores. A steerable system is capable of making all the corrections
without tripping. In an environment where the daily operating costs are high, the steerable system can
result in significant savings.
Just because the industry has the capability to hit smaller targets does not mean that the targets should
be unduly restricted. The smaller the target, the more expensive it can be to hit. With a steerable
system, the cost differential isn’t as high as it would be using rotary assemblies and making motor
corrections.

July 2001 15 Chapter 4


MUD MOTORS
There are two major types of downhole motors powered by mud flow; 1) the turbine, which is
basically a centrifugal or axial pump and 2) the positive displacement mud motor (PDM). The
principles of operation are shown in Figure 7.1 and the design of the tool are totally different. Turbines
were in wide use a number of years ago and are seeing some increased use lately but the PDM is the
main workhorse for directional drilling.

Turbine Motor Positive Displacement Motor

Motor Selection
Four configurations of drilling motors provide the broad range of bit speeds and torque outputs
required satisfying a multitude of drilling applications. These configurations include:

1.) High Speed / Low Torque


2.) Medium Speed / Medium Torque
3.) Low Speed / High Torque
4.) Low Speed / High Torque -Gear Reduced

The high speed drilling motor utilizes a 1:2 lobe power section to produce high speeds and low torque
outputs. They are popular choices when drilling with a diamond bit, tri-cone bit drilling in soft
formations and directional applications where single shot orientations are being used.

The medium speed drilling motor typically utilizes a 4:5 lobe power section to produce medium
speeds and medium torque outputs. They are commonly used in most conventional directional and
horizontal wells, in diamond bit and coring applications, as well as sidetracking.

The low speed drilling motor typically utilizes a 7:8 lobe power section to produce low speeds and
high torque outputs. They are used in directional and horizontal wells, medium to hard formation
drilling, and PDC bit drilling applications.

The gear reduced drilling motor combines a patented gear reduction system with a 1:2 lobe high speed
power section. This system reduces the output speed of the 1:2 lobe power section by a factor of three,
and increases the output torque by a factor of three. The result is a drilling motor with similar

July 2001 16 Chapter 4


performance outputs as a low speed drilling motor, but with some significant benefits. The 1:2 lobe
power section is more efficient at converting hydraulic power to mechanical power than a multi-lobe
power section and also maintains more consistent bit speed as weight on bit is applied. This motor can
be used in directional and horizontal wells, hard formation drilling, and PDC bit drilling applications.

Some other motor selections are also available including a tandem and modified motor. These
variations are described below.

Tandem Drilling Motor - The drilling motor utilizes two linked power sections for increased torque
capacity.

Modified Drilling Motor - The bearing section of the drilling motor has been modified to provide
different drilling characteristics (ie. change bit to bend distance, etc.).

Motor Components
All drilling motors consist of five major assemblies:

1.) Dump Sub Assembly


2.) Power Section
3.) Drive Assembly
4.) Adjustable Assembly
5.) Sealed or Mud Lubricated Bearing Section.

The gear reduced drilling motor contains an additional section, the gear reducer assembly located
within the sealed bearing section. Some other motor manufacturers have bearing sections that are
lubricated by the drilling fluid.

Dump Sub Assembly


As a result of the power section (described below), the drilling motor will seal off the drill string ID
from the annulus. In order to prevent wet trips and pressure problems, a dump sub assembly is utilized.
The dump sub assembly is a hydraulically actuated valve located at the top of the drilling motor that
allows the drill string to fill when running in hole, and drain when tripping out of hole. When the
pumps are engaged, the valve automatically closes and directs all drilling fluid flow through the motor.

In the event that the dump sub assembly is not required, such as in underbalanced drilling using
nitrogen gas or air, its effect can be negated by simply replacing the discharge plugs with blank plugs.
This allows the motor to be adjusted as necessary, even in the field. Drilling motors 95 mm (3 3/4”)
and smaller require the dump sub assembly to be replaced with a special blank sub.

Power Section
The drilling motor power section is an adaptation of the Moineau type positive displacement hydraulic
pump in a reversed application. It essentially converts hydraulic power from the drilling fluid into
mechanical power to drive the bit.

The power section is comprised of two components; the stator and the rotor. The stator consists of a
steel tube that contains a bonded elastomer insert with a lobed, helical pattern bore through the center.

July 2001 17 Chapter 4


The rotor is a lobed, helical steel rod. When the rotor is installed into the stator, the combination of the
helical shapes and lobes form sealed cavities between the two components. When drilling fluid is
forced through the power section, the pressure drop across the cavities will cause the rotor to turn
inside the stator. This is how the drilling motor is powered.

It is the pattern of the lobes and the length of the helix that dictate what output characteristics will be
developed by the power section. By the nature of the design, the stator always has one more lobe than
the rotor. The illustrations in Figure 7-2 show a 1:2 lobe cross-section, a 4:5 lobe cross-section and a
7:8 lobe cross-section. Generally, as the lobe ratio is increased, the speed of rotation is decreased.

Cross-sections of the most common power section lobe configurations


The second control on power section output characteristics is length. A stage is defined as a full helical
rotation of the lobed stator. Therefore, power sections may be classified in stages. A four-stage power
section contains one more full rotation to the stator elastomer, when compared to a three stage. With
more stages, the power section is capable of greater overall pressure differential, which in turn
provides more torque to the rotor.

As mentioned above, these two design characteristics can be used to control the output characteristics
of any size power section. This allows for the modular design of drilling motors making it possible to
simply replace power sections when different output characteristics are required.

In addition, the variation of dimensions and materials will allow for specialized drilling conditions.
With increased temperatures, or certain drilling fluids, the stator elastomer will expand and form a
tighter seal onto the rotor and create more of an interference fit, which may result in stator elastomer
damage. Special stator materials or interference fit can be requested for these conditions.

Drive Assembly
Due to the design nature of the power section, there is an eccentric rotation of the rotor inside of the
stator. To compensate for this eccentric motion and convert it to a purely concentric rotation drilling
motors utilize a high strength jointed drive assembly. The drive assembly consists of a drive shaft with
a sealed and lubricated drive joint located at each end. The drive joints are designed to withstand the
high torque values delivered by the power section while creating minimal stress through the drive

July 2001 18 Chapter 4


assembly components for extended life and increased reliability. The drive assembly also provides a
point in the drive line that will compensate for the bend in the drilling motor required for directional
control.

Adjustable Assembly
Most drilling motors today are supplied with a surface adjustable assembly. The adjustable assembly
can be set from zero to three degrees in varying increments in the field. This durable design results in
wide range of potential build rates used in directional, horizontal and re-entry wells. Also, to minimize
the wear to the adjustable components, wear pads are normally located directly above and below the
adjustable bend.

Sealed or Mud Lubricated Bearing Section


The bearing section contains the radial and thrust bearings and bushings. They transmit the axial and
radial loads from the bit to the drill string while providing a driveline that allows the power section to
rotate the bit. The bearing section may utilize sealed, oil filled, and pressure compensated or mud
lubricated assemblies. With a sealed assembly the bearings are not subjected to drilling fluid and
should provide extended, reliable operation with minimal wear. As no drilling fluid is used to lubricate
the drilling motor bearings, all fluid can be directed to the bit for maximized hydraulic efficiency. This
provides for improved bottom-hole cleaning, resulting in increased penetration rates and longer bit
life. The mud-lubricated designs typically use tungsten carbide-coated sleeves to provide the radial
support. Usually 4% to 10% of the drilling fluid is diverted pass this assembly to cool and lubricate the
shaft, radial and thrust bearings. The fluid then exits to the annulus directly above the bit/drive sub.

Gear Reducer Assembly


An alternative to the type low speed drilling motor is the gear-reduced design. It utilizes a gear
reduction assembly within the sealed bearing section in combination with a 1:2 lobe power section.
This patented design reduces the speed of rotation by a factor of three while increasing the torque by
the same multiple. The benefit with this design is increased stability in the bit speed for different
differential pressures, and improved hydraulic efficiency out of the power section.

Kick Pads
Most drilling motors can incorporate wear pads directly above and below the adjustable bend for
improved wear resistance. Eccentric kick pads can also be used on most motors ranging from 121 mm
(4 3/4’) to 245 mm (9 5/8”) in size. This kick pad is adjustable to match the low side of the motor to
increase build rate capabilities. It will also allow lower adjustable settings for similar build rates,
thereby reducing radial stresses applied to the bearing assembly, and permit safer rotation of the motor.
They can be installed in the field by screwing them onto specially adapted bearing housings.

July 2001 19 Chapter 4


G e n e r a l mo t o r c o mp o n e n t l a y o u t

Stabilization
Bearing housings are also available with two stabilization styles, integral blade and screw-on. The
integral blade style is built directly onto the bearing housing and thus cannot be removed in the field.
The screw-on style provides the option of installing a threaded stabilizer sleeve onto the drilling motor
on the rig floor in a matter of minutes. The drilling motor has a thread on the bottom end that is
covered with a thread protector sleeve when not required. Both of these styles are optional to a
standard bladed bearing housing.

July 2001 20 Chapter 4


MOTOR OPERATIONS
In order to get the best performance and optimum life of drilling motors, the following standard
procedures should be followed during operation. Slight variations may be required with changes in
drilling conditions and drilling equipment, but attempts should be made to follow these procedures as
closely as possible.

Assembly Procedure & Surface Check Prior to Running in Hole


Most motors are shipped from the shop thoroughly inspected and tested, but some initial checks
should be completed prior to running in hole. These surface check procedures should only be used
with mud drilling systems. To avoid potential bit, motor, and BOP damage, these preliminary checks
should be completed without a bit attached. A thread protector should be installed in the bit box
whenever moving the motor, but must be removed before flow testing.

• Only apply rig tongs on the identified areas of the drilling motor. All connections marked “NO
TONGS” of the drilling motor are torqued in the service shop. Further make-up on the rig
floor is not necessary, and if attempted may cause damage.
• Remove the thread protector from the bit box and inspect the threads for damage.
• Lower the drilling motor until the dump sub ports are below the rotary table, yet still visible.
CAUTION: The dump sub valve will remain open until there is enough fluid pressure to close
it. Therefore, the drilling motor should be lowered until the ports are below the rotary table.
This will prevent the initial flow of drilling fluid from spraying on the rig floor.
• Slowly start the pumps and ensure drilling fluid is flowing out of the dump sub ports. Increase
the flow rate until the dump sub ports close, and drilling fluid stops flowing out. Make note of
the circulation rate and standpipe pressure. CAUTION: Do not exceed the maximum
recommended flow rate for this test.
• Lift the drilling motor until the bit box becomes visible. It should be rotating at a slow,
constant speed. Listen to the bearing section of the drilling motor for excessive bearing noise,
especially if the tool has been used previously without being serviced.
• Before stopping the pumps, the drilling motor should be lowered below the rotary table.
Ensure that drilling fluid flows out of the dump sub ports after shutting down the pumps. It is
possible that the dump sub valve remains closed after this test due to a pressure lock. If this
occurs, no drilling fluid will flow out of the ports. To remove the pressure lock, bleed off some
stand pipe pressure and the valve will open. The surface check should be as short as possible;
since it is merely to ensure that the drilling motor is rotating.
• After this surface check, the bit should be attached to the motor using a bit-breaker, while
holding the bit box stationary with a rotary tong. Be sure to avoid contacting the end cap
directly above the bit box with the tong dies. It is recommended that you never hold the bit
box stationary and rotate the drilling motor counter-clockwise, or hold the drilling motor
stationary and rotate the bit box clockwise. This could possibly cause the internal drilling
motor connections to back off and damage it. Although rotating in the opposite direction will
result in drilling fluid to be pushed out the top end, the internal connections will not be at risk
of disconnecting.
• If the drilling motor has been used previously, an overall inspection should be completed.
Inspect for seal integrity by cleaning the area above the bit box and visually checking for

July 2001 21 Chapter 4


lubricating oil leakage or seal extrusion. General visual inspection of the entire drilling motor
should be carried out to check for missing oil plugs, housing damage, or loose connections.
• Set the adjustable assembly to the desired bend. The instructions for this procedure depend
upon the motor manufacturer and should be adhered to. Ensure the rig tongs can generate the
required make-up torque the motor.
• If a float sub is used, it should be placed immediately above the drilling motor.

Tripping In Hole
Generally, a drill string with a drilling motor can be run into the hole like a standard bottom hole
assembly. The drilling motor is rugged, but care should be taken to control travel speed while tripping
into the hole. The drill string should be tripped with the blocks unlocked and special care must be
taken when passing the B.O.P., casing shoe, liner hanger, bridges and nearing bottom. Tight spots
should be traversed by starting the pumps and slowly reaming the drilling motor through them. When
reaming, the drill string should be periodically rotated to prevent sidetracking. Great care should be
taken during these operations.

When tripping to extreme depths, or when hole temperatures are high, periodic stops are
recommended to break circulation. This prevents bit plugging and aids in cooling the drilling motor,
preventing high temperature damage.

Fluid should not be circulated through a drilling motor inside casing if a PDC or diamond bit is being
used, as this may damage the bit cutters.

If a dump sub assembly is not used and the pipe is not being filled while tripping in, the back pressure
on the power section will cause the rotor to turn in reverse. This could cause internal connections of
the drilling motor to unscrew. Stop and break circulation before putting drilling motor on-bottom.
Failure to do so could plug jets and/or damage the drilling motor.

Drilling
After the assembly has been tripped to the bottom of the hole, drilling motors should be operated in
the following manner:

• With the bit 1-2 meters (3-6 feet) off bottom, start the pumps and slowly increase the flow rate
to that desired for drilling. Do not exceed the maximum rated flow rate for the drilling motor.
• Make a note of the flow rate and the total pump pressure. Note that the pressure may exceed
the calculated off bottom pressure due to some side load effects between the bit and the hole
diameter.
• After a short cleaning interval, lower the bit carefully to bottom and slowly increase the
weight. Torque can be affected by a dirty, uncirculated hole and the hole should be adequately
cleaned prior to orienting the tool. Fill maybe cleaned out of the wellbore by slowly rotating
the drilling motor or by staging the drilling motor full circle 30o to 45o at a time. This prevents
ledge buildup and side tracking.
• Orient the drill string as desired and slowly apply further weight onto the bit. Pump pressure
will rise as the weight on bit is increased. Record the change in system pressure between the
off bottom and on bottom values. This will be the differential pressure. Try to drill with steady
pump pressure by keeping a steady flow rate and constant weight on bit.

July 2001 22 Chapter 4


• Adding weight on bit will cause both the differential pressure and torque to increase.
Similarly, reducing weight on bit will reduce both the differential pressure and the torque.
Therefore, the rig pressure gauge enables the operator to monitor how the drilling motor is
performing, as well as a weight on bit indicator.
• Applying excessive weight on bit may cause damage to the on-bottom thrust bearings.
Similarly, applying excessive tension while stuck may cause damage to the off-bottom thrust
bearings. Refer to the manufacturer specifications for the recommended maximum loads for
these conditions.
• Optimum differential pressure can be determined by monitoring motor performance,
penetration rate, and drilling requirements. Also, maintaining a constant weight on bit and
differential pressure assists in controlling orientation of the drill string.

Reactive Torque
Drilling motors drive the bit with a right-hand (clockwise) rotation. As weight is added to the bit,
reactive torque acting on the drilling motor housing is developed. This left-hand (counter-clockwise)
torque is transferred to the drill string and may cause the joints above the motor to tighten. Reactions
of this type increase with larger weight on bit values and reach a maximum when the motor stalls. This
reactive torque also affects the orientation of the motor when it is used in directional drilling
applications. Therefore, this reactive torque must be taken into account when orienting the drilling
motor from the surface in the desired direction. As a rule-of-thumb 4 ½” drill pipe will turn 10o for
every 300m (1,000’).

Critical Rotary Speed


Motor sections are available in a number of configurations. These different designs are identified by
the number of lobes on the rotor and cavities in the stator. For example a 4/5 power section has 4 lobes
and 5 cavities. With every rotation made by the rotor, there are eccentric motions about the radius of
the rotor equal to the number of lobes. So a 4/5 power section would go through 4 eccentric
movements for every rotation. In all multi-lobed tools, regardless of size or configuration, the critical
tolerance for this eccentric movement is 1000 cycles per minute. Exceeding this critical tolerance sets
up three degenerative cycles in the tool:

• The high oscillation factor combined with the inherent friction of the rotor contacting the
stator results in excessive heat generation in the stator molding. Oscillations above 1000
cycles per minute may result in temperatures sufficient to cause hysteretic failure of the stator
molding (elastomer doesn’t return to original shape).
• Vibration frequencies are introduced by the high oscillation rates that can contribute to
mechanical failures in motor components other than the rotor and stator. It is not known if
these vibrations are harmonic or random however, it is logical to assume that some degree of
resonance would be present in the frequency.
• The centrifugal force of the rotor in an “over-speed” condition combined with the diminished
compressive strength of a stator in hysteretic failure, accentuate the eccentric motion (run out)
of the rotor. The result is an expontenial increase in the degenerative effects of the condition.

July 2001 23 Chapter 4


Drilling Motor Stall
Stalling usually occurs when the application of excessive weight on bit or hole sloughing stops the bit
from rotating and the power section of the drilling motor is not capable of providing enough torque to
power through. This is indicated by a sudden sharp increase in pump pressure. This pressure increase
is developed because the rotor is no longer able to rotate inside the stator, forming a long seal between
the two. If circulation is continued, the drilling fluid forces it’s way through the power section by
deflecting the stator rubber. Drilling fluid will still circulate through the motor, but the bit will not turn.
Operating in this state will erode and possibly chunk the stator in a very short period of time, resulting
in extensive damage. It is very important to avoid this operating condition.

When stalling occurs, corrective action must be taken immediately. Any rotary application should be
stopped and built up drill string torque released. Then the weight on bit can be reduced allowing the
drill bit to come loose and the drilling motor to turn freely. If the pump pressure is still high, the
pumps should then be turned off. Once again, failure to do this will result in the stator eroding until the
drilling motor is inoperable.

Other conditions can be occurring downhole that indicate the motor is stalling. On underbalanced
wells when the motor is being supplied with too low a combined equivalent flow rate will not drill (see
later discussion on two-phase flow tests). Under gauge bits or a badly worn heel row of cutters on the
bit can also make the motor stall.

Bit Conditions
The bit speeds developed when drilling with a drilling motor are normally higher than in conventional
rotary drilling. This application tends to accelerate bit wear. When drilling with a drilling motor and
simultaneously rotating the drill string, it is important to avoid locking up the bit and over running the
drilling motor with the rotary table. A locked bit will impart a sudden torque increase in the drilling
motor which can be detected by a sudden, sharp increase in standpipe pressure. Small pressure
fluctuations can also indicate the onset of bit failure.

Rotating the Drilling Motor


For directional control, we often rotate a drilling motor which has the adjustable assembly set for a
deviation angle. It has been found that rotating the drilling motor set at bends greater than 1.8 degrees
may fatigue the housings of the drilling motor to a point where a fatigue crack is initiated, and fracture
occurs. Additionally, rotation of motors with settings greater than 1.83 degrees place high radial
stresses on the bearing section which may initiate premature failure. Most motor manufacturers have a
policy that drilling motors set at greater than 1.83 degrees not be rotated. The extent of the damage is
very dependent upon the drilling conditions and formations being drilled. Although fractures from
fatigue due to rotating over 1.83 degrees are a relatively rare occurrence, a risk is still being taken
when it is done. The operator of the drilling motor must be aware of this risk.

It is also recommended that the speed of rotation not exceed 50 RPM. If this value is exceeded,
excessive cyclic loads would occur to the drilling motor housings and possibly causing pre-mature
fatigue problems.

July 2001 24 Chapter 4


Tripping Out
Prior to tripping out when drilling with conventional mud, it is recommended that the fluid be
circulated for at least one “bottoms-up’ time to ensure that the wellbore has been cleaned thoroughly.

The tripping out procedures for a drilling motor is basically the same as those for tripping in. Taking
care when pulling the drilling motor through tight spots, liner hangers, casing, casing shoes, and the
B.O.P. is necessary to minimize possible damage to both the drilling motor and the wellhead
components. Rotating may also be done to assist with the removal of the drill string. The dump sub
valve will allow the drill string to be emptied automatically when tripping.

Although the drill string will drain when tripping out, the drilling motor itself may not. Once the
drilling motor is at surface, rotating the bit box in a counter-clockwise direction will naturally drain the
drilling motor through the top. This is recommended before laying down the motor since aggressive
drilling fluids can deteriorate the elastomer stator and seals. When possibly, fresh water should also be
flushed through to ensure thorough cleaning of the drilling motor. Also, clean the bit box area with
clean water and install a thread protector into the box connection.

Rotating the bit box in a clockwise direction will naturally drain the drilling motor through the bottom,
but one of the internal connections could break and unscrew. For this reason, it is not recommended to
rotate it in this manner.

Surface Checks After Running in Hole


Before laying down a drilling motor, it should be inspected in the event that it is required again before
servicing. Listen for indications of internal damage when draining the drilling motor. Inspect the seal
area between the bit box and the bearing section for lubricating oil leakage, and check the entire
drilling motor for loose or missing pressure plugs. If there are any concerns with the drilling motor, it
should be laid down for servicing.

Drilling Fluids
Most drilling motors are designed to operate effectively with practically all types of drilling fluids. In
fact, the stator or power-section of most PDM’s are supplied by the same one or two manufacturers
with the same general elastomer type. Successful runs have been achieved with fresh or salt water, oil
based fluids, fluids with additives for viscosity control or lost circulation, and with nitrogen gas.
However, some consideration should be taken when selecting a drilling fluid, as elastomer components
of the drilling motor are susceptible to pre-mature wear when exposed to certain fluids especially
under higher temperatures.

Hydrocarbon based drilling fluids can be very harmful to elastomers. A measure of this aggressiveness
is called the Aniline Point. The Aniline Point is the temperature at which equal amounts of the
hydrocarbon and aniline become miscible. This temperature is an indication of the percent of light
ends (aromatics) present in the hydrocarbon. It is recommended that the aniline point of any drilling
fluid not be lower than 70 to 94.5o C (158 to 200o F), depending upon stator manufacturer. The lower
the aniline point the higher the percentage of elastomer damaging “high-ends” in the hydrocarbon
fluid. Also, the operating temperature of the drilling fluid should be lower than the aniline point.
Operating outside these parameters tends to excessively swell elastomers and cause premature wear,
thus reducing the performance of the motor. In cases where hydrocarbon based fluids are used it is
recommended that stators material or designs that account for the elastomer swelling be used (HSN or
changed interference of stator/rotor.

July 2001 25 Chapter 4


Drilling fluids with high chloride content can cause significant damage to internal components
(chrome plated rotors). When these components become damaged, the drilling motor’s performance is
dramatically reduced.

Lost circulation materials can be used safely with drilling motors but care must be taken to add the
material slowly to avoid plugging the system. (Good rule of thumb is no more than 2.5 lbs/barrel). If
coarse lost circulation material is required a circulating sub should be installed above the motor
assembly to by-pass the motor.

The percentage of solids should be kept to a minimum. Large amounts of abrasive solids in the drilling
fluid will dramatically increase the wear on a stator. It is recommended that the sand content be kept
below 2% for an acceptable operational life. A solids content greater than 5% will shorten rotor and
stator life considerably.

For the above reasons, it is extremely important to flush the drilling motor with fresh water before
laying it down, especially when working with the types of drilling fluids described above. Failure to
do so will allow the drilling fluid to further seriously deteriorate components to the drilling motor long
after it has been operated. The solids can also settle out in the motor and in the worse case lock the
motor up.

Temperature Limits
The temperature limits of drilling motors again depend on the effect of different fluids and
temperatures on the components made of elastomers. Generally, standard drilling motors are rated for
temperatures up to 105o C (219o F). At temperatures above this, the performance characteristics of
elastomers are changed, resulting in reduced life expectancy. When exposed to higher temperatures,
the elastomers swell, creating more interference than desired, wearing the parts out prematurely. The
strength of the elastomers is also affected. When drilling in wells with temperatures greater than 121o
C (250o F) it is important to maintain circulation to minimize the temperature the stator liner is
subjected to.

To compensate for these elastomer changes, special materials and special sizes of components are
used. This results in drilling motors that are specifically assembled for high temperatures. These
special order drilling motors may be operated in temperatures up to 150o C (300o F) and higher. The
rubber in the stator is specially selected for more clearance at higher temperatures to minimize
interference. Therefore, at lower temperatures, the stator elastomer will not seal adequately on the
rotor and fluid bypass will occur. Therefore, it is important that the drilling motor be used in the
conditions it is designed for in order to operate as required.

Hydraulics
The use of a PDM in the drill string changes the hydraulic calculations and should be considered.
Various factors have to be taken into account. These are:

1.) Range of flow rates allowable: Each size and type of PDM is designed to take a certain
range of volumes of fluid.
2.) No-load Pressure Loss: When mud is pumped through a mud motor which is turning
freely off-bottom (i.e. doing no work) a certain pressure loss is needed to overcome the
rotor/stator friction forces and cause the motor to turn. This pressure loss and motor RPM

July 2001 26 Chapter 4


are proportional to flow rate. Their values are known for each size and type of PDM. The
no-load pressure loss is usually no greater than 100 psi.
3.) Pressure Drop across the Motor: As the bit touches bottom and effective WOB is applied,
pump pressure increases. This increase in pressure is normally called the motor
differential pressure. Motor torque increases in direct proportion to the increase in
differential pressure. This differential pressure is required to pump a given volume of mud
through the motor to perform useful work. For a multi-lobe motor, it can be 500 psi or
even more.
4.) Stall-out Pressure: There is a maximum recommended value of motor differential
pressure. At this point, the optimum torque is produced by the motor. If the effective WOB
is increased beyond this point, pump pressure increases further. The pressure across the
motor increases to a point where the lining of the stator is deformed. The rotor/stator seal
is broken and the mud flows straight through without turning the bit (blow-by or
slippage). The pump pressure reading jumps sharply and does not vary as additional WOB
is applied. This is known as stall-out condition.

Studies have shown that the power output curve is a parabola and not a smooth upward curve, as
originally thought. If the PDM is operated at 50%-60% of the maximum allowable motor differential
pressure, the same performance should be achieved as when operating at 90% of differential. The
former situation is much better however, there is a much larger ‘cushion’ available before stall-out.
This should result in significantly longer motor life.

The greater the wear on the motor bearings, the easier it is to stall-out the motor. It is useful to
deliberately stall out the PDM briefly on reaching bottom. It tells the directional driller what the stall-
out pressure is. He may want to operate the motor at about 50% of stall-out differential pressure. In
any case, he must stay within the PDM design specifications.

It is obvious that, if the pump pressure while drilling normally with a mud motor is close to the rig’s
maximum, stalling of the PDM may lead to tripping of the ‘pop-off valve’. This should be taken into
account in designing the hydraulics program.

Rotor Nozzle: Most multi-lobe motors have a hollow rotor. This can be blanked off or jetted with a jet
nozzle. When the standard performance range for the motor matches the drilling requirements, a
blanking plug is normally fitted.

The selection of the rotor nozzle is critical. Excessive bypass will lead to a substantial drop in motor
performance and, consequently, drilling efficiency. If a rotor nozzle is used at lower flow rates, the
power of the motor will be greatly reduced.

From the above, it is clear that careful planning of the PDM hydraulics program is required.

July 2001 27 Chapter 4


Example of a typical motor performance chart for a 1:2 lobe motor.

July 2001 28 Chapter 4


Example of a typical motor performance chart for a 4:5 lobe motor.

PLANNING TO DRILL A DIRECTIONAL WELL


In order to plan a directional well that can be drilled safely and be cost effective, a great deal of
information is needed by the directional company. By reviewing the information and requirements the
best plan can be selected that will meet everyone’s needs and produce a usable wellbore. The planning
of a directional well can involve multiple disciplines and their needs must be successfully combined
into the wellpath proposal. Obviously not all wells require input from each division but the more
complex the well is the more important a synergy is developed within the departments and with the
directional drilling company.

Geology
Interaction with the geologists is of prime importance to understand any limitations in the particular
zone of interest. Although all information collected is important to the drilling operation
communication at this stage can be the make or break point of the well.

July 2001 29 Chapter 4


• Lithology being drilled through (sand, shales, sloughing tendencies, coals, salt, medium hard
formations with hard or soft stringers, marker zones)
• Location of water or gas top
• Level of geological control
• Type of target the geologist is expecting (channel sand, pinnacle reef, a seismic irregularity,
exploration or infill drill)
• Geological structures that will be drilled through or into (dip, faults, unconsolidated shales)
• Regulatory issues (oil or gas target boundaries, wellbore clearance from existing wells,
location of final total depth)
• Type of Well (Oil or Gas)
• Future sidetrack or re-entry potentials

Completion and Production


This group is often missed and may result in a costly error if their needs are not considered in the
planning phase. They usually share some of the planning responsibility with the geology department.

• Location of surface facilities or ability to move existing when infill drilling on an existing pad
• Type of completion required (frac, pump rods)
• May specify maximum inclination and dogleg limits based upon log and production
requirements
• Enhanced recovery completion requirements
• Wellbore positioning requirements for future drainage/production plans
• Downhole temperature and pressure

Drilling
This group usually has control over the main operation and tries to pull all parties together. The overall
cost estimation and economic feasibility may also rest in their hands. Consequently, the directional
representative usually spends most of their time consulting with the members in this group. Even
though the other groups have just as important information, the drilling group typically controls how
the well is drilled and will make the final decision on any operational issues that occur.
• Selection of surface location and well center(s) layout
• Casing size and depths
• Hole size
• Required drilling fluid
• Drilling rig equipment and capability
• Length of time directional services are utilized
• Influences the type of survey equipment and wellpath
• Previous area drilling knowledge and identifies particular problematic areas

July 2001 30 Chapter 4


Planning
Once the information has been collected from the various departments, a directional plan is prepared
that meets all the requirements (if possible). A good well planner also tries to incorporate operational
issues that contribute to the success of the well and can have a dramatic impact on the length of time
required for directional equipment. This can be very important on pad layouts for multiple directional
wells and can save the operator considerable expenses if properly utilized.

Anyone can plan a well to be drilled from point ‘A’ to ‘B’ but it requires operational knowledge to plan
a profile that can physically be drilled without unnecessary trips to change assemblies given the hole
size and area. The following are few of the general rules-of-thumb when well paths are being
prepared:

• Build rates kept at 2 to 3 o/30m for pumping oil wells. In fact most oil wells are planned at this
rate unless the horizontal displacement requires higher build rates to reach the target. Typically
most operators prefer to keep the actual doglegs less than 8 or 9 o/30m, therefore the plan
should be less than 7 o/30m to allow for operational variances.
• The hold portion for build and hold profiles should be at least 50m (150’) to allow for
operational adjustments should they have trouble achieving build rates.
• The drop rate for S-curve wells is preferably planned at 1.5 o/30m but can go as high as 2.5. A
key-seat or differential sticking risk could occur with aggressive drop rates in softer
formations. Also a minimum 30m (100’) tangent section should be planned in the middle of an
S-curve profile to allow for drilling problems or changes in target depths.
• Keep the KOP as low as possible to reduce directional costs and on pumping oil wells to
reduce potential rod/casing wear. KOP must be selected in a competent formation.
• Pick a KOP that has a competent enough formation that will allow the planned build rate to be
achieved.
• On long or extended reach well profiles keep the KOP low to provide a larger vertical portion
for applying weight on bit but also keep the build rate low (less than 4 o/30m).
• When planning a well that will use single shot survey equipment make sure at least two thirds
of the build section is completed before drilling into any problem zone. If it cannot be
accomplished use higher build rates or place KOP as low as possible in the problem zone an
insure a sufficient hold section after terminal angle is reached (100m).
• In build sections of horizontal wells, plan a soft landing section (lower build rate) for casing
point if the required motor setting is greater than 1.8o or severe geological uncertainty exists
(target TVD changes greater than 2m).
• Plan for a terminal angle of a minimum 15o since it is easier to hold inclination and direction.
• Avoid high inclinations through severely faulted, dipping or sloughing formations.
• On horizontal wells be sure to clearly identify any gas or water contact points and keep
sufficient clearance below or above to prevent breakthrough.
• Turn rates in the lateral sections of horizontal wells should be kept at less than 8 o/30m,
especially if the proposed lateral length is long.

July 2001 31 Chapter 4


• Know what build rates are achievable for the motors being used in a specific hole size. The
following rates are for most standard motors.
311mm hole - up to 10+ o/30m (motor with kick pad)
222mm hole – up to 14 o/30m
159mm hole – up to 25 o/30m
121mm hole – up to 35 o/30m
• Keep subsequent sidetracks on horizontal legs at least 20m (60’) apart.
• Where possible don’t start a sidetrack until at least 20m out from casing point.
• Be sure to identify what profiles will require trips to set motor down before any rotation
should occur.
• Assume a dogleg of approximately 14 o/30m will occur coming off a whipstock.
• Identify all wells within 30m of proposed well path and conduct anti-collision check. On long
horizontal sections this should be extended to 100m away.
• Where possible design a wellpath that will minimize the percentage of hole drilled in the
oriented mode. Typically the ROP of these sections are one half or less of the rotary ROP.

Torque And Drag


One of the most significant problems associated with extended reach or horizontal drilling is torque
and drag which is caused by the friction between the drill string and the hole. The magnitude of the
torque and drag is determined by the magnitude with which the pipe contacts the hole wall and the
friction coefficient between the wall and pipe. Figure 8-1 shows the forces associated with an object
on an incline. The weight component along the axis of the incline (w SinΦ) would be the force
required to move the object in a frictionless environment.

Forces on an inclined plane

July 2001 32 Chapter 4


Unfortunately, friction is always present and will contribute to the force required to move the object.
The friction force is equal to the normal force times the friction coefficient. Therefore, the force
required to pull the pipe from the hole is:

T= -W SinΦ + µ WCosΦ

Where: T = Axial Tension


W = Buoyed Weight of Pipe
µ = Friction coefficient
Φ = Angle of incline
The force required to push the pipe from the hole is:

T= -W SinΦ - µ WCosΦ

The friction coefficient depends upon the type of drilling fluid in the wellbore and the roughness of the
wellbore walls. Cased hole should have a lower friction coefficient than open hole. Untreated water
based muds will have a higher friction coefficient than oil based muds. Friction coefficients have been
reported to range from 0.1 to 0.3 for oil based muds and 0.2 to 0.4 for water based muds. When hole
curvature is considered, an additional force is added to the normal force. Pipe placed in a curved
wellbore under tension will exert a force proportional to the tension and rate of curvature change.

Buckling of the drill string while tripping into the wellbore causes an additional drag force. The
critical buckling load is a function of the inclination, pipe size and radial clearance. Once the
compressive forces in the drill string exceed the critical buckling load, an additional normal force is
imposed on the drill string increasing the drag force in sections of the wellbore.

The torque in the drill string is determined by the normal force times the friction coefficient and is the
force resisting rotation of the drill string. The torque and drag will increase as the tension and dogleg
severity increases. In normal directional wells, the drag is the main concern but as depth, inclination,
build rate and length of hold section increase the torque can become a major concern. Torque will also
limit the tension capability of drill pipe when combined with tensile loads.

There are three main ways to reduce the drag in the well; 1) change friction coefficient by changing
mud system, 2) change the directional profile or 3) change the string weight or tension. Since the drag
is proportional to the coefficient of friction, finding a way to reduce this value by half will halve the
drag.
Changing the directional profile can have significant benefits but if you’ve already drilled a good
portion of the profile, wiper/reamer trips to smooth out any ledges or doglegs in the build section can
have significant benefit.
Replacing drill collars with hevi-weight or regular drill pipe can have a significant effect on reducing
the tension and normal forces thus drag.
There are excellent torque and drag models in the market that very accurately predict values for a
chosen wellpath. It must be remembered this is just a model and one of its better design uses is for
comparison of different profiles with all other factors the same. Another very helpful place to utilize
this tool, is while drilling horizontal wells. Large changes between predicted and actual drag values
can indicate the hole is not cleaning. These models are also used to effectively design the drill string
from the bottom of the well to surface.

July 2001 33 Chapter 4


July 2001 34 Chapter 4
PETROLEUM GEOLOGY PRIMER

Rocks and Minerals

• Igneous
• Sedimentary
• Metamorphic

1
Two Basic Kinds of Texture

• Clastic Texture

• Crystalline Texture

The Rock Cycle

2
Igneous Rock

• Igneous rocks are formed from magma.


• Two principal types of igneous rock
• Intrusive (plutonic), those that have solidified below
the surface
Granite

• Extrusive (volcanic), those that have formed on the


surface
Lava

Sedimentary Rock

• Exposed surface rock is subject to weathering


and erosion
• Weathering breaks down the structure
• Erosion is the removal of weathered rock

3
Sedimentary Rock

• Sedimentary rocks cover 75% of the land


surface.
• Because sedimentary rocks are capable of
containing fluids they are of prime interest to
the petroleum geologists

Shale

Metamorphic Rock

• Rock changed by pressure and heat


• Shale can become slate
• Limestone can become marble
• Metamorphism results in a crystalline texture which
has little or no porosity.
• About 27% of the earth’s crust is composed of
metamorphic rocks.

4
The Crust

• The crust is the cool skin worn down by


weather, with basins collecting the remains of
once-living organisms

Sedimentary Transport &


Depositional
Environments

5
Sedimentary Transport

• Gravity works through water, wind, or ice


• A river flows sediments downstream while
undercutting its banks
• Tectonic forces raise lowlands above sea level,
ensuring a continuing supply of exposed rock
for producing sediments
• Gravity ultimately pulls sediments to sea level

Mass Movement

• In high elevations
• Severe weathering
• Instability of steep slopes
• A large block of bedrock
may separate along deep
fractures or bedding planes
• Rockslide or avalanche

6
Stream Transport

• The distance a sedimentary particle can be


carried depends on:
• Available stream energy
• Size
• Shape
• Density

Stream Transport

• Laminar: smooth flowing


• Turbulent: tumbling, swirling, chaotically
• Spherical particles are more difficult to carry
than randomly shaped ones
• The more dense a particle is, the faster it will
settle out
• Lighter particles settle on top of heavier ones

7
Continental Environments

• Fluvial deposits
• Desert environment

Continental Environments

• Glacial deposits
• Aeolian deposits

8
Transitional Environments
• Marine deltas

• Beaches

Sedimentary Rock Classifications

9
Sedimentary Rock Classifications

• Lithification
• Deposited beyond the reach of erosion
• Diagenesis (physical and chemical changes)
• Compaction
• Sediments accumulate over time in the ocean
• Weight is increased by thousands of feet of more sediment
layers
• Pore space is reduced as water is squeezed out
• Cementation
• The crystallization or precipitation of soluble minerals in the
pore spaces between clastic particles.

Clastics

• Conglomerates

• Sandstones

• Shales

10
Evaporites

• Gypsum

• Halite

Carbonates

• Limestone

• Coal

• Chert

11
Origin of Hydrocarbons

u talog

Hydrocarbons

• Originally oil seemed to come from solid rock deep


beneath the surface
• Scientists showed oil-rocks were once loose sediment
piling up in shallow coastal waters
• Advances in microscopy revealed fossilized creatures
• Chemists discovered certain complex molecules in
petroleum known to occur only in living cells
• That source rocks were shown to originate in an
environment rich with life clinched the “organic
theory”

12
Chemical Factors

• Petroleum occurs in such diverse forms as


• thick black asphalt or pitch,
• oily black heavy crude,
• clear yellow light crude,
• and petroleum gas
• Variations are due to differences in molecular weight
• Despite those differences the proportions of carbon
and hydrogen do not vary appreciably
• Carbon comprises 82-87% and hydrogen 12-15%

Chemical Composition of Average


Crude Oil & Natural Gas

Element Crude Oil Natural Gas

Carbon 82 – 87% 65 – 80%

Hydrogen 12 – 15% 1 – 25%

Sulphur 0.1 – 5.5% 0 – 0.2%

Nitrogen 0.1 – 1.5% 1 – 15%

Oxygen 0.1 – 4.5% 0%

13
Chemical Factors

• Petroleum is only slightly soluble in salt water


• It floats but is often found in an oil-water emulsion
• Some petroleum contains hydrocarbon molecules with
60-70 carbon atoms
• Molecules with up to four carbon atoms occur as gases
• Molecules having five to fifteen carbon atoms are liquids
• Heavier molecules occur as solids
• Methane, the simplest hydrocarbon, has the chemical
formula CH4.
• Four is the maximum number of hydrogen atoms that can
attach to a single carbon atom

Biological Factors
• The food chain contributes waste products, and
every organism that is not eaten eventually dies
• Bacteria plays an important role in recycling
• Aerobic (oxygenated) oxidizes organic matter
• Anaerobic (reducing) takes oxygen from dissolved sulfates
and organic fatty acids producing sulfides and hydrocarbons
• Aerobic decay liberates certain hydrocarbons that
some small organisms accumulate within their bodies,
the anaerobics are more important in oil formation

14
Biological Factors
• Organic waste materials and dead organisms sink to
the bottom, preserved in an anaerobic environment
• Accumulation and compaction help seal the organic
matter off from dissolved oxygen
• Transformation into petroleum is accomplished by
the heat and pressure of deeper burial
• Examples of where anaerobic environments exist:
• Deep offshore
• Salt marshes
• River deltas
• Tidal lagoons

Physical Factors
• Pressure increases about 1 pound per square inch (psi)
per foot of depth
• Temperature rises about 1.5°F for every 100 feet of depth
• Certain chemical reactions occur quickly at 120°-150°F
• Long-chain molecules are broken into shorter chains
• Other molecules are reformed, gaining or losing hydrogen
• Some short-chain hydrocarbons are combined into longer
chains and rings
• The net result is that solid hydrocarbons are converted into
liquid and gas hydrocarbons

15
The Petroleum Window
• The set of conditions under
which petroleum will form
• Temperatures between
100°F-350°F
• The higher the temperature,
the greater the gas proportion
• Above 350°F almost all of the
hydrocarbon is changed into
methane and graphite
• Source beds (or reservoirs)
deeper than about 20,000 feet
usually produce only gas

Source Rocks
• Source Rock
• Organic material that has been converted into petroleum
• Reservoir Rock
• Rock in which petroleum accumulates
• The best source rocks are shales
• Other source beds are limestone, evaporites, and rocks
formed from freshwater sedimentary deposition
• Petroleum is found in a variety of forms and chemical
complexities

16
Hydrocarbon Migration

Migration
• Primary migration
• Movement of hydrocarbons out of the source rock
• Secondary migration
• Subsequent movement through porous, permeable
reservoir rock by which oil and gas become
concentrated in one locality

17
Primary Migration

• Involves compaction and the flow of water


• Petroleum comes from source beds deposited
mostly on the seafloor
• As shale gets compressed into less space, it is
not the solid mineral grains that are
compressed but the pore spaces
• Interstitial water is squeezed out, carrying
droplets of oil in suspension and other
hydrocarbons in solution

Primary Migration

• Effective porosity is the ratio


of the volume of all the
interconnected pores to the
total volume of a rock unit
• Only the pores that are
connected with other pores
are capable of accumulating
petroleum
• Effective porosity depends
upon how the rock particles
were deposited and cemented

18
Primary Migration

• A rock's permeability is a
measure of how easily
fluids can pass through it
• The basic unit is the
Darcy; l/1000 of a Darcy is
a millidarcy (md)
<1 md Poor • The permeability of
1-10 md Fair sandstones commonly
10-100 md Good ranges between 0.01 and
100-1000 md Very Good
10,000 md.

Permeability
• Permeability can vary with direction of flow
• Pore connections may be less numerous, narrower, or less
well aligned in one direction than another
• In rocks formed from well-sorted beach sands, grains that
are not spherical are often aligned perpendicular to the
beach
• Stream channel sands are aligned in the direction of stream
flow and often contain horizontal sheets or stringers of less
permeable clay
• Fluids move more easily through such rocks parallel to grain
alignment or clay stringers than across them

19
Secondary Migration
• Hydrocarbons are moved through permeable
rock by gravity
• Compressing pore spaces containing fluid
• Causing water containing hydrocarbons to flow
• Causing water to displace less dense petroleum
fluids upward
• Flow can mean movement of a few inches a
year, which can add up to many miles in a
geologically short time

Hydrocarbon Accumulation

20
Accumulation
• Oil collects in places it cannot readily flow out of
• a structural high point
• a zone of reduced permeability
• As accumulation occurs, distinct zones of gas, oil, and
water appear

Effective Permeability
• Rock permeability to a given fluid when
another fluid is also present
• Water has seven times the ability of oil to cling
to the grains of porous rock
• Interstitial water reduces the space available
for oil
• narrows the passages between pores
• lowers the rock's effective permeability to oil

21
Relative Permeability
• The ratio of effective to absolute permeability
• 1.0 = rock with oil but no water
• 0.0 = rock with water but no oil
• Encountering higher fluid pressure
• may overcome the water's resistance to the passage
of oil
• may increase the effective permeability of the
formation by opening tiny fractures

Horizontal Movement
• Interstitial water with oil droplets moves slowly
through horizontal sandstone beneath a layer of
relatively impermeable shale
• The oil droplets tend to concentrate in the upper
levels of the sandstone because of their buoyancy

22
Diagonal Movement
• If the tilt is upward in the direction of flow
• The oil tends to rise updip with the flow of water
• If the oil rises against the flow of water
• The water flows downdip

Movement Within an Anticline


• Water flows updip into the anticline, then downdip
• Oil rises with the incoming water and moves
preferentially toward the crest
• Concentration is near the highest point
• To accumulate oil, the anticline must be closed
• Plunge in both directions along its axis
• Dip toward both flanks

23
Differentiation
• Petroleum reservoirs are water-wet
• Oil is not in contact with the rock grains because
they are coated with a film of water
• Most oil fields have 50-80% maximum oil
saturation
• Above 80%, the oil can be produced with very little
water mixed in
• Below 10%, the oil is not recoverable

Hydrocarbon Reservoirs
• Hydrocarbon reservoirs divide into
two or more zones
• With oil and water, oil will occupy
the upper zone
• This zone has maximum oil saturation
• The oil-water contact is not a sharp line
but a transition zone
• Oil saturation increases gradually
from near 0% at the base to
50%-80% at the top

24
Hydrocarbon Reservoirs
• Natural gas is dissolved in the oil
and to some extent in the water
• Reservoir conditions sometimes
allow undissolved gas to create a gas
cap above the oil zone
• The wetting fluid in a gas cap is
usually water but occasionally oil
• The transition zone between oil-gas
is thinner than the oil-water

Hydrocarbon Reservoirs
• Some reservoirs contain gas but not oil
• This gas is called non-associated gas
• The transition zone is a gas-water contact
• The water contains gas in solution
• Free methane remains in a gaseous
state even under great pressure
• Ethane, propane, and butane, are gases
at the surface are often found in a
liquid state under reservoir conditions

25
Types of Traps
• The basic requirements for a petroleum reservoir are
• A source of hydrocarbons
• Porous and permeable rock enabling migration
• Something to arrest the migration and cause accumulation
• Anticlines are not the only geologic situations for
hydrocarbon accumulation
• Two major groups of hydrocarbon traps
• structural, the result of deformation of the rock strata
• stratigraphic, a direct consequence of depositional variations
• *hydrodynamic, trapped by the force of moving water
• Most reservoirs have characteristics of multiple types

Structural
Anticline
• Anticlines
Structure
• Created by tectonic deformation of
flat and parallel rock strata
• A short anticline plunging in both
directions along its strike is
classified as a dome
• Faults
Impermeable Bed

Sealing
• Most faults trap oil and gas by
Fault
interrupting the lateral continuity
of a permeable formation

26
Stratigraphic
• Lateral discontinuity or changes in permeability are
difficult to detect
• Stratigraphic traps were not studied until after most of the
world's structural oil field discoveries
• They still account for only a minor part of the world's
known petroleum reserves
• Stratigraphic traps are unrelated to surface features
• Many stratigraphic traps have been discovered
accidentally while drilling structural traps

Stratigraphic
• Shoestring Sand
• An overlapping series of coarser stream
sediments buried by clay
Stream
• A sinuous string of sandstone winding
Channel
through impermeable shales
• Form complex branching networks
• Give no hint of the underlying channel
• Tracing the course is difficult
• Clues such as direction of greatest
permeability and general slope of the
buried land surface help find the next
productive location

27
Lens
• Isolated body of permeable rock enclosed within less
permeable rock
• Edges taper out in all directions
• Formed by turbidity underwater slides
• Isolated beach or streams sand deposits
• Alluvial fans, and other deposits

Lens Traps

Pinchout

• Occurs where a porous and permeable sand body is


isolated above, below, and at its updip edge
• Oil or gas migrates updip to the low-permeability zone
where the reservoir "pinches out"

Pinchout
Traps

28
Combination Traps

Timing and Preservation of Traps

29
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PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
What comes into your mind when you hear the word geology? If you’re like most of us, chances are
you get a vivid picture – such as the May 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. We tend to think of
geology in terms of landscapes too vast to fully comprehend – volcanoes, mountain ranges, and
canyons – created by forces beyond our comprehension.

Perhaps, then, you will be surprised to learn that


most geological changes occur so slowly that you
cannot see them happening; that our understanding
of those changes has enabled us to find the fossil
fuels that power our civilization; and that the scope
of our insight into the geological phenomenon of oil
includes both the large and the small – mountains
and sand grains, oceans and water droplets, sunlight
and bacteria.

Within this wide range of things and ideas, the story


of how, where, and when petroleum accumulates
underground can be made very complicated – or
very simple. A scientist can describe precisely how
heat and pressure affect complex organic
molecules, but he may do so in a language hard to
understand. The average motorist, on the other
hand, may fill up at the gas pump; comfortable with
the notion that oil comes from dinosaur-shaped
caverns. For those curious about the phenomenon
of nature’s liquid fuels but lacking a rigorous
scientific education, the simple picture does not
satisfy, but the exact answer (insofar as scientists
know it) baffles.

Explaining the occurrence of petroleum in rock formations is very similar to explaining why it rains,
with one fundamental difference – we can watch clouds forming and rain falling, but no one has ever
watched oil form and accumulate underground. To figure out what happens, we must first answer
some basic questions: Does oil start out as oil or as something else? Does it change over time? Does it
form where it is found, or does it come from somewhere else? Why is it found in some places but not
in others? These questions can be answered; but to answer them we have to look at petroleum on many
levels – global, regional, local, microscopic, and molecular. In the search for petroleum, the area of
greatest interest to us is geology – the science of the earth.

Rocks and Minerals


A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic crystalline element or
compound. Although some rocks, such as rock salt, are made up of
grains of a single mineral, most rocks are assemblages of different
minerals. A mineral has a definite chemical composition and
characteristic physical properties such as crystal shape, melting
point, color, and hardness. However, most minerals, as found in
rocks, are not pure. Quartz, a form of silica, has a definite chemical

July 2001 1 Chapter 1


formula (SiO2), but usually contains impurities that give it color. Feldspar, on the other hand, includes
within its chemical range a wide variety of potassium, sodium, and calcium aluminum silicates. One
common variety is orthoclase, which is mostly KAlSi3O8. Varieties of feldspar make up about half the
rocks of the earth’s surface.

If you examine a typical rock, you will see that it is composed of individual mineral grains of various
types. In some rocks the grains are so small that they can be seen only under a microscope; in others,
they are quite large. Texture, the size and arrangement of these mineral particles, is one of the principal
descriptive properties geologists use to classify rocks.

Two basic kinds of texture are crystalline and clastic. In rocks with clastic texture, the grains, which
are broken fragments of rocks, minerals, or organic debris, may touch each other but are mostly
surrounded and held together by cement such as calcite. Often the spaces between the grains are not
completely filled, leaving openings or voids that can contain water or other fluids. In crystalline
texture, the grains form and grow from the molten rock material as it solidifies, and so they interlock
or touch each other on all faces. Minerals can also crystallize from ground water solutions within
existing rocks. Rocks with crystalline texture usually have very low porosity.

Clastic Texture Crystalline Texture


Primary rock classification is by origin: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Rock in any one of
these categories can be transformed by natural processes into its counterpart in another category. The
relationships of these rock types and processes are shown as the Rock Cycle

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Igneous Rock
Igneous rocks are those formed directly from molten rock material, or magma. When the planet was
formed, the original crust was entirely igneous; today the percentage is 65%. Two principal types of
igneous rock are intrusive (plutonic), those that have solidified below the surface, and extrusive
(volcanic), those that have formed on the surface. Granite, the most common intrusive igneous rock,
has crystals that are easily seen by the unaided eye. Magma that reaches the surface is called lava;
extrusive igneous rock is hardened lava from volcanic eruptions. Because it has lost its heat rapidly to
the atmosphere, its grains are usually smaller than those of intrusive rock and may be visible only
under magnification.

Cooling

Hardening

Lava Granite
Some lava cools so rapidly that it does not form crystals at all; the result is a volcanic glass known as
obsidian. Another common extrusive rock is basalt. Since igneous rocks form from a cooling body of
magma or lava, they are usually crystalline and non-porous. However, pyroclastics, composed of
fragments of ash from volcanic explosions, have clastic texture and are porous. Gas-filled lava that has
cooled rapidly may form a vesicular type of obsidian called pumice, the rock that floats on water.

Obsidian Pumice

Sedimentary Rock
When any type of rock is exposed at the surface, it becomes subject to weathering and erosion.
Weathering processes are those that break down the structure of the rock by chemical and physical
attack. Erosion is the removal of weathered rock or soil particles by flowing water, wind, moving ice,
or other agents. When weathering has proceeded far enough, the erosion process may complete the job
of separating the particles from the parent rock.

The rock and soil particles carried away by erosion eventually come to rest in a sedimentary deposit,
often far from their source. The largest and heaviest particles, requiring the most energy to transport,

July 2001 3 Chapter 1


are the first to settle out, followed by particles of decreasing size. As a result, fine silt and clay
particles are carried farthest from their origin and deposited where the moving water loses the last of
its flow energy. Eroded particles may eventually be consolidated as sedimentary rocks.

Although they comprise only 8% of the volume of the earth’s crust, sedimentary rocks cover 75% of
the land surface. Most sedimentary rocks are porous and therefore capable of containing fluids. The
fact that most petroleum accumulates in sedimentary rocks makes them of prime interest to the
petroleum geologists.

Sedimentary Rocks Shale

Metamorphic Rock
Any rock that has been changed by pressure and heat while in the solid phase is termed metamorphic.
When shale, a common sedimentary rock, undergoes deep burial, heat and pressure fuse individual
mineral grains into a metamorphic rock known as slate; more intense metamorphism produces schist.
Similarly, limestone becomes marble. One type of low-grade metamorphism, the alteration of
limestone to dolomite, involves chemical replacement of calcium by magnesium in solution.

Metamorphism always results in crystalline texture; either new crystals are formed from the elements
present in the original rock, or the existing grains are deformed and molded into an interlocking
structure. Metamorphic rocks usually have little or no porosity. The final form and appearance of any
metamorphic rock is a product of its original composition and the type and intensity of the
metamorphic forces involved. About 27% of the earth’s crust is composed of metamorphic rocks.

July 2001 4 Chapter 1


Metamorphic Rock
It is the crust, of course, that most concerns us as human beings and as finders and users of oil and gas.
The crust is different from the molten interior of the earth; it is the cool skin where life exists. Its
heights are worn down by the constant wash of weather; its basins are with water and rock particles
and the remains of once-living organisms. In the search for oil, the petroleum geologist concentrates
on these basins, where sediments and organic matter accumulate in a sort of giant pressure cooker.

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SEDIMENTARY TRANSPORT & DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
Sedimentary Transport
Gravity causes sediments to move from high places to low. Sometimes gravity is the only agent
involved, as in a landslide. More often, however, gravity works through another medium - water, wind,
or ice - to transport sedimentary particles from one location to another.

The flow of a river moves the sediments in its bed downstream, but it also undercuts its banks. When
material is continually removed from the lower part of a slope, the slope eventually becomes too steep
to support its own weight. It collapses, either gradually or suddenly, into the streambed and is carried
away. Thus, although the stream acts directly only on the sediments in its bed, the valley becomes
wider at the top because of undercutting.

The inexorable pull of gravity ensures that sediments are carried downhill - ultimately to sea level.
However, tectonic forces often raise lowlands high above sea level, ensuring a continuing supply of
raw material for producing sediments. Thus any type of rock can become source material for future
sedimentary rocks by being uplifted and exposed to weathering and erosion.

Mass Movement
In high mountains, severe weathering and the
instability of steep slopes often result in the
sudden movement of large masses of rock and
sediment. A large block of bedrock may
separate along deep fractures or bedding
planes, causing a rockslide or avalanche. In
seconds, a single rock mass weighing millions
of tons can come crashing down, shattering
itself and everything it hits into boulders and
dust.

Even though gravity is the principal agent in


mass movement, water plays a key part.
Besides the destructive effects of repeated
freezing and thawing, water adds mobility to
weathered rock debris, making it respond
more readily to the pull of gravity. Excess
water makes clay especially unstable. Under
prolonged soaking by rainfall, a clay hillside
may suddenly slump.
Rock & Snow Avalanche, Mt. Huascaran, Peru

Did You Know?


In 1970, an earthquake-induced rock and snow avalanche on Mt. Huascaran, Peru, buried the
towns of Yungay and Ranrahirca. The total death toll was 66,000. The avalanche started as a
sliding mass of glacial ice and rock about 3,000 feet wide and one mile long. The avalanche
swept about 11 miles to the village of Yungay at an average speed of more that 100 miles an
hour. The fast-moving mass picked up glacial deposits and by the time it reached Yungay, it is
estimated to have consisted of about 80 million cubic yards of water, mud, and rocks.

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Stream Transport
Most sediments, even those involved in mass movement, are at some time transported by flowing
water. The distance a sedimentary particle is carried depends both upon the size, shape, and density of
the particle and upon the available stream energy.

The steeper a stream, the more gravitational energy it has - and the faster it flows. If the water flows
smoothly, like a formation of marching soldiers, the flow is said to be laminar. However, if this
orderly, parallel movement is disrupted, the flow becomes turbulent, tumbling and swirling
chaotically. Such a change can be seen where a quiet stretch of river enters a section of shallow,
uneven streambed and breaks into turbulent rapids.

It is this turbulent type of flow that makes available most of the energy a stream uses in transporting
solid particles. Some of the swirling is directed upward with enough energy to pick up and carry rock
particles that are heavier than the water -the same way a high wind can pluck a sheet of tin off a roof.
In general, the turbulence of a stream increases with its velocity and with the narrowness and
roughness of its channel. Steep, narrow mountain streams have a greater proportion of turbulent
energy than sluggish lowland streams, so they are noisier.

Some sedimentary particles are more easily


picked up and carried than others. Density is
important, of course, but less so than size and
shape. All else being equal, a large particle will
settle out of still water faster than a small
particle. The frictional force that resists the
particle's fall (and supports it in moving water)
acts only on the surface of the particle; the
smaller the particle, the greater its ratio of
surface area to volume and weight. The larger
particle, with more weight per unit surface,
needs more force per unit surface to move it.

The shape of a particle also affects ease of transport. A perfect sphere has more volume and weight per
unit surface than any other shape. The less spherical a particle, the more easily a stream can carry it. A
flat pebble of quartz will settle like a leaf; a spherical quartz pebble of equal weight will sink more
quickly. The difference in shape is like the difference between an open umbrella and a closed one.
Opening an umbrella in a high wind does not change its weight, but does make it more likely to be
blown away.

For any given shape and size, a denser particle will settle out faster than a less dense particle because
its weight-to-surface ratio is higher. For this reason, small particles of gold (S.G. 16 to 19) collect on
the bottom of a streambed, while silt (S.G. 2.5 to 3.0) is swept downstream.

Streams move only minor amounts of sediment. High winds can carry clay, silt, and sand much as a
river does. In arid climates, wind may even act as the primary weathering and transporting agent,
carving exposed rock into fantastic shapes by abrading it with airborne particles. A glacier moves
slowly but with great weight, grinding rocks into powder and carrying jumbles of unsorted rock
material to its snout. Both wind-driven and glacial sediments are often reworked and redeposited by
flowing water.

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DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
When sedimentary particles arriving at a location outnumber those being carried away, the location
can be thought of as a depositional environment. Depositional environments are of many different
types. Wind, waves, temperatures, flow patterns, seasonal variations, and biotic communities are a few
of the many factors that influence the character of the sedimentary deposits in a given environment.

Continental Environments
Because most areas above sea level are subject to erosion, depositional conditions tend to be more
localized onshore than offshore. They are also more affected by rapid changes in weather. At certain
places and times a river deposits more sediment in its valley than it carries off. However, the sediments
deposited during months of slack water may be carried downstream in a single day of heavy runoff.

Fluvial Deposits
Sediments deposited by flowing water are called fluvial deposits. Local variations in flow determine
where particular types of sediments accumulate. Stream velocity is greatest on the outside of a bend,
where the stream under- cuts the bank and increases its sedimentary load. On the inside of the bend,
where the water slows and eddies, the stream has less energy. Here is left much of the suspended
sediment - first the sand, which takes the most energy to move; then higher on the sloping bar, silt; and
farthest from the swift main current, clay. Bed load materials such as cobbles and gravel collect in
deeper water near the base of the sand.
A river in flood uses much of its increased energy to augment its
suspended load. Adding silt and clay from its channel to the
materials coming from upstream, the river spreads out over its
floodplain. Here friction absorbs much of the flow energy. Silt
and clay settle out, raising the level of the floodplain (and
enriching the soil for plant life). Some of the heavier sediments
accumulate atop the banks nearest the river, forming natural
levees that help contain the river at lower flow stages.
Sandbars and other stream deposits over- lap one another in
characteristic ways. A cross section of such overlapping deposits
reveals their characteristic lens shape - thick in the middle and
tapering toward either edge. Bar deposits are long and curved in
the direction parallel to the stream but narrow and lens-shaped
in section across the stream. Evidence of flow direction and
volume is preserved in the form of ripple marks, scour marks,
and other structures.
A meandering river creates an even more complex system of
overlapping and undercut deposits. Meandering occurs when a
river with excess energy and a flat flood- plain erodes one of its
banks more than the other and begins shifting in a gentle curve
toward that bank. Since a curved line connecting two points is
longer than a straight line, a meander reduces the river's
gradient: the river travels farther to descend 1 foot in elevation.
As the curve deepens, the opposite bank is eroded at its
beginning and end.

With continued erosion and deposition, the meander takes the

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form of a narrow-necked loop that the river may eventually erode through to form a cutoff. In the
oxbow lake thus formed in the abandoned loop, sediments and life forms differ from those of the river.

Lacustrine Environments
The still waters of a lake absorb all the flow energy of inflowing rivers, causing the rivers to deposit
their sediments near their entry points. In addition to the inflow of mineral sediments, dissolved
nutrients flow in and feed the growth of a biotic community of plants and animals. The remains of
these organisms accumulate in the sediments of the lake bottom rather than being flushed downstream
as in a river. Eventually the lake fills with sediments and ceases to exist, leaving behind a deposit from
which fossil fuels such as coal or oil may be born.

Desert Environments
In arid climates, infrequent downpours and flash floods leave sheets of gravel and sand in large,
sloping deposits at the mouths of canyons. This type of deposit is called an alluvial fan. Such
fanglomerates (some of which are termed molasse) are thin, overlapping, poorly sorted sheets of
angular gravels, boulders, and mud. A line of fans may eventually coalesce into an apron that grows
broader and higher as the slopes above are eroded.

In enclosed desert basins, scarce runoff may


create intermittent playa lakes, also known as
sebkhas (or sabkhas). Coarser sediments are
deposited around the margins of a sebkha in
alluvial fans and aprons; silt and clay are carried
into the central parts, where they settle out more
slowly. When the water evaporates, dissolved salts
crystallize out to form thin crusts of halite (rock
salt), gypsum (hydrous calcium sulfate), or other
evaporites. A sebkha thus develops a
characteristic pattern of alternating thin beds of
mud and evaporites.

Glacial Deposits
Sediments deposited by moving ice sheets are much rarer than
other types, principally because deposits created by
geologically infrequent ice ages are subject to erosion and
reworking by other agents. Retreating glaciers and ice sheets
leave behind accumulations of un- sorted sediments called till.
Glaciers grind bedrock into flour and carry along great
boulders that a river would simply flow around. Glacial till is
thus recognizable by its chaotic jumble of mud, gravel, and
large rocks. When a glacier retreats, meltwater usually
reworks and redistributes the till. Glacial till and outwash
sediments from the last ice advance cover much of the north-
eastern United States. Buried sediments from older glacial periods can be found worldwide, often in
locations now too far from the poles to have been affected by more recent ice ages.

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Aeolian deposits
Sediments deposited by wind (aeolian deposits) range from loess (thick beds of silt carried by winds
from the outwash plains of glaciers) to sand dunes. Large desert dunes that migrate downwind because
of prevailing winds develop a pattern of cross-bedding that may be preserved beneath younger
sediments. Examples of cross-bedded dune structure can be seen in canyons of the southwestern
United States.

Erosion, Transportation, and Depositional Environments

TRANSITIONAL ENVIRONMENTS
Most of the sediment produced by the weathering of rock is carried by flowing water to the sea. Here
the fresh water of the river quickly becomes dispersed in the much larger volume of salt water-as does
flow energy. Sediments are deposited throughout this transition zone, where the river gradually gives
up its energy; they are sorted by size, shape, and density according to the energy distribution of their
environment, as they were in upstream depositional environments.

Marine deltas
The mouths of rivers fall into two general categories. A river with a low sediment load may reach the
sea in an estuary, where the effect of current, waves, and tides keeps sediment from accumulating. A
heavily laden river, however, usually creates a marine delta, a seaward extension of land at or near sea
level caused by the accumulation of sediments at the river's mouth. A delta is composed mostly of
sediments brought down by the river, but mixed with them are fine wave-borne sediments brought in
by currents and tides.

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A growing (prograding) delta is a complex structure of interbedded sediments with three more or less
distinct zones of deposition. The zone nearest to the shore is occupied by topset beds, complexes of
heavier, coarser particles. Depending upon flow energy and sediment load, these are typically
overlapping sand and gravel bodies forming seaward extensions of the stream's natural channel and
levees. They often show ripple marks, erosion surfaces, and other evidence of flow. Shallow bays
between diverging (distributary) channels contain finer sediments from both the river and the sea, and
often shelter abundant plant and animal life.

Some of the finer sediments carried beyond the topset beds settle out in foreset beds on the steep
seaward face of the delta. In the upper foreset zone, where wave action suspends the finer sediments,
the foreset beds may consist of clean sand; below the wave base, muddy sand and silt; and near the toe
of the delta, thinner beds of silt and mud. As the delta grows seaward, the foreset beds are overlain by
extensions of the topset beds.

Bottomset beds are tapering layers of silt and clay extending seaward from the face of the delta.
Beyond reach of river and waves, these sediments accumulate slowly and sometimes support
considerable seafloor life.

Marine Delta

The delta described above is an idealized model that is rarely found in nature, where conditions vary
widely. Distinct topset, foreset, and bottomset beds are more often seen in lacustrine deltas in sheltered
continental environments.

Beaches
The transition zone also includes beaches, coastal depositional environments unrelated to the mouths
of rivers. Sand and finer sediments are redistributed by longshore currents (the movement of seawater
parallel to the coast). The growth and shrinkage of non-delta coastal deposits are related to the energy
of longshore currents, waves, and tides.

A cross section of a typical beach shows how the sediments brought in by long shore currents are
sorted and redistributed by wave and tidal energy. Differences in energy levels divide the beach profile
into the shoreface (the wave action zone up to the low-tide mark), the foreshore (between low- and
high-tide levels), the backshore (from high tide to storm-flood level), and the dunefield (above storm-
flood level). Because these zones are continually affected by wind and waves, their sediments are

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usually clean, well-sorted mineral grains and shell fragments. A cross section of a beach dune may
show the same excellent sorting and cross-bedding found in desert dunes. Coarser gravels are
deposited in deeper water, and finer sediments are carried seaward by wave action or inland by wind.

As the shoreface slopes upward toward the land, ocean waves begin to "feel" the bottom-that is,
friction retards the movement of water near the bottom of a wave. The top of the wave goes ahead of
the bottom, causing the wave to topple, or "break." While at the seashore you may have noticed a line
of breakers some distance offshore. A breaker line marks an underwater bar where the concentration of
wave and back- wash energy causes an accumulation of coarser sediments, such as gravel and
seashells. One or more bars may form on the shoreface, depending upon the energy of incoming waves
and the availability of sediments.

Beach Profile
Another high-energy zone occurs where the incoming wave laps up onto the foreshore. This action
sorts the beach sediments, washing the sand clean of filler sediments and leaving particles of similar
size together in distinct zones. Sediments fine enough to be suspended in the turbulent waves are
carried offshore and deposited in quiet water beyond the breaker line.
If the beach is on an offshore barrier (spit or island), the transition zone may also include a shallow
lagoon where sediments accumulate in a backbarrier complex. Such depositional environments are
highly variable and may include tidal channels, salt marshes, shell reefs, and mangrove swamps,
among other features.
Deposition in the backshore zone is intermittent. Coarser sediments may be deposited here when storm
waves surge over the highest beach bars and run back into the sea in shallow channels parallel to the
shore. Dry sand in the backshore zone may migrate inland in desert-like dunes driven by onshore
winds.
If the lagoon behind the barrier is relatively isolated from the sea, the
backbarrier complex may include such disparate features as sebkhas,
thin-bedded deposits of salt or other evaporites formed where
intermittent, landlocked pools dry out; peat, formed from heavy
deposition of plant debris (as in mangrove swamps), which may, if
buried deeply, become coal; and organic muds rich in carbonates and
other skeletal debris. On the other hand, strong currents behind the
barrier island or spit may flush out these deposits, leaving sediments
in configurations much like those in stream deposits.

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MARINE ENVIRONMENTS
Marine depositional environments are those seaward of the beach - that is, beyond the zone normally
affected by wave action or fluvial deposition. Associated with low-energy environments, marine
sediments are mostly finer than those in the transition zone.

Shelf Environments
A typical continental shelf is an underwater plain sloping 10 feet per horizontal mile seaward. It
extends from the transition zone (beach or delta) to the edge of the continental mass. Most of the
energy in this zone comes from shallow ocean currents and tides. Sediments are mostly silt and clay
mixed with fecal pellets, skeletal debris, and shell fragments, with local deposits of coarser sediments
brought in by infrequent tidal and flood cur rents. In warm tropical oceans, the clay of the shelf often
grades into carbonate mud made up of undissolved shell and skeletal debris.

An epeiric sea is a broad, shallow arm of the ocean extending well inland upon the continental
platform. An epeiric sea accumulates sediments from the land and organic matter from marine life, like
the continental shelf, but is isolated from oceanic currents and tides. The only known modern
examples, Hudson Bay and the Baltic Sea, are both cold epeiric seas. In the geologic past, however,
great warm, shallow seas covered most of North America. Sediments accumulated to thicknesses of
several miles as their weight gradually depressed the continental bedrock beneath. , Some of these
sediments were later thrust high above sea level, where they are visible today in the Rocky Mountains
and the Grand Canyon.

A reef is a wave-resistant deposit consisting of the calcareous remnants of marine organisms in or near
the locations where they grew. A coral reef is a familiar example; however, the term reef is also applied
to algal and oyster mounds. A reef dissipates wave energy like an offshore sandbar. Calcareous debris
and organic matter may accumulate in the relatively quiet water between the reef and the shore. The
deeper water seaward serves as a basin for detritus broken off the reef by wave action.

Late in the Permian era the


reef was buried beneath
more than a mile of clay,
sand, and evaporites. El
Capitan, in the Guadalupe
Mountains of West Texas,
is an example of such a
reef that has been uplifted
and exposed by erosion.

El Capitan

July 2001 13 Chapter 1


Outer continental environments
Beginning at the edge of the continental
shelf, typically in 600 to 800 feet of
water (although, sometimes much more
or much less), is the continental slope.
Unlike the smooth continental shelf, the
continental slope is a zone of steep,
variable topography forming a transition
from the shelf edge to the continental
rise. Its average slope is around 4°, a
drop of 350 feet per horizontal mile. It is
also dissected, near the mouths of rivers,
by rugged submarine canyons.
Sediments deposited on the slope, like
the foreset beds of deltas and dunes, are
relatively unstable and tend to migrate
toward its base.

Continental Slope

The transition zone between the continental slope and the oceanic abyss is the continental rise. A
major mover of sediments on the continental rise is the turbidity current - a dense mass of sediment-
laden water that flows down the continental slope, typically through a submarine canyon. Fed by a
flooding river, underwater debris slide, or other source, a turbidity current is a sort of underwater flash
flood carrying clay, silt, and gravel rapidly downslope in a narrow tongue. Its energy is quickly
dissipated by friction upon the more gradual slope of the continental rise, where its sediments settle
largest particles first, to form a turbidite - a thick, graded bed topped by clay.

A succession of turbidites forms a flysch


deposit. Submarine debris fans along the
base of the continental slope coalesce into an
apron that is interbedded with a continuous
fallout of fine sediments. Extensive flysch
deposits in a geologic column tell the
geologist that the environment was once the
outer margin of a continent.

July 2001 14 Chapter 1


SEDIMENTARY ROCK CLASSIFICATIONS
The sediments deposited in a continuous sheet across a broad area differ from one location to another.
At the edge of an epeiric sea, for instance, the layer being deposited at any given time may grade
continuously from beach sand, through a zone of silt and clay, and into a lime mud and reef complex
some distance offshore. Salt may accumulate on the bottom in restricted areas. These deposits will
form, respectively, sandstone, siltstone, shale, limestone, and halite. The transition from one rock type
to another within the layer is continuous and gradual; a geologist tracing the layer from one area to
another might find it hard to determine where limestone ends and shale begins. These changes in rock
character are called facies changes. Facies changes often occur within a single formation, which is a
lithologically distinctive rock body, with an upper and a lower boundary, that is large enough to be
mapped.

If sea level rises relative to the land, each depositional environment will follow the retreating shoreline
inland. Each type of rock thus formed will grow laterally toward the coast. Instead of a vertical
column, the limestone will form a continuous, near-horizontal sheet stretching shoreward. This layer
might be treated, and even named, as a distinct formation. In reality, however, it is merely one facies
of a larger unit and was formed over a long period of time concurrently with the facies above and
below it. The geologist must distinguish between a rock stratigraphic unit, such as the limestone in
this example, and a time stratigraphic unit, the concurrently deposited layer with all its lateral facies
variations.

Lithification
Rivers flow in only one direction - down to the sea. Unless the land subsides or sea level rises,
sediments deposited in fluvial environments above sea level are eventually carried away by the
unrelenting erosive force of the river. However, sediments that reach the sea eventually come to rest in
a relatively stable environment, beyond the influence of most wind, weather, and current, and become
buried beneath other sediments. For this reason most sedimentary rocks originate in marine
environments.

Once deposited, sediments are not necessarily lithified (transformed into stone). In order for
lithification to occur, unconsolidated sediments must remain beyond the reach of erosion, and they
must be compacted and cemented. The physical and chemical changes that sedimentary deposits
undergo during and after lithification are known collectively as diagenesis. (Diagenesis does not,
however, include the more radical changes associated with the heat and pressure of metamorphosis).

Compaction
If the accumulation of sediments continues over a long period, as it usually does in the ocean, great
thicknesses of material may be placed on top of the original layers. Burial beneath thousands of feet of
other sediments is what begins to turn sediments into rock. The weight of overlying layers squeezes
particles together into the tightest arrangement possible; under extreme conditions, it may crush some
or all of the grains. As the water that originally filled the pore spaces between particles is squeezed
out, the volume occupied by the sediments is reduced. This process is called compaction. Different
clastic materials pack differently.
A dune sand composed entirely of rounded grains of similar size may be compacted very little. In a
poorly sorted sand, however, smaller particles can be rearranged to fill the spaces between the larger
grains, thus reducing the pore space. Plate-like clay particles, however, become aligned with one
another when compacted, fitting together like bricks with very little space between. Some clays
become compacted to less than half their original volume under the pressure of deep burial.

July 2001 15 Chapter 1


Cementation
As compaction brings individual particles into closer contact, the process of lithification is completed
by cementation. Minerals in solution - mainly calcite (CaCO3), the basic constituent of limestone -
crystallize out of solution to coat the grains. Other common cementing agents include silica (SiO2),
which is less soluble and therefore less abundant in groundwater; and iron oxide (Fe2O3), which colors
the rock yellow or red. These coatings grow together and may eventually fill the pore spaces. Clean
sand may be transformed into limey sandstone, losing most of its original pore space. Because of its
low permeability, compacted clay can take on only a small amount of cement in the process of
becoming shale; but wet clay is cohesive to begin with, sticking together by its own internal
electrostatic forces, and so requires less cementing to become rock.

Cementation is the crystallization or precipitation of soluble minerals in the pore spaces between
clastic particles. A defining characteristic of clastic texture is that individual particles touch each other
at various points without conforming to the shape of other particles. In crystalline texture the grain
structure originates in the rock itself as the crystals of various minerals grow in close contact with each
other. Igneous and metamorphic rocks are crystalline and therefore have little or no pore space.

The texture of cemented sedimentary rock is part clastic and part crystalline. Clastic sedimentary rock
can range from lightly cemented porous sandstone to well-cemented limey sandstone. Some sandstone
contains so much calcite that it may be considered a sandy limestone rather than a limey sandstone.

Carbonate sedimentary rocks display an even wider range of textures because calcite particles can be
created in a variety of ways. They can be the products of the mechanical breakdown of corals, shells,
and skeletons, or they can form as oolites, the egg-shaped rounded grains created by the deposition of
layers of calcite on other particles. As they collect in sedimentary basins, these particles can become
cemented together in the same way as other grains- by crystallized calcite. The result is a limestone
consisting of calcite fragments in crystallized calcite. Depending upon the admixture of other particles,
limestone can grade through sandy, silty, or shaly limestone into limey sandstone, siltstone, or shale.

The deposition of sediments occurs in the earth's biosphere - the thin zone of air, water, and soil where
all terrestrial life exists. For this reason, sedimentary rock often contains fossils - animal or plant parts,
entire organisms, or such evidence of their former presence as tracks or burrows. Limestone, in
particular, is formed partly from the remains of calcareous organisms and often contains an abundance
of their shells.

Once an accumulation of sediment has become compacted and cemented into the durable form of true
rock, it can undergo further changes in its chemical and physical environment that alter its structure
and composition. These diagenetic alterations can involve the leaching of soluble minerals (increasing
porosity), the addition of minerals by crystallization (decreasing porosity), or the recrystallization of
the minerals present in the rock itself, as in the formation of chert in siliceous shale.

Diagenesis can also involve the chemical replacement of one element or mineral by another.
Limestone, for example, is changed to dolomite {or more properly, dolomitic limestone) by
replacement of half or more of its calcium with magnesium. Dolomitization may occur when
limestone is saturated with magnesium-rich groundwater, especially at higher temperatures.

July 2001 16 Chapter 1


SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Geologists often divide sedimentary rocks into three main groups: clastics, evaporites, and carbonates.
However, due to the many chemical and physical processes that affect sediments during lithification
and diagenesis, most sedimentary rocks have features of more than one of these types.

CLASTICS
Clastics are rocks such as conglomerates, sandstones, and shales that are composed mostly of
fragments of other rocks. The principal distinction among clastics is grain size.

Conglomerates
Conglomerates are rocks most of whose volume consists of particles more than 2 mm in diameter.
They are formed from the sediments found in alluvial fans, debris flows, glacial out- wash, and other
high-energy depositional environments. Most conglomerates occur in thin, isolated layers; they are not
very abundant.

In common usage, the term conglomerate is restricted to coarse


sedimentary rock with rounded grains; conglomerates made up of sharp,
angular fragments are called breccia. The rounding of fragments usually
indicates transport by flowing water, which tumbles and polishes the
grains and breaks off sharp projections. The rounder a pebble, the farther
it has been transported. Stream gravel deposits often show imbrication -
the arrangement of pebbles in a flat, overlapping pattern like bricks in a
wall. Conglomerates formed from debris slides and alluvial fans have
more angular fragments and poorer sorting than those in stream deposits.
Tillite, a breccia deposited by glaciers, is a chaotic jumble of grains
ranging from clay particles to angular boulders; it shows little or no
Conglomerate grading or sorting.

Sandstones
Sandstone is clastic sedimentary rock more than half of whose grains are 1/16 mm to 2 mm in
diameter. About one-fourth of all sedimentary rock is sandstone. The sand particles are of three
principal types: quartz (SiO2); feldspar grains, derived from granite or other rocks; and lithic particles,
each of which is a mixture of various minerals. Sandstones are of particular interest to petroleum
geologists because they "are usually more permeable to formation fluids than other rocks and therefore
able to accumulate oil and gas. Many of the world's richest petroleum deposits are found in sandstone
reservoirs.

Quartz Sandstone

July 2001 17 Chapter 1


Sandstone can remain mostly open and porous or become filled with cement, silt, or clay. Sandstones
in which less than 15% of the total volume is silt and clay are called arenites. Quartz arenites tend to
develop from deposits of clean sand in high-energy environments such as deserts and beaches. Their
grains are rounded and well-sorted, indicating much reworking by wind and water. Arkose is a
feldspathic arenite derived from granite and lithified in small deposits (granite wash) near its source.

Graywackes are sandstones that contain more than 15% silt and clay. Their grains tend to be angular
and poorly sorted. In some cases, their clay/silt matrix is believed to have been deposited along with
the larger grains, as in the heterogeneous mixture of particles found in turbidity currents; in others,
clay and silt appear to have been added to the rock by physical or chemical alteration of the original
minerals or by infiltration. Most graywackes are thought to be marine in origin.

Shales
An estimated one-half to three-fourths of the world's sedimentary rock is shale - a distinctive, fine-
grained, evenly bedded rock composed of silt and clay. Silt grains are similar to sand grains, but much
smaller – 1/256 mm to 1/16 mm - and mostly invisible to the unaided eye. Clay particles are quite
different in composition and shape; they are microscopic, flat, plate-like crystals less than 1/256 mm
across. During compaction and lithification, these plates tend to become aligned in horizontal sheets.
As a result, most shale splits along well-developed planes parallel to, but not necessarily coinciding
with, bedding planes. One variety, mudstone, is an exception; it breaks into chunks or blocks.

Formed from fine sediments that settle out of suspension in still waters,
shale and mudstone occur in thick deposits over broad areas, often
interbedded with silt- stone, sandstone, or limestone. They vary widely in
color, with the darker colors often indicating higher proportions of organic
materials from the remains of plant and animal life. Petroleum geologists
believe organic shales to be the source of most of the world's petroleum and
natural gas. Shales also make excellent barriers to the migration of fluids
and therefore tend to trap pools of petroleum in adjacent porous rock.

Black & Gray Shale

EVAPORITES
Rocks formed by the precipitation of chemicals from solution are called evaporites. Deposits of
evaporites can form as the result of either the drying up of a body of water, such as a desert playa lake,
or continuous evaporation from a confined body of water that is continually replenished by inflowing
water. In the latter case, dissolved minerals become
supersaturated (so concentrated that they can no longer stay in
solution) and precipitate out to form deposits on the bottom.
Evaporites usually form in a distinct sequence, the least soluble
minerals precipitating first, the most soluble last. A typical
deposit would have gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) and anhydrite
(CaSO4) at the bottom, followed by halite or rock salt (NaCl),
sodium bromide (NaBr), and potash (KCl).

Gypsum

July 2001 18 Chapter 1


Evaporites are indicators of former dry climates or enclosed drainage basins. They comprise only a
small fraction of all sedimentary rocks but play a significant part in the formation of certain types of
petroleum reservoirs - those associated with salt domes.

Halite

Did You Know?


Gypsum, one of the most widely used minerals in the world, literally surrounds us every day.
Most gypsum in the United States is used to make wallboard for homes, offices, and
commercial buildings; a typical new American home contains more than 7 metric tons of
gypsum alone. Moreover, gypsum is used worldwide in concrete for highways, bridges,
buildings, and many other structures that are part of our everyday life. Gypsum also is used
extensively as a soil conditioner on large tracts of land in suburban areas, as well as in
agricultural regions.

CARBONATES
Most carbonate rocks are organically deposited - that is, formed as a direct result of biological activity.
Limestone and dolomite are the most common of these, making up about one-fourth of all sedimentary
rocks. Carbonate rocks are important to the petroleum industry; many of the giant reservoirs in the
Middle East are in limestone.

Limestone forms in warm, shallow seas. Most seawater is nearly saturated with dissolved calcite
(CaCO3); many marine organisms use this calcite to build their shells and skeletons. In shallow
tropical oceans, two factors favor the formation of limestone: (1) as water gets warmer, it loses some
of its ability to hold dissolved carbon dioxide, and (2) photosynthetic algae and other plants remove
CO2 from the water to produce carbohydrates. This loss of CO2 reduces the water's ability to hold
calcite in solution. Thus the calcareous remains of dead organisms do not dissolve as they would in
colder water. Instead, they accumulate in thick layers of lime mud and sand on the bottom, cemented
by additional calcite precipitated from solution. If coral is present, the skeletons of large colonies may
be engulfed in other calcareous debris.

Great sheets of limestone formed in past epeiric seas {most notably those of the Cretaceous period)
now extend across much of the world's land area. Their structures vary from mostly clastic to mostly
crystalline and from very porous (with many large openings) to very tight, depending upon where and
how they were formed and what has happened since. Most of the limestone has undergone extensive
alteration; diagenesis is especially common in limestone because it is more soluble than other
sedimentary rocks.

Some other rocks of biochemical origin are diatomite, an accumulation of the siliceous (glassy shells
of certain microscopic algae, which sometimes recrystallizes as flinty nodules of chert; phosphorite,

July 2001 19 Chapter 1


composed largely of calcium phosphate from bird droppings and vertebrate skeletal remains; coal, the
mildly to strongly metamorphosed remnants of undecayed plants; and oil shale, consisting partly of
unoxidized plant and animal remains. Oil shale and other organic shales are primarily clastic rocks, but
they contain enough preserved organic matter to be of interest to the petroleum geologist.

Limestone Coal Chert

ORIGIN OF HYDROCARBONS
For most of their history, oil and natural gas were thought of as minerals, substances formed out of
nonliving rock, just as gold, sulfur, and salt were part of the rock. There was little reason to assume
otherwise. Although petroleum smelled like something that had died, and although natural gas burned
like swamp gas, most of the gas and oil escaping from the ground seemed to come from solid rock
deep beneath the surface, where, as everyone knew, nothing lived.

Beginning two centuries ago, however, the geologic insights of Hutton, Lyell, and other scientists
showed that the rocks in which oil was found were once loose sediment piling up in shallow coastal
waters where fish and algae and plankton and corals lived. Now it seemed possible that oil and gas had
something to do with the decay of dead organisms, just as coal, with its leaf and stem imprints, seemed
to be the fossilized remains of swamp plants.

Later advances in microscopy revealed that oil-producing and oil-bearing rocks often contain
fossilized creatures too small to be seen with the unaided eye. Chemists discovered that the carbon-
hydrogen ratios in petroleum are much like those in marine organisms and that certain complex
molecules are found in petroleum that are otherwise known to occur only in living cells. But it was the
fact that most source rocks could be shown to have originated in an environment rich with life that
clinched the organic theory of the origin of petroleum.

Unanswered questions about the occurrence of petroleum remain, and men of science still debate the
evidence of its organic origin. Because of the weight of that evidence, however, few scientists doubt
that most petroleum originates in the life and death of living things.

Chemical Factors
Petroleum is both simple and complex. It is composed almost entirely of carbon and hydrogen; but the
number of ways that carbon and hydrogen can combine is astronomical, and most petroleum contains

July 2001 20 Chapter 1


hundreds of different kinds of hydrocarbons. It occurs in forms as diverse as thick black asphalt or
pitch, oily black heavy crude, clear yellow light crude, and petroleum gas. These variations are due
mainly to differences in molecular weight - that is, the sizes of the molecules - and the types of
impurities. Despite the differences in molecular weights, however, the proportions of carbon and
hydrogen do not vary appreciably among the different varieties of petroleum; carbon comprises 82 to
87 percent and hydrogen, 12 to 15 percent.

Element Crude Oil Natural Gas


Carbon 82 – 87% 65 – 80%
Hydrogen 12 – 15% 1 – 25%
Sulfur 0.1 – 5.5% 0 – 0.2%
Nitrogen 0.1 – 1.5% 1 – 15%
Oxygen 0.1 – 4.5% 0%
Chemical Composition of Average Crude Oil & Natural Gas
Petroleum is almost insoluble in pure water and only slightly soluble in salt water or water containing
other organic substances. It is lighter than, and therefore floats on, water; but it is often found in an oil-
water emulsion - that is, dispersed in small droplets suspended in water.
A hydrocarbon molecule is a chain of one or more carbon atoms with hydrogen atoms chemically
bound to them. Some petroleum contains hydrocarbon molecules with up to sixty or seventy carbon
atoms. At room temperature and pressure, molecules with up to four carbon atoms occur as gases;
molecules having five to fifteen carbon atoms are liquids; and heavier molecules occur as solids.
Methane, the simplest hydrocarbon, has the chemical formula CH4. Four is the maximum number of
hydrogen atoms that can attach to a single carbon atom; thus methane is classified as a saturated
hydrocarbon - a paraffin, or alkane. Other paraffins include ethane (C2H6), a chain of two carbon
atoms with six hydrogen atoms; butane (C4H10); and octane (C8H18).

putalog

Hydrocarbon Chains

July 2001 21 Chapter 1


Unsaturated hydrocarbons also occur naturally in petroleum. The most common of these are the
aromatics, compounds based on the distinctive benzene ring (C6H6). Other ring-shaped compounds
include the naphthenes, or cycloparaffins, which vary in number of carbon atoms and bonding pattern.
Naphthenic crudes produce less fuel and more lubricating oils than paraffinic crudes. The residue left
when these crudes are refined is high in semisolid or solid asphaltic wastes; therefore, naphthenic oils
are sometimes called asphaltic crudes.

Biological Factors
Petroleum contains solar energy stored as chemical energy. Many steps are involved in the conversion
from the simple radiant energy of the sun to the complex molecules of hydrocarbons. Coastal waters,
rich with nutrients brought in by rivers and upwelling deep-sea currents, support an elaborate
community of organisms ranging from microscopic, single-celled plants and animals to large
predatory fish and mammals. Some of the smallest and simplest of these organisms perform the first
capture and conversion of the sun's radiant energy.

The bulk of the living matter in such biotic communities is in the form of microscopic or near-
microscopic simple organisms: protozoa (animals) and algae (plants). The algae are photosynthetic:
they can synthesize their own food, simple sugars and starches, out of water and car bon dioxide, using
the energy of sunlight. Other organisms consume the algae and convert the simple carbohydrates into
more complex foods, such as proteins and fats; still larger organisms, in turn, eat these.

Each level of the food chain contributes waste products, and every organism that is not eaten
eventually dies. In recycling this organic material, an important role is played by a diversity of
bacteria. The two principal types are those that live in aerobic (oxygenated) environments and derive
their energy by oxidizing organic matter and those that live in anaerobic (reducing) environments by
taking the oxygen from dissolved sulfates and organic fatty acids to produce sulfides (such as
hydrogen sulfide) and hydrocarbons. Although aerobic decay liberates certain hydrocarbons that some
small organisms accumulate within their bodies, the anaerobics are more important in the formation of
oil.

If the process of aerobic decomposition continues indefinitely, all organic matter, including
hydrocarbons, is converted into heat, water, and carbon dioxide - the raw materials that photosynthetic
plants use to make their carbohydrate food. For an accumulation of petroleum to be formed, the supply
of oxygen must be cut off. Most areas along the coast are well aerated by circulation, wind, and wave
action. In some areas, however, physical barriers such as reefs or shoals hinder aeration; and in deeper
waters far offshore, the water below a certain depth is similarly depleted of oxygen. Here organic
waste materials and dead organisms can sink to the bottom and be preserved in an anaerobic
environment instead of being decomposed by oxidizing bacteria. The accumulation and compaction of
impermeable clay along with the organic matter help seal it off from dissolved oxygen. Thus isolated,
it becomes the raw material that is transformed into petroleum by the heat and pressure of deeper
burial.

Even in areas with appreciable circulation and oxygenation, organic debris can accumulate so fast that
it is quickly buried beyond the reach of aerobic organisms. Locations where this is likely to occur
include salt marshes, tidal lagoons, river deltas, and parts of the continental shelf. Epeiric seas such as
those that covered much of North America during the Permian and other periods offered broad
stretches of warm, shallow water where, unstirred by ocean currents and tides, abundant organic debris
could accumulate in an anaerobic environment.

July 2001 22 Chapter 1


Physical Factors
The clay that settles out of suspension in quiet waters is buried and transformed into shale. Organic
matter trapped within is subjected to pressure that increases at slightly less than the geostatic pressure
gradient, which is about 1 pound per square inch (psi) per foot of depth. The temperature increases
gradually, both from compression and by heating from the earth's interior. (Below a thin zone that is
affected by climate, the temperature rises about 1.5°F for every 100 feet of depth.)

At 120° to 150°F, certain chemical reactions that ordinarily proceed very slowly begin to occur much
more quickly. The organic matter trapped within the rock begins to change. Long-chain molecules are
broken into shorter chains; other molecules are reformed, gaining or losing hydrogen; and some short-
chain hydrocarbons are combined into longer chains and rings. The net result is that solid
hydrocarbons are converted into liquid and gas hydrocarbons. Thus the energy of the sun, converted to
chemical energy by plants, redistributed among all the creatures of the food chain, and preserved by
burial, is transformed into petroleum.

The petroleum window - the set of


conditions under which petroleum
will form - includes temperatures
between the extremes of 100°F
and 350°F. The higher the
temperature, the greater is the
proportion of gas. Above 350°F
almost all of the hydrocarbon is
changed into methane and graphite
(pure carbon). Source beds (or
reservoirs) deeper than about
20,000 feet usually produce only
gas.

The Petroleum Window

Source Rocks
Rock in which organic material has been converted into petroleum is called source rock. (Rock in
which petroleum accumulates is called reservoir rock). Generally, the best source rocks are shales rich
in organic matter deposited in an anaerobic marine environment. Often these are dark shales, although
the dark color can be caused by other substances. However, limestone, evaporites, and rocks formed
from freshwater sedimentary deposition also become source beds.

Some petroleum geologists think that heat and pressure alone can convert organic detritus to
petroleum; others disagree on the relative importance of algae, plankton, foraminifera, and larger
organisms in providing source organic material. It seems likely that petroleum is formed by a range of
processes from a supermarket of raw materials under a variety of conditions; this fact would help
account for the great chemical complexity of most petroleum and the variety of forms in which it
occurs.

July 2001 23 Chapter 1


It takes time for petroleum to form and accumulate. Little petroleum has been found in Pleistocene
formations or potential reservoir rocks associated with source beds less than a million years old.

HYDROCARBON MIGRATION
Like other formation fluids, oil and gas migrate. In some situations, they accumulate near where they
originate, sometimes within a few inches or feet of the source bed. In other places, the migration
covers many miles.
Because it is lighter than water and does not readily stay mixed with it, oil tends to separate from
water and float on top. Usually it moves as a diffuse scattering of suspended droplets, but it may reach
higher concentrations when its movement is impeded. Gas is usually present as well, either dissolved
in the oil or as a separate, distinct accumulation.
The term migration is used in two senses. Primary migration is the movement of hydrocarbons out of
the source rock - a journey of a fraction of an inch to several feet, rarely more. Secondary migration is
the subsequent movement through porous, permeable reservoir rock by which oil and gas become
concentrated in one locality.

Primary Migration
How does petroleum leave its source rock? Apparently both compaction and the flow of water are
involved. Petroleum comes from source beds deposited mostly on the seafloor, so it usually begins and
ends its travels in company with interstitial water-water found in the interstices, or pores, of the rock.
(Connate water, a more exact term, is water that was "born with" the rock-present when the rock was
formed.) Much more water than oil and gas is present underground.

As deposition continues at the surface, the growing weight of the overburden compresses the shale
into less and less space. However, it is not the solid mineral grains that are compressed, but the pore
spaces. Interstitial water is squeezed out, carrying droplets of oil in suspension and other hydrocarbons
in solution. Although the solubility of oil in water is negligible compared to that of gas, both are more
soluble under pressure.

Under compression, some rocks maintain their porosity and permeability better than others. Imagine
two adjacent rock layers, a clean arenite sandstone and a silty shale, gradually being buried beneath
thousands of feet of overburden. The sandstone will lose very little of its porosity because its relatively
spherical grains were closely packed when deposited as sediments and its pores are not clogged with
silt or clay. Such a sandstone might have an initial porosity of 35%, which would be reduced to 30% at
depth. Clay particles, on the other hand, are relatively irregular in shape and lithified in a loosely
packed arrangement. Under pressure these particles become better aligned and more closely packed,
like a pile of bricks rearranged to form a brick wall. Under the same compressive force as that on the
sandstone, shale porosity might decrease 60% to 35%. Fluids squeezed out of shale will therefore
collect in the adjacent sandstone, which retains more of its original porosity.

July 2001 24 Chapter 1


Secondary Migration
Hydrocarbons are moved through permeable rock by gravity. This force works in several ways: by
compressing pore spaces containing fluid, by causing water containing hydrocarbons to flow, and by
causing water to displace less dense petroleum fluids upward.

Saying that water flows through formations does not mean that it flows in underground rivers. Flow
can mean movement of a few inches a year, which can add up to many miles in a geologically short
time. What causes water to flow is a difference in fluid potential (which in some cases coincides with
fluid pressure). Just as a difference in electrical potential causes electricity to flow from a high-voltage
region to one of lower voltage, a difference in fluid potential causes water to move from a region of
high fluid potential to one of lower potential.

On the surface, unconfined water moving from a high-potential to a low-potential zone simply flows
downhill. In a municipal water system, however, water flows down from a high water tower, travels
horizontally through a water main, and rises again into hilltop houses and the upper stories of high
buildings. As long as its outlet is below the level of the water tower, water will flow uphill or down.

Potentiometric Example

Water confined in a porous, permeable formation behaves much the same as water in a pipeline. In the
figure below, water enters the formation at point A and exits at point E. A line drawn between these
two points defines the potentiometric surface. (This is not the same as the water table, which is the
upper surface of the underground water). A well drilled into the aquifer at B will fill to point F on the
potentiometric surface; an artesian well drilled to D will seek level H above ground. Water flowing
from A to E is flowing uphill from B to C and from D to E. It is not always flowing from high-pressure
to low-pressure areas. Although it is doing so from B to C, the flow from C to D is toward greater
hydrostatic pressure. The rate and direction of flow are the result of the difference in elevation
between points A and E.

Suspended oil droplets and dissolved gas are carried along in the flowing water. As oil saturation
increases, however, small droplets coalesce into larger ones, and the accumulating oil begins to behave
differently. Because of their buoyancy, large oil droplets tend to rise through water, often against a
moderate flow, and accumulate at the top.

July 2001 25 Chapter 1


In secondary migration, the effective porosity and permeability of the reservoir rock are more
important than total porosity. These factors control how easily the reservoir can accumulate fluids as
well as how much it can hold.

Effective porosity is the ratio of the volume


of all the interconnected pores to the total
volume of a rock unit, expressed as a
Isolated percentage. Only the pores that are
Pore
Fluid
connected with other pores (the effective
porosity) are capable of accumulating
petroleum. Effective porosity depends upon
Matrix how the rock particles were deposited and
cemented as well as upon later diagenetic
changes. The structure of the rock may
change in such a way that some of the pore
spaces become isolated.

A rock's permeability is a measure of how


easily fluids can pass through it. The basic
unit of permeability is the Darcy; l/1000 of a
Darcy is a millidarcy (md). Permeability is
difficult to measure in the field because it
varies greatly with pressure, fluid viscosity,

oil saturation (the percentage of oil in the


formation fluids), direction, and other
factors. Depending upon sorting,
compaction, cementation, and diagenesis,
permeability can vary widely within a given
type of rock. The permeability of sandstones
Matrix commonly ranges between 0.01 and 10,000
md. Reservoir rock permeability of less than
1 md is considered poor, 1-10 md is fair, 10-
100 md is good, and 100-1,000 md is very
good. For comparison, a piece of writing
chalk has a permeability of about 1 md.

Although often closely related, permeability and effective porosity are not the same. A rock with few
isolated pore spaces may have a very high effective porosity and yet be nearly impermeable because of
the narrowness of the connections between pores. Differences in capillarity (the ability of fluid to cling
to the grains) may make the permeability of a given rock relatively high for gas, lower for water, and
near zero for viscous oils.
Permeability can vary with direction of flow. Pore connections may be less numerous, narrower, or
less well aligned in one direction than another. In rocks formed from well-sorted beach sands, grains
that are not spherical are often aligned perpendicular to the beach. Stream channel sands are aligned in
the direction of stream flow and often contain horizontal sheets or stringers of less permeable clay.
Fluids move more easily through such rocks parallel to grain alignment or clay stringers than across
them (see figure below).

July 2001 26 Chapter 1


Matrix

Preferential Fluid Flow in the Horizontal Direction

HYDROCARBON ACCUMULATION
Like water in a puddle, oil collects in places it cannot readily flow out of. Its movement ceases upon
reaching a structural high point or a zone of reduced permeability. As it accumulates, the mixture of
hydrocarbons and water differentiates into distinct zones of gas, oil, and water.

Fluid Separation by Density

Trapping
The permeability of the formation that seals off a petroleum reservoir is never absolutely zero, but just
low enough to reduce the flow rate effectively to zero under reservoir conditions. Given enough
pressure and fluidity (as opposed to viscosity), hydrocarbons may seep into a tight formation that
under less extreme conditions would totally exclude them.

Effective permeability is the rock's permeability to a given fluid when another fluid is also present.
Water has seven times the ability of oil to cling to the grains of porous rock, so it tends to fill small
pores and keep oil out. In a petroleum reservoir, interstitial water is nearly always present. Clinging to

July 2001 27 Chapter 1


the grains, it reduces the space available for oil and narrows the passages between pores, lowering the
rock's effective permeability to oil.

Relative permeability is the ratio of effective to absolute permeability. A rock that contains oil but no
water has a relative permeability of 1.0 for oil. Relative permeability of 0.0 means that water has filled
enough of the pore space to keep the oil from flowing. Higher fluid pressure may overcome the water's
resistance to the passage of oil and may increase the effective permeability of the formation by opening
tiny fractures across and along bedding planes.

A tight formation may keep fluids from leaving an underlying reservoir bed by preventing their
vertical migration. However, fluids may still migrate horizontally beneath the seal. For an
accumulation to form, petroleum fluids must encounter a trap, a geologic combination of
impermeability and structure that stops any further migration. The basic mechanisms involved can be
illustrated using as an example the anticline, the type of trap from which petroleum was first produced
in commercial quantities and in which most of the world's presently known reserves are located.

IMPERMEABLE SHALE

In the figure above, interstitial water with a small concentration of oil droplets and dissolved
hydrocarbons courses slowly through an undeformed horizontal sandstone beneath a layer of relatively
impermeable shale. The oil droplets, although swept along by the movement of the water, tend to
concentrate in the upper levels of the sandstone because of their buoyancy.

Suppose tectonic forces tilt these horizontal layers. If the tilt is upward in the direction of flow, the
situation is little changed; oil tends to rise updip, the same direction in which the water flows.
However, if the water flows downdip, the oil tends to rise against the flow of water.

July 2001 28 Chapter 1


Now suppose this sedimentary rock assemblage is bent into an anticline. Water flows through the
permeable sandstone as before - updip into the anticline and downdip out of it. Oil rises with the water
entering the anticline - but rises against the flow on the downdip side. If the water is not flowing too
fast, the oil droplets brought in by the flowing water move preferentially toward the crest of the
anticline. They concentrate and coalesce near the highest point. As the water brings in more oil, the
pool grows.
To accumulate oil, the anticline must
be closed: it must dip toward both
flanks and plunge in both directions
along its axis. Otherwise the oil will
continue to migrate updip. An
anticline is like an upside-down
trough (or cup) out of which oil
spills upward rather than downward.
If the cup is tilted too much, the
accumulated hydrocarbons will pour
out of the cup and continue rising.

Differentiation
With few exceptions, petroleum reservoirs are water-wet - that is, the oil is not in contact with the rock
grains because they are coated with a film of water. Most oil fields have 50% to 80% maximum oil
saturation. Above 80% oil saturation, the oil can be produced with very little water mixed in; below
10%, the oil is not recoverable.

A hydrocarbon reservoir is divided into two or more


zones. If only oil and water are present, the oil occupies
the upper zone. Although water still lines the pores, this is
the zone in which maximum oil saturation occurs. The oil
zone is underlain by water along the oil-water contact,
which is not a sharp line but a transition zone usually
many feet thick. Oil saturation increases gradually from
near 0% at the base of this zone to 50% to 80% at the top.
The region of maximum oil saturation extends from the
top of the transition to the top of the reservoir.

Natural gas is present in nearly all hydrocarbon


reservoirs, dissolved in the oil (as solution gas) and
to some extent in the water. In many situations,
however, reservoir conditions and gas saturation
allow undissolved gas (associated free gas) to
accumulate above the oil zone as a gas cap. The
wetting fluid in a gas cap is usually water but
occasionally oil. The transition zone between oil and
gas (the gas-oil contact) is thinner than the oil-water
contact zone because of the greater difference in
density and surface tension between gas and oil.

July 2001 29 Chapter 1


Some reservoirs contain gas but not oil. This gas is called
non-associated gas. The transition zone is a gas-water
contact. The water almost always contains gas in solution,
and water lines the pores in the gas zone.

Free methane, the lightest hydrocarbon, remains in a


gaseous state even under great pressure. Ethane, propane,
and butane, which are gases at surface pressure and
temperature, are often found in a liquid state under
reservoir conditions.

TYPES OF TRAPS
The basic requirements for a petroleum reservoir are a source of hydrocarbons, a porous and
permeable rock formation through which hydrocarbons can migrate, and something to arrest the
migration and cause an accumulation. Although most of the known reservoirs are anticlinal, many
other geologic situations can cause hydrocarbons to accumulate.

Petroleum geologists have, for convenience, lumped hydrocarbon traps into two major groups:
structural, in which the trap is primarily the result of deformation of the rock strata; and stratigraphic,
in which the trap is a direct consequence of depositional variations that affect the reservoir formation
itself. Some geologists also include a third type - hydrodynamic traps, in which the major trapping
mechanism is the force of moving water. Most reservoirs have characteristics of more than one type.

STRUCTURAL TRAPS
Anticlines
Anticlinal reservoirs are created by tectonic deformation of flat-lying and parallel rock strata. The
basic anticlinal trap has already been described, and the syncline is not a noteworthy type of trap
because only under rare circumstances does it cause petroleum to accumulate.

A short anticline plunging in both directions along its


Anticline
strike is classified as a dome. A dome is distinguished
Structure
on structural maps by its nearly circular shape. Many
domes are the result of diapirism, the penetration of
overlying layers by a rising column of salt or other
light, mineral. Salt domes are common along the U.S.
Gulf Coast and in the Middle East, northern Germany,
and the Caspian Volga area of Russia.

July 2001 30 Chapter 1


Faults
When deformational forces exceed the breaking strength of
rock, the result is a fault. Faults can affect the migration
Impermeable Bed and accumulation of petroleum in various ways. They can
act as conduits for and gas, allowing or forcing these fluids
into formations at other levels or even to the surface.
Conversely, the movement of an active fault may grind
Sealing rock into a fine-grained substance called gouge, which may
Fault be nearly impermeable to fluids. Shale strata cut by a fault
may be smeared along the fault zone, creating a low-
permeability barrier. A fault containing material of low
permeability is called a sealing fault.

Most faults trap oil and gas by interrupting the lateral


continuity of a permeable formation. Fault displacement places an impermeable formation opposite
the reservoir rock, and updip hydrocarbon migration is stopped as suddenly and effectively as though a
dam had been erected. Faults and folds are often closely associated, and each can affect how the other
causes fluids to accumulate. The upper parts of anticlines are commonly faulted. Such faults, which
often occur as the anticline is forming, may not change the total volume of the reservoir but may
divide it into separate compartments.

Sealing faults may isolate the compartments from


one another; non-sealing faults may allow reservoir
fluids to redistribute themselves or even migrate
out. The dip of a growth fault approaches the
horizontal at depth; deposition is faster on the
downthrown side, which tends to "roll over" or curl
downward. The result is a rollover anticline, where
oil and gas can accumulate. Although not trapped
by the fault itself, the petroleum may be trapped as
an indirect result of it.

Great horizontal stresses, such as those caused by the collision of two continental masses, may be
relieved through overthrust faulting. Blocks of the crust are shoved horizontally, sometimes many
miles, atop their counterparts, creating a double thickness (or more, in complex cases) of sedimentary
strata. The resulting flexures and faults can trap hydrocarbons in several ways. The crest of an
overthrust anticline, sometimes called a drag fold, can become a reservoir, as can the sheared-off
permeable rocks bent upward against the lower side of the fault. The Rocky Mountain Overthrust Belt
contains many such reservoirs.

STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS
Compared to anticlines and faults, traps that are the result of lateral discontinuity or changes in
permeability are difficult to detect. For this reason, stratigraphic traps were not well represented or
studied until long after many of the world's most productive structural oil fields had been discovered.
The search for stratigraphic traps has intensified in recent decades, but they still account for only a
minor part of the world's known petroleum reserves.

July 2001 31 Chapter 1


Many structural traps, especially those near the surface, can be located by careful study of the surface
geology. Stratigraphic traps, however, are usually unrelated to surface features. Their elusiveness has
stimulated the development of more and more sophisticated exploration techniques and devices. Many
stratigraphic traps have been discovered accidentally while drilling structural traps.

Shoestring Sand

A good example of why stratigraphic traps are hard to


Stream
find is the shoestring sand. This type of reservoir is often
Channel an overlapping series of coarser stream sediments that
were inundated and buried beneath thick deposits of clay.
It appears as a sinuous string of sandstone winding
erratically through impermeable shales. Multiple
shoestring sands sometimes form complex branching
networks. The overlying land surface, whether flat or cut
by deep valleys, gives no hint of the underlying buried
channel. Tracing the course of a shoestring is almost as
mputalog difficult as finding it. The petroleum geologist uses such
clues as direction of greatest permeability and general
slope of the buried land surface to find the next productive location. Lining up two or three productive
wells helps narrow the search.

Beach sand
The linear zone of sediments marking a
former coastline may form a series of
sandstone reservoirs. Unlike river sandbars,
grain orientation and direction of maximum
permeability are across the trend.
Information on facies changes is especially
Barrier Island useful in locating this type of reservoir.
Knowing that limestone and shale usually
form some distance offshore, the geologist
Lagoon
can determine the direction in which the
sediments become coarser and more
permeable. The coarsest, best-sorted, most
permeable sand is found in the shoreline
zone that was affected by wave action. It is
the most likely place to find oil, both because
of its porosity and permeability and because,
if tectonically undeformed, it is structurally
the highest part of the stratigraphic unit.

July 2001 32 Chapter 1


Lens
A lens is an isolated body of sandstone or other permeable rock enclosed within shale or other less
permeable rock. Its’ edges taper out in all directions and can be formed by turbidity underwater slides,
isolated beach or streams sand deposits, alluvial fans, and other deposits. They are tapered in cross
section, like shoestring and beach sand - but not extended in length.

Lens Traps

Bioherm
Another type of stratigraphic trap is the reef. A wave-resistant accumulation of coral or shells serves as
an anchor for calcareous debris that forms limestone. If deeply submerged faster than it can accrete it
may become buried beneath marine shales. Such an isolated reef is called a bioherm. It may be porous
enough to hold large accumulations of hydrocarbons, especially if it has been dolomitized. Limestone
is especially vulnerable to dissolution by groundwater, particularly if raised above the water table.
Leaching by weak solutions of atmospheric carbon dioxide may form vugs (small voids) or caverns
(large voids) capable of containing hydrocarbons. Overlying deposits may be laid down in such a way
as to form a draped anticline, or compaction anticline - a structural feature that may also trap oil and
gas. Atolls (rings of coral islands), coral pinnacles, and other reef features are prolific oil producers.
The Horseshoe Atoll, a buried shell reef system in West Texas, contains one of the world's largest and
most prolific oil reservoirs.

July 2001 33 Chapter 1


Pinchout
A pinchout trap occurs where a porous and permeable sand body is isolated above, below, and at it’s
up dip edge by shale or other less permeable sediments. Oil or gas enters the sand body and migrates
updip until it reaches the low-permeability zone where the reservoir "pinches out".

Pinchout
Traps

Permeability changes
Diagenetic changes can create traps within formerly permeable rocks or can create reservoir areas
within formerly impermeable rocks. Minerals crystallizing out of circulating water between the grains
of a porous sandstone may reduce local permeability enough to form a barrier to hydrocarbon
migration. Alternatively, circulating water may increase permeability by leaching out cement or by
enlarging fissures and vugs in limestone, thereby increasing the potential for hydrocarbon
accumulation.

Fine-grained rocks such as the Austin Chalk


in Texas may be unsuitable as reservoirs
because of their relative impermeability.
When cut by a fault, however, they may
become locally fractured (brecciated) and
accumulate small but productive pools in
areas that are not structurally high.

Petroleum itself can seal permeable rock. If


exposed to oxygen or altered by bacteria, an
oil seep often loses its more volatile
components and becomes thick and tar-like.
It may plug the rock pores so tightly that no
further migration toward the surface can
occur. Below the affected zone, however,
recoverable petroleum may still accumulate.

July 2001 34 Chapter 1


UNCONFORMITIES
A major subcategory of stratigraphic traps includes those associated with unconformities. Permeable
outcrops overlain by impermeable layers can accumulate hydrocarbons from sources both above and
below the unconformity. A buried anticlinal outcrop may trap petroleum in both flanks, downdip from
the eroded crest. Locations that would have seeps on the former landscape surface become traps
beneath an unconformity. A porous, permeable formation lapping out on an unconformity can also
become a trap. Further subcategories of unconformities are the disconformity, angular unconformity,
and the nonconformity.

Disconformity
An unconformity along which the layers above and below are parallel is called a disconformity. The
disconformity may be parallel to the layers, representing a period during which deposition simply
ceased; or it may be irregular, indicating an episode of erosion. In the former case, the disconformity
may be difficult or impossible to distinguish from an ordinary bedding plane. Unless revealed by
correlation with nearby strata, a gap of thousands or millions of years of deposition may go
undetected.

Angular Unconformity
In an angular unconformity, the upper layers are not parallel
with the lower ones. Older layers have been tilted or folded,
eroded, then submerged for further deposition. An angular
unconformity separates Precambrian sedimentary rocks from
Paleozoic strata in parts of the Grand Canyon.

Nonconformity
A nonconformity is an unconformity in which sediments were
deposited on an eroded surface of igneous or metamorphic rock.
In this situation, the fundamental difference in character of the
rocks above and below is obvious. However, if the formation
Granite below is of banded metamorphic rock, the nonconformity may
superficially resemble an angular unconformity.

July 2001 35 Chapter 1


HYDRODYNAMIC TRAPS
Movement of water through reservoir rock affects not only the amount but also the distribution of oil.
An oil-water contact is usually tilted downward in the direction of flow. The pool can be displaced so
far that a well drilled into the crest of an anticline might produce only water. The slope of the oil-water
interface, and therefore the location of the pool, is related in a predictable way to the slope of the
potentiometric surface (which is always in the direction of flow) and to the difference in density
between the oil and the water. The denser the oil, the more it is displaced. Gas, the lightest petroleum
fraction, tends to stay near the crest of the anticline.

Oil may accumulate


Tilted hydrodynamically in a structural
Anticline feature that might otherwise not
trap it. The flow of water through
the reservoir bed causes oil to
accumulate in the tilted anticline.
Were water flow to cease, the
buoyancy of the oil would cause
it to migrate up dip.

Water flows through a confined


permeable layer at a definite
volumetric rate. If the cross-
sectional area varies, the volumetric flow rate remains constant, but the linear flow rate changes. In
other words, to maintain the same number of gallons per hour, the water must flow faster through a
narrow section than through a broad section.

In this example water flows downdip from a


narrow zone into a broader section. Buoyant
oil droplets can migrate upstream against the
slow flow in the broad section but not against
the rapid flow in the narrows. Oil therefore
backs up in a pool at this bottleneck. A zone
of reduced permeability can have the same
effect because the cross-sectional area of the
interconnected pore space is reduced.

Combination Traps
Many petroleum traps have both stratigraphic and structural features. Some, in which both types of
characteristics are essential in trapping petroleum, are difficult to classify as either primarily structural
or primarily stratigraphic. For instance, originally horizontal formations that now pinch out updip can
trap hydrocarbons that might not otherwise have accumulated. Secondary porosity in a shattered
(brecciated) fault zone or anticlinal crest is a stratigraphic trapping mechanism caused by structural
deformation. Most hydrodynamic trapping depends partly upon formation structural features and often
upon stratigraphic variations within the reservoir formation.

July 2001 36 Chapter 1


Many types of traps can be found near salt domes. Most would be considered structural, although
some could be classified as combination traps. Beneath the U.S. Gulf Coast are thick beds of salt that
were deposited, during the opening of the modern Atlantic Ocean, in sedimentary basins with
restricted circulation and high evaporation rates. Under pressure, this rock salt, light and easily
deformed, is displaced by the weight of accumulating sediments, forming huge mushroom-like
columns that rise toward the surface. In each of these diapirs, the overlying rocks are pushed aside or
bulged upward into a dome. The penetrated layers are dragged upward by the rising salt core and
depressed downward away from it as the overlying layers subside to replace the depleted salt bed.
Leaching by groundwater prevents the salt from breaking through the surface, but leaves atop the
column a residue of less soluble compounds, forming a dense, impermeable caprock. Overlying
sediments break in a complex series of intersecting faults. The base of the salt core may narrow,
creating a mushroom-shaped overhanging column.

Many types of petroleum traps are thus formed: a multi-layered dome on top, cut by faults; upturned
drag folds that terminate against impermeable salt; upturned pinchouts where compression and other
diagenetic changes have reduced permeability; and faults along the flanks. Oil may also collect
beneath the impermeable caprock or beneath the overhanging salt. The multiple possibilities for traps
and the high likelihood of finding petroleum have made salt domes popular places to drill.

Dome

Faults

Upturned
Pinchout
Flank
Trap

Drag Fold

Combination Traps

July 2001 37 Chapter 1


TIMING AND PRESERVATION OF TRAPS
The accumulation of oil underground is a dynamic phenomenon. It is a function not only of the
location and configuration of source and reservoir beds but also of timing - the formation of the trap
and the arrival of the resource. A potential trap may form but remain barren because all the petroleum
has migrated out of the area; or it may form and be destroyed before hydrocarbons are generated. An
accumulation of hydrocarbons in a perfectly suitable reservoir may eventually be lost either because of
deformation and destruction of its trap or by excessive heat and pressure.

As an example of how the amount and character of hydrocarbon accumulation may change over both
time and space, consider the stair-step sequence of anticlines below. Water, with entrained oil and gas,
flows from left to right. At TIME 1, oil and gas are trapped in anticline A while "cleaned" water
continues through B and C. As more oil and gas accumulate, the trap fills and some of the oil spills out
into trap B. The gas, however, continues to accumulate in A until at TIME 2 it has displaced all the oil.
The process continues, as at TIME 3. Thus, the range of fluids produced by a well in any of these
structures depends upon the stage in its history.

An old trap may contain new oil - that is, oil that originated long after the trap was formed.
Conversely, a new trap may contain oil that is older than itself. Suppose that anticline D forms
between TIME 2 and TIME 3. The "old" oil spilling from anticlines A, B, and C can then accumulate
in the new trap, D.

TIME 1

TIME 2

TIME 3

July 2001 38 Chapter 1


Usually there is some correspondence between the age of the trap and the age of the oil, because
source and reservoir rocks tend to be fairly close together and subject to similar stresses. The stress
that deforms a reservoir bed to produce a petroleum trap may also bring about the generation and
primary migration of hydrocarbons from nearby source rocks.

Whether or not an accumulation of hydrocarbons is preserved depends upon many factors. Fissuring
or a sealing formation under bending stress; changes in porosity and permeability of limestone due to
leaching or dolomitization; excessive heat and pressure imposed on a reservoir beneath accumulating
sediments - these are a few of the many circumstances in which petroleum that was generated through
most of the history of the planet has failed to survive to the present. The oil and gas produced today
are only remnants of a much greater resource, most of which has disappeared.

Spared the effects of excessive heat and pressure, bacterial decomposition, diagenetic destruction, and
uplift and erosion, a pool of petroleum may endure for many millions of years. Most of the world's
known oil reserves are found in Mesozoic formations (65 to 225 million years old); smaller amounts
are found in Paleozoic rocks (up to ~ 500 million years old) or Cenozoic rocks (less than 65 million
years old).

Conclusion
The petroleum geologist's job is finding oil and gas that can be produced for commercial profit. Most
of what he needs to know in the performance of his duties is hidden beneath the surface. But he has
access to powerful tools and techniques for revealing the secrets of the earth's crust, and special ways
of analyzing this information that enable him to find the best places to drill exploratory wells and to
help his company make risk decisions. To the geologist's trained eye and mind, the same rocks that
hide the resource also provide subtle clues about its location.

July 2001 39 Chapter 1


July 2001 40 Chapter 1
DATA ACQUISITION METHODS

Data Acquisition Methods

• There are two methods in which LWD data can


be acquired:
• Recorded
• Real-time
• We will discuss the following about each:
• Measurement Process
• Advantages and Disadvantages

1
Recorded Data Measurement Process
• LWD recorded data is obtained by sampling the
downhole sensors, storing each data point in downhole
memory, and retrieving the data when the toolstring is
tripped out of the hole
• Each data point is associated with a time from the master
(or sensor) downhole clock
• Depth monitoring versus time is performed on the
surface during drilling
• Synchronization of the surface and downhole clocks at
the start of the bit run is critical
• During post-run processing, the time component from
the depth and data files are matched to create sensor
data versus depth information that is used to create logs

Recorded Data Advantages


• High data resolution
• data resolution is at least as good and usually much better than
real-time
• real-time resolution is generally no better than 8-bit (except for
survey data)
• recorded resolution at least 8-bit, does go up to 16-bit
• Typically replaced real-time data once it is extracted from tool
memory
• Independent of Transmission Problems
• no missed data due to poor detection or surface sensor problems
• Fast Sample Rates
• more data points per depth interval
• can store data at a much faster rate than transmission
• can log the hole faster than real-time and achieve the same data
quality

2
Recorded Data Disadvantages

• No real-time feedback
• recorded data is not as useful for drilling mechanics
data such as pressure and vibration (historical only)
• difficult to use for pore pressure prediction and casing
and coring point selection
• impractical and very expensive to use recorded data
for directional drilling and geosteering applications

Real-time Data Measurement Process


• LWD real-time data is obtained by sampling the
downhole sensors, encoding the data into a binary
format, and transmitting the data through some medium
to the surface
• The transmission is decoded at the surface, processed
into a sensor data value and associated with depth to
create real-time logs
• The process sounds simple, but it is extremely complex
and requires a combination of events to happen perfectly
for a data point to be processed

3
Real-time Telemetry Methods

• In LWD real-time applications there are 3 types


of telemetry methods:
• Positive Mud Pulse
• Negative Mud Pulse
• Electromagnetic
• “Telemetry” basically amounts to accessing and
transmitting data to and from remote locations
• The LWD industry did not create telemetry, but
adapted it from other disciplines

Mud Pulse Telemetry

• Mud pulse telemetry utilizes an


incompressible transmission
path (mud column in drillpipe)
to carry pressure waves created
by a downhole pulser
• Sensor data can be encoded in
many different ways
(manchester, pulse position
modulation, etc.), but all of
these methods require the
pressure pulses to be detected
at the surface in order for the
data to be decoded

4
Positive Mud Pulse Telemetry

• Positive mud pulse telemetry uses a hydraulic poppet valve to


momentarily restrict the flow of mud through an orifice in the
pulser
• This generates an increase in pressure in the form of a positive
pulse or pressure wave which travels back to the surface and is
detected by a transducer on the standpipe and/or pumps
• Computalog’s initial LWD telemetry method will be Positive
Pulse

Negative Mud Pulse Telemetry

• Negative mud pulse telemetry uses a controlled valve to


vent mud momentarily from the interior of the tool into
the borehole annulus
• This generates a decrease in pressure in the form of a
negative pulse or pressure wave which travels back to the
surface and is detected at the standpipe and/or pumps

5
Mud Pulse Telemetry Advantages

• Simple mechanical operation


• Reliable if maintained properly
• Original telemetry method; 20+ years of
development and improvement history

Mud Pulse Telemetry Disadvantages


• Transmission medium must be incompressible (no air in
mud column)
• Slow data transmission rates (1 to 3 bits/sec)
• Advanced signal processing techniques are required to
reduce the effects of distortion and noise within the
telemetry band
• Limited two-way downlink capability (series of pump
cycles to switch between 2 fixed modes)
• Negative pulse systems require ample pressure drop
below the valve to generate sufficient pulse amplitude
• Positive pulse systems require the use of drillpipe screens

6
Electromagnetic Telemetry
Transmitter-
• EM emitting antenna injects Receiver
Earth
Antenna
an electric current into the
formation around the hole
• An electromagnetic wave is
created, which propagates in
the formation while being
“channeled” along the Bi-directional
Transmission
drillstring
• Data is transmitted by
current modulation and
decoded at the surface
• Propagation of EM waves
along the drillstring is
Emitting
strongly enhanced by the Antenna Drill Bit
Injected
Current
guiding effect of the
electrically conductive
drillstring

Electromagnetic Telemetry

• Signal attenuation is
affected by the frequency
of transmission, strength
of signal received, and
the level of parasitic
electrical interference
upon the carrier signal
• Works on Ohm’s Law
principle (V = IR)
• Computalog’s LWD
system will be able to
utilize EM telemetry in
the future

7
Electromagnetic Telemetry Advantages

• No restriction on drilling fluid characteristics;


drilling fluid can be incompressible or compressible
(allows for use in Underbalanced Drilling
applications)
• Reduced survey/connection time (tool is always on;
no need to cycle pumps to turn tool on and off)
• Unlimited two-way communication with the
downhole tool
• No moving parts

Electromagnetic Telemetry Disadvantages


• Slow data transmission rate
(1-3 bits/sec)
• Suffers higher vibration in
underbalanced applications
• Standard EM setup suffers extreme
signal attenuation at excessive
depths or if high resistivity
“barrier” formations are present
between the emitting antenna and
surface receiver
• “Extended Range” EM setup can be
used to relocate the point of
telemetry nearer to the surface
receiver; this requires hanging off a
wireline in the hole

8
Data Acquisition Methods

• Questions

• Next Topic: LWD Sensor Theory, Application,


and Interpretation

• Take a 10-minute break

9
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DAY 2
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SURVEYING ESSENTIALS

Inclination
• Inclination is the angle,
measured in degrees, by
which the wellbore or
survey instrument axis
varies from a true vertical
line
• An inclination of 0° would
be true vertical
• An inclination of 90°
would be horizontal.

1
Hole Direction
• Hole direction is the angle,
measured in degrees, of the
horizontal component of the
borehole or survey instrument
axis from a known north
reference
• This reference is true north,
magnetic north, or grid north,
and is measured clockwise by
convention
• Hole direction is measured in
degrees and expressed in either
azimuth form (0° to 360°) or
quadrant form (NE, SE, NW,
SW) 3

Measured Depth
• Measured depth
refers to the actual
depth of hole drilled as
measured from the
surface location, to
any point along the
wellbore or to total
depth.

2
Magnetic Toolface
• Magnetic toolface is the direction, in the
horizontal plane, the bent sub scribe line is
pointing with regard to the north reference (Grid,
Magnetic, or True)
• Magnetic Toolface = Dir Probe Mag Toolface
+ Total Correction + Toolface Offset
• Magnetic orientation is used when the inclination
of the wellbore is less than 5° to 8°
• When the inclination is below this amount, the
survey instrument cannot accurately determine the
highside of the instrument for orientation
purposes
• The toolface will be presented in azimuth or
quadrant form, referenced to magnetic north
• The magnetic toolface reading is whatever
magnetic direction the toolface is pointed to
5

Gravity Toolface
• Gravity toolface is the angular distance the bent sub scribe line is turned,
about the tool axis, relative to the high side of the hole

• Gravity toolface = Dir Probe Gravity Toolface + Toolface Offset

• If the inclination of the wellbore is above 5° to 8°, then gravity toolface can
be used

• The toolface will be referenced to the highside of the survey instrument, no


matter what the hole direction of the survey instrument is at the time

• The toolface will be presented in a number of degrees either right or left of


the highside

3
Gravity Toolface
• For example, a toolface pointed to
the highside of the survey
instrument would have a gravity
toolface of 0°

• A toolface pointed to the low side


of the survey instrument would
have a gravity toolface of 180°

• If the probe highside point was


rotated to the right of highside, the
gravity toolface would be 70° to
the right.

Acid Bottle Inclinometer


• This technique was originally used in
the mining industry from about 1870
• A glass cylinder filled with
hydrofluoric acid was lowered down
the drill string on a wireline until it
rested on top of the bit or on a baffle
plate at some point above the bit
• The acid bottle was left in this position
for about 30 minutes to allow the acid
to react and leave a mark on the side of
the cylinder indicating the horizontal
surface
• The glass was inspected back at the
surface, and the angle of inclination
was determined.

4
Pendulum Compass
• The pendulum is either
suspended over a fixed
grid or along a vernier
scale and allowed to move
as the inclination changes

Magnetic Float Compass


• A mechanical compass uses a compass card
that orients itself to magnetic north, similar
to a hiking compass needle, that always
points to magnetic north
• The compass card uses an attached magnet
to get its orientation. As the magnet is
attracted to magnetic north, hole direction
can be read
• Inclination is measured by means of a
pendulum or float device
• In the float device, the float is suspended in
a fluid which allows the instrument tube to
move around it independently as inclination
changes.

10

5
90-Degree Magnetic Compass
• Read from the center of the compass card
to the cross-hair center to determine the
inclination
Example: 36 1/4°
• Determine the hole direction of the chart
as follows: align the reference line of the
reader so that it passes through the chart
center and the cross-hair center
• The hole direction will be along the
reference line away from the card center
toward the cross-hair
Example: N 2° W
• Correct to true or grid bearings.

11

Magnetic Singleshot Components


• A sensitive angle-measuring unit that
indicates the direction and inclination
of the hole
• A film or disc holder that retains the
small photographic disc
• A camera unit and lamp assembly to
photograph the position of the angle-
indicating unit
• A mechanical timer or sensor device
that activates the camera at the
prescribed moment (monel sensors or
motion sensors)
• A battery pack that provides the power
required to operate the camera,
timer,and lights.

12

6
Basic Gyroscope Principle
• A rotor gyroscope is composed of a
spinning wheel mounted on a shaft. It is
powered by an electric motor and is
capable of reaching speeds of over
40,000 revolutions per minute (rpm)
• The spinning wheel (rotor) can be
“oriented” or pointed in a known
direction. The direction in which the
gyro is spinning is maintained by its
own inertia. Therefore, it can be used as
a reference for measuring azimuth
• An outer and inner gimbal arrangement
allows the gyroscope to maintain its
pre-determined direction regardless of
how the instrument is positioned in the
wellbore.

13

Gyro Application
• Gyroscopic surveying instruments offer an accurate
means of surveying boreholes with extraneous
magnetic influences, such as cased holes, production
tubing, or near existing wells

• Gyroscopic sensors can be classified into three


categories:
• Free gyroscopes (conventional)
• Rate gyroscopes
• Inertial navigation systems
14

7
Inertial Navigation Systems
• The most accurate method of
surveying is with the use of an
Inertial Navigation System. This
system uses groups of gyros to
orient the system to north
• It can measure movement in the X,
Y, and Z axis of the wellbore with
the use of the gyros and gravity
accelerometers
• Because of the sensor design, this
instrument does not have attitude
limitations for accurate surveying
• The instrument can survey in all
attitudes without sacrificing
accuracy

15

Inertial Navigation System


• The only supplier of an Inertial Navigation System is the
Ferranti Inertial Navigation System (FINDS)
• This is the British Inertial Guidance System that is
presently used in the Harrier jet
• This system uses three single, degree-of-freedom gyros
and three accelerometers
• This system can survey continuously without stopping at
survey stations.
• The FINDS differs from the other gyrocompasses in the
fact that instead of recording survey data, the FINDS
tracks its course and gives the displacement from the
starting point
16

8
Gyro Errors
• Drift • Drift
– Shock – North Pole – 360o
– Bearing wear 24/hrs
• Temperature – Equator - 0o 24/hrs
– Expansion of material
• lntercardinal Tilt Error
or Gimbal Error
– Angular motion vs.
Actual motion as
Inclination Increases
17

MWD & Gyro Survey Comparison

18

9
90-degree Gyro Compass
• Read from the 0° vernier line horizontally to the
intersection of the inclination to determine the
inclination to a precision of 0.5° (30'), always
round down
• Use the 30' vernier scale to increase the precision
of the reading to ±5'. To use the vernier, look for
an alignment of the division markings on both the
vernier and inclination scales, read the value on
the vernier scale at this intersection point. This is
then added to the previous reading
• Example: 9° 40'
• Determine the hole direction of the chart as
follows: read from the arrow
• vertically to the intersection of the compass card.
The hole direction will be along the arrow away
from the center of the compass card.
• Example: 208°
• Correct to true or grid bearings

19

Quartz-Hinge Accelerometer
• The magnet of the “quartz-hinged”
accelerometer is not suspended, but
attached to the accelerometer
• An alternating current (AC) is used
to keep the magnet in the central
position as the accelerometer is
inclined from vertical
• The “quartz-hinged” accelerometer
is more sensitive than older style
accelerometers
• More susceptible to hardware
damage

20

10
Quartz-Hinge Accelerometer
ACCELEROMETER

ACCELERATION

CAPACITANCE UPPER MAGNET


PICKOFF

TORQUER COIL

CHEMICALLY MILLED
HINGE
QUARTZ PROOF
MASS
LEAD SUPPORT POSTS

LOWER MAGNET

21

Fluxgate Magnetometer
• Fluxgate magnetometers measure
components of the Earth’s magnetic field
orthogonally, i.e., in the same three axes
as the accelerometers.
• From this measurement, the vector
components can be summed up to
determine hole direction
• The magnetometer contains two
oppositely wound coils around two
Mu-metal rods
• As AC is applied to the coils, an
alternating magnetic field is created,
which magnetizes the Mu-metal rods
• Any external magnetic field parallel with
the coil will cause one of the coils to
become saturated quicker than the other,
and the difference in saturation time
represents the external field strength.
22

11
Fluxgate Magnetometer
• Measures Local Magnetic Field
» Typically Tri-axial
Packaging

23

Electronic Accelerometer &


Magnetometer Axes
• “Z” axis is along the length of the probe
(axial plane)
• “X” and “Y” are in the cross-axial plane
and are perpendicular to each other and to
the “Z” axis
• All three axes are “orthogonal” to each
other

24

12
Calibration Factors
• Directional sensors must be calibrated to
compensate for:

– Physical misalignment of the X, Y, & Z axes with


respect to each other
AND
– Variations in sensor response due to changes in
downhole temperature

25

Misalignment Factors
• Axes must be orthogonal to each other (90°
between them)
• During calibration, by either the vendor or lab
technician, these values are determined and
downloaded into the directional sensor
• Corrections are typically very small and have
practically little affect on the corrected
accelerometer and magnetometer values

26

13
Temperature Correction Factors
(Scale and Bias)
• Insures that the directional probe response is
identical for a fixed probe position regardless of
downhole temperature
• Corrections are generated by placing the probe in a
known orientation and sampling it as the
surrounding temperature is increased from 25 °C
(ambient) to 150 °C (maximum)
• Factors are downloaded into the directional probe
and are applied downhole by the probe to each
sample taken
27

Scale and Bias

5.0

Voltage
Scale (slope)

desired response

Bias (y-intercept) - - - - actual response

0.0

25 50 75 100 125 150

Temperature (°C)

28

14
Accelerometer Response vs. Orientation

• Accelerometers are scaled to


respond such that +/- 1 1 g (input)
gravity equals +/- 4.5 volts
• The angle that the force of
gravity acts on the “flat area”
of the accelerometer will
dictate its’ response
• If gravity acts perpendicular
(90°) to the top of the
accelerometer, the output
response will be +4.5 volts
+4.5 volt (output)
29

Accelerometer Response vs. Orientation


1 g (input)
• If gravity acts parallel
(0°) to the top of the
accelerometer, the
output response will be
0.0 volts

0.0 volt (output)


30

15
Accelerometer Response vs. Orientation
1 g (input)
• If gravity acts at some
other angle (i.e., 45°) to the
top of the accelerometer,
the output response will be
+3.182 volts (1g x cos 45°)

+3.182 volt (output)

31

Accelerometer Response vs. Orientation


1 g (input)
• If the directional probe is in
the vertical position, what Z
are the expected values
from the Gx, Gy, and Gz
Y
accelerometers?
• Gz = +1.0 g
• Gx = 0.0 g
X
• Gy = 0.0 g

32

16
Accelerometer Response vs. Orientation
1 g (input)
• If the directional probe is in
the horizontal and highside
position, what are the
expected values from the
Gx, Gy, and Gz
accelerometers? Z Y X
• Gz = 0.0 g
• Gx = 0.0 g
• Gy = +1.0 g

33

Earth’s Magnetic Field


• The Earth can be imagined
as having a large bar
magnet at its center, lying
(almost) along the north-
south spin axis
• Although the direction is
magnetic north, the
magnitude will be parallel
to the surface of the Earth
at the equator and point
steeply into the Earth
closer to the north pole
34

17
Earth’s Magnetic Components
• M = Magnetic North
• N = True North
• Bv = Vertical component of the
local magnetic field
• Bh = Horizontal component of the
local magnetic field
• Btotal = Total field strength of the
local magnetic field
• Dip = Dip angle of the local
magnetic field in relationship to
horizontal
• Dec = Variation between the local
magnetic field’s horizontal
component and true north
• Gtotal = Total field strength of the
Earth’s gravitational field
35

Dip Angle vs. Latitude


• Lines of magnetic flux lie
perpendicular (90°) to the
earth’s surface at the magnetic
poles
• Lines of magnetic flux lie
parallel (0°) to the earth’s
surface at the magnetic equator
• Dip Angle increases as Latitude
increases
• As dip angle increases the
intensity of the horizontal
component of the earth’s
magnetic field decreases

36

18
Dip Angle vs. Latitude
• At the magnetic Bh = Btotal
equator, Bh = Btotal,
Bv = 0
• At the magnetic poles, Bv = Btotal
Bh = 0
Bh = 0, Bv = Btotal

• Bh is the projection Bh = Btotal(cos Dip)


(using the dip angle)
of Btotal into the
horizontal plane Btotal

Bv = Btotal(sin Dip) 37

Gravity Toolface
• Gravity toolface is a function of Gx, Gy, scale, bias, and
temperature

HSTF = ATAN (Gy / -Gx)

• Gravity toolface data is typically used in angled holes (greater


than 5°) to orient the motor scribeline to achieve the desired
build and turn in the hole

• The reference point for 0° gravity toolface is the X-axis


accelerometer reading a full scale positive value (i.e., the
highside of the probe is facing straight up, or towards the
highside of the hole 38

19
Magnetic Toolface
• Magnetic toolface is a function of Bx, By, scale, bias, and
temperature

MGTF = ATAN (By / -Bx)

• Magnetic toolface data is typically used in low angle holes


(less than 5°) to orient the motor scribeline to achieve kickoff
in the desired direction.

• The reference point for 0° magnetic toolface is magnetic


north

39

MTF – GTF Switchover Point


• Default values are 3.0° switch from MTF to
GTF, and 2.8° switch from GTF to MTF
• More realistic values are 5.0° and 3.0°
• It is extremely important to alert the
directional driller immediately when the
toolface changes from MTF to GTF and
vice-versa!!!
• Relate kickoff in South direction anecdote
40

20
Inclination
•Inclination is a function of Gx, Gy, Gz, scale, bias, and
temperature

•It can be calculated using any of the trigonometric functions,


but the TANGENT function is the most accurate and is what is
utilized in the surface and downhole software

Sin ( INC ) = Gxy / Gtotal


Cos ( INC) = Gz / Gtotal

INC = ATAN ( Gxy / Gz )

Where: Gxy = (Gx2 +Gy2)1/2


Gtotal = (Gx2 +Gy2 + Gz2)1/2 41

Hole Direction (Azimuth)


Hole Direction is a function of:
Bx = magnetic field vector in the X direction
By = magnetic vector in the Y direction
Bz = magnetic vector in the Z direction
HSTF = Highside toolface
INC = ATAN ( Gxy / Gz )

Bx Sin (HSTF) + By Cos (HSTF)


Azimuth = ATAN (- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------)
[Bx Cos (HSTF) - By Sin (HSTF)] Cos(INC) + Bz Sin (INC)

42

21
Azimuth Format
N (0°)
• Azimuth format 45°
starts at North (0°)
and moves
clockwise (East W (270°) E (90°)
90°, South 180°,
West 270°)

S (180°)

43

Quadrant Format
• Quadrant format N (0°)
divides the 360° circle N45°E
into four, 90°
quadrants
• North and South are
the major axes, East W (90°) E (90°)
and West are the
minor axes
• Movement is always
from major to minor
axis with the angle S (0°)
measured between the
hole direction and the
nearest major axis 44

22
Borehole Measurements
• HSTF = ATAN (Gy / -Gx)

• MTF = ATAN (By/ -Bx)

2 2 1/2
• INC = ATAN ((Gx + Gy ) / Gz)

Bx Sin (HSTF) + By Cos (HSTF)


• AZ = ATAN {----------------------------------------------------------------------}
(Bx Cos (HSTF) - By Sin (HSTF)) Cos (Inc) + Bz Sin (Inc)

45

Survey Quality Checks


2 2 2 1/2
• Gtotal = (Gx + Gy +Gz )

2 2 2 1/2
• Btotal = (Bx + By +Bz )

(Bx * Gx) + (By * Gy) + (Bz * Gz)


• MDIP = ASIN {----------------------------------------------}
Gtotal * Btotal

46

23
Survey Quality Check Limits
• Gtotal = Local Gravity +/- 0.003 g

• Btotal = Local Field +/- 350 nT

• MDIP = Local Dip +/- 0.3°

47

Survey Quality Example #1


Given the following survey data, decide whether each quality check is within limits.

Local References: Gtotal = 1.000 g Btotal = 58355 nT Mdip = 75.20°

INC AZ Gtotal Btotal MDip


3.72 125.01 1.0012 58236 75.25

Based on your observations, are the inclination and


azimuth values acceptable?

48

24
Survey Quality Example #1
Given the following survey data, decide whether each quality check is within limits.

Local References: Gtotal = 1.000 g Btotal = 58355 nT Mdip = 75.20°

INC AZ Gtotal Btotal MDip


3.72 125.01 1.0012 58236 75.25
+0.0012 -119 -0.05

Based on your observations, are the inclination and


azimuth values acceptable? YES / YES

49

Survey Quality Example #2


Given the following survey data, decide whether each quality check is within limits.

Local References: Gtotal = 1.000 g Btotal = 58355 nT Mdip = 75.20°

INC AZ Gtotal Btotal MDip


5.01 127.33 1.0009 58001 74.84

Based on your observations, are the inclination and


azimuth values acceptable?

50

25
Survey Quality Example #2
Given the following survey data, decide whether each quality check is within limits.

Local References: Gtotal = 1.000 g Btotal = 58355 nT Mdip = 75.20°

INC AZ Gtotal Btotal MDip


5.01 127.33 1.0009 58001 74.84
+0.0009 -354 -0.4

Based on your observations, are the inclination and


azimuth values acceptable? YES / NO

51

Survey Quality Example #3


Given the following survey data, decide whether each quality check is within limits.

Local References: Gtotal = 1.000 g Btotal = 58355 nT Mdip = 75.20°

INC AZ Gtotal Btotal MDip


8.52 125.34 0.9953 58150 74.28

Based on your observations, are the inclination and


azimuth values acceptable?

52

26
Survey Quality Example #3
Given the following survey data, decide whether each quality check is within limits.

Local References: Gtotal = 1.000 g Btotal = 58355 nT Mdip = 75.20°

INC AZ Gtotal Btotal MDip


8.52 125.34 0.9953 58150 74.28
-0.0047 -205 -0.92

Based on your observations, are the inclination and


azimuth values acceptable? NO / NO

53

Survey Quality Example #4


Given the following survey data, decide whether each quality check is within limits.

Local References: Gtotal = 1.000 g Btotal = 58355 nT Mdip = 75.20°

INC AZ Gtotal Btotal MDip


17.13 129.88 1.0120 57623 73.44

Based on your observations, are the inclination and


azimuth values acceptable?

54

27
Survey Quality Example #4
Given the following survey data, decide whether each quality check is within limits.

Local References: Gtotal = 1.000 g Btotal = 58355 nT Mdip = 75.20°

INC AZ Gtotal Btotal MDip


17.13 129.88 1.0120 57623 73.44
+0.0120 -732 -1.76

Based on your observations, are the inclination and


azimuth values acceptable? NO / NO

55

Magnetic Pole Movement


North South
Pole Pole

56

28
Magnetic Declination
• Magnetic North
continues to move

57

Magnetic Declination
• The Earth’s magnetic field varies by location on
the Earth and by time
• The magnetic north pole is constantly moving,
although very slowly. Because of this, a survey
referenced to magnetic north today will not be
accurate at some time in the future
• However, we are able to compensate for this
variable by applying a correction to a magnetic
survey which references it to true north
• True north can also be thought of as geographic
north or the spin axis of the Earth. The true north
pole does not move
• A survey referenced to true north will be valid
today and any time in the future
• The correction we apply to change a magnetic
north direction to a true north direction is called
declination.

58

29
Applying Declination
• To convert from Magnetic North to True North,
Declination must be added:

True Direction = Magnetic Direction + Declination

Important Note:
• East Declination is Positive & West Declination is Negative in both the
northern and southern hemispheres

59

Applying an East Declination


The formula for calculating a true north direction is:
True Direction = Magnetic Direction + Declination
Where: East Declination is Positive
West Declination is Negative

• For example, the magnetic direction is 75° and


the declination is 5° east

The true direction would be calculated as:


True Direction = Magnetic Direction + Declination
80° = 75° + (+5°)

60

30
Applying a West Declination
• If the magnetic direction is 120° and the
declination is 5° west , the true direction would
be calculated as:

True Direction = Magnetic Direction + Declination

115° = 120° + (-5°)

61

Implications of an Incorrect Declination

• Since declination is a addition of degrees of


correction to the magnetic hole direction, any
mistakes made to the declination have serious
consequences.
• For example, if you intend to apply a +18°
declination but instead input a -18 ° declination,
your reported hole direction will be wrong by 36°!
• This can potentially cost the company dollars off
the profit margin and will cost you your job!!!
62

31
Undeclinating a True North Azimuth

• Necessary step if comparing declinated


MWD surveys to singleshot data

• For example, if the true direction is 60°


and the declination is 5° east, the
magnetic direction would be calculated
as:

Magnetic Direction = True Direction - Declination


55° = 60° - (+5°)

63

Grid Zones
• Central Meridian bisects each
6° grid zone
• To correct for the curvature
of the earth projected onto a
flat plane we apply
CONVERGENCE
• If directly on the central
meridian or on the equator,
the grid correction is ZERO

64

32
Grid Zones
Maximum Grid Correction • Convergence correction
increases as location moves
away from the equator and
central meridian
• Convergence should not be
more than 3°, otherwise the
incorrect grid zone has been
chosen

65

Grid Zones

• For rectangular
coordinates,
arbitrary values
have been
established within
each grid

66

33
Applying Convergence
• To convert from Grid North to True North,
Convergence must be subtracted:

Grid Direction = True Direction – Convergence

Important Note:
• East Convergence is Positive & West Convergence is Negative in the
Northern Hemisphere
• East Convergence is Negative & West Convergence is Positive in the
Southern Hemisphere

67

Applying an East Convergence


• If the grid convergence is 3° east and the
true direction is 70°, the grid direction
would be calculated as:

Grid Direction = True Direction – Convergence

67° = 70° - (+3°)

68

34
Applying a West Convergence
• If the grid convergence is 3° west and the
true direction is 120°, the grid direction
would be calculated as:

Grid Direction = True Direction – Convergence

123° = 120° - (-3°)

69

Applying Declination and


Convergence Simultaneously
• Replacing the formula for a true north
direction in the grid north direction equation
gives us the following formula:
Grid Direction = Magnetic Direction + (Declination –
Convergence)

• If magnetic declination is 5° east and the grid


convergence is 3° west, and the magnetic
direction is 130°, the grid direction is
calculated as:
Grid Direction = Magnetic Direction + (Declination -
Convergence)

• 138° = 130° + (+5°) - (-3°)


70

35
Geodec Example
• 150 6th Avenue, Calgary, Alberta
• Latitude = 51.04794 N, Longitude = 114.0821 W
• Compute the local gravity field, magnetic field,
magnetic dip angle, declination, horizontal
component and vertical component
• Compare grid convergence values using the 11N
and 12N zones in UTM

71

Geodetic Values

72

36
UTM Zone 11N

73

UTM Zone 12N

74

37
Assumptions When Taking Surveys

• Drillstring is not moving up or down


• Drillstring is not rotating
• Pumps are off
• No Drillstring Interference
• No Casing or other Local Magnetic Interference
• Declination, Dip and Btotal are constant

75

Sources of Inclination Errors


• Movement during a survey (axial or rotational)
• Hardware Failure
• Wrong calibration factors
• Sensor measurement accuracy
• Real-time Data resolution

76

38
Sources of Azimuth Errors
• Magnetic Interference (axial or cross-axial)
• Hardware Failure
• Wrong calibration factors
• “Bad” Inclination
• “Bad” Highside Toolface
• Mathematical Error (at 0° and 90° inclination)
• Sensor measurement accuracy
• Real-time Data resolution
• Latitude, Inclination, Hole direction
• Wrong Declination and/or Convergence
77

Survey Error Sources


1. Survey instrument/sensors
2. Tool misalignments
3. Hole conditions
4. Well location
5. Well orientation
5. Environmental / Cosmic
6. Survey personnel
78

39
Survey Quality Checks
2 2 2 1/2
• Gtotal = (Gx + Gy +Gz )

2 2 2 1/2
• Btotal = (Bx + By +Bz )

(Bx * Gx) + (By * Gy) + (Bz * Gz)


• MDIP = ASIN {----------------------------------------------}
Gtotal * Btotal

79

Directional Sensor Package Spacing

• Non-Magnetic Collar Spacing is used to


minimize Drillstring Magnetic interference

80

40
World Map of Zones Used for NMDC Selection

81

All Zones Combined

82

41
Cosmic Magnetism
• Magnetic Storms, Solar Flares
• More common and intense at
higher latitudes
• Can disrupt satellite and cellular
transmissions
• Can affect directional sensor’s
ability to give accurate data

83

Magnetic Field Fluctuations


• Magnetic Storms
cause disruptions
to the normal
magnetic field
surrounding the
Earth
• The sun causes
many of these
disruptions
84

42
Eleven Year Cyclic Variation

85

In-Field Referencing (IFR)


• If a measurement of the local magnetic field
can be made real-time and fed to the surface
computer these variations can be used to
correct for “cosmic” interference

86

43
Solar Activity

87

Survey Error Sources


“Magnetic interference of 2000 nT from a “hot” mud
motor that is too close to the directional sensor will
not have as much effect on the calculated hole
direction (azimuth) if drilling in the north or south
direction as opposed to drilling in the east or west
direction”

IS THIS STATEMENT TRUE???

88

44
Azimuth Error - Magnetic
Long Collar AZ Error @ 90 E or W

-5.00
250 dBz (nT) error
Degrees Azimuth Error

-4.00 Bt = 59000
Dip = 75
-3.00

-2.00

-1.00

0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Inclination (10 - 90 Degrees)

89

Azimuth Error - Magnetic


Long Collar AZ Error @ 90 E or W

-5.00
500 dBz (nT) error
Degrees Azimuth Error

-4.00 Bt = 59000
Dip = 75
-3.00

-2.00

-1.00

0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Inclination (10 - 90 Degrees)

90

45
Azimuth Error - Magnetic
Long Collar AZ Error @ 90 E or W

-5.00
Degrees Azimuth Error 1000 dBz (nT) error
-4.00 Bt = 59000
Dip = 75
-3.00

-2.00

-1.00

0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Inclination (10 - 90 Degrees)

91

Azimuth Error - Magnetic


Long Collar AZ Error @ 90 E or W

-5.00
2000 dBz (nT) error
Degrees Azimuth Error

-4.00 Bt = 59000
Dip = 75
-3.00

-2.00

-1.00

0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Inclination (10 - 90 Degrees)

92

46
Survey Error Sources

**Compass Demonstration**

93

Survey Error Sources


• Btotal direction is north-south Btcalc
• Berror is drillstring magnetic
interference affecting the Z-
axis measurement; in this Btotal
case the error is in the same
direction as the earth’s
magnetic field
• Summing the vectors yields a
calculated Btotal that is larger Berror
than the theoretical field, but
a the directions remains + =
unchanged

94

47
Survey Error Sources
• Btotal direction is north-south
• Berror is drillstring magnetic Btcalc
interference affecting the Z- Btotal
axis measurement; in this
case the error is
perpendicular to the earth’s
magnetic field
• Summing the vectors yields a
calculated Btotal that is larger
than the theoretical field, and + Berror =
a direction that is in error

95

Survey Terminology

96

48
Survey Terminology

97

Survey Calculations
• Survey parameters are
calculated using simple
trigonometric functions

98

49
Average Angle Calculation Method

99

Radius of Curvature Calculation Method

• Applies a “best fit”


curve between
survey stations
• More accurately
reflects the shape of
the borehole than
Average Angle

100

50
Minimum Curvature Calculations

• Uses multiple points


between survey
stations to better
reflect the shape of
the borehole
• More accurate than
the Radius of
Curvature method
101

Calculation Methods

• Total Survey Depth @ 5,985 feet


• Maximum Angle @ 26°
• Vertical hole to 4,064 feet, then build to 26° at 5,985 feet
• Survey Intervals approximately 62 feet

102

51
Vertical Projection

KOP
Build
Section

Locked in
TVD
Section

Tangent

Vertical
Section 103

Horizontal Projection
N
Closure
Latitude
Proposal
Direction

E
Departure
Vertical
Section
Calculated
on Proposal
Direction
104

52
Closure and Vertical Section

105

53
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Directional Sensors

1
MWD Survey Measurements

Introduction

The Directional Sensor is made up of electronic printed circuit boards, a Tensor Tri-Axial
Magnetometer and a Tensor Tri-Axial Accelerometers, and Temperature sensor. These
modules are configured into a directional probe and are run in the field mounted in a
nonmagnetic drill collar. The Directional Sensor provides measurements, which are used to
determine the orientation of the drill string at the location of the sensor assembly.

The Directional Sensor measures three orthogonal axis of magnetic bearing, three orthogonal
axes of inclination and instrument temperature. These measurements are processed and
transmitted by the pulser to the surface. The surface computer then uses this data to calculate
parameters such as inclination, azimuth, high-side toolface, and magnetic toolface.

The sensor axes are not perfectly orthogonal and are not perfectly aligned, therefore,
compensation of the measured values for known misalignments are required in order to
provide perfectly orthogonal values. The exact electronic sensitivity, scale factor and bias, for
each sensor axis is uniquely a function of the local sensor temperature. Therefore, the raw
sensor outputs must be adjusted for thermal effects on bias and scale factor. Orthogonal
misalignment angles are used with the thermally compensated bias and scale factors to
determine the compensated sensor values required for computation of precise directional
parameters.

2 4/24/2002
MWD Survey Measurements

Directional Sensor Hardware


The figure above shows the basic configuration of the Directional Sensor probe. The
directional probe is mounted to the MWD assembly and keyed into a Non-Magnetic Drill
Collar. The nominal length of the sub is 30 feet. The nonmagnetic collar is usually referred to
as Monel.

Directional Sensor Components


Contained inside the assembly is a Single Port MPU, Triple Power Supply and a Digital
Orientation Module. The Single Port MPU is a modular micro-controller assembly based on
the Motorola MC68HCll microprocessor implementing Honeywell's qMIXTM
communications protocol (qMIX/ll TM). The Triple Power Supply provides regulated power
for the complete assembly.

The microprocessor provides the control and timing to interface the logic circuit controls the
analog power switch. With the analog power switch off only the 5 volt circuits are active and
the current drain from the sub bus is approximately 8 milliamps. When the logic board
switches on the analog power switch, battery power is directed to the 12 volt regulator on the
analog circuit. The current drain with the analog power switch on and the sensors off is
approximately 80 milliamps. With the accelerometers powered up the current drain is
approximately 120 milliamps. With the magnetometer powered up the current drain is
approximately 140 milliamps.

Analog Circuit
The Analog Circuit provides an interface with the inclinometer, magnetometer, and pressure
transducer sensors. The 16 channel multiplexer on the analog circuit takes input from various
sensor outputs and sends the data to the logic circuit for transmission. A sensor power switch
takes power from the 12 volt regulator and selectively powers up the accelerometers and
magnetometers. A 5 volt excitation supply from the 12 volt regulator is used to power the
pressure transducer. The status voltages appear on the surface probe test and are defined as
follows:

1. Sub Bus Voltage - battery voltage on the sub bus.

2. 5 Volt Supply - the 5 volt excitation supply from the 12 volt regulator that
powers the pressure transducer.

3. Accelerometer Power Status - voltage that is currently being supplied to the


inclinometer (0 or 12.5v).

4/24/2002 3
MWD Survey Measurements

4. Magnetometer power Status - voltage that is currently being supplied to the


magnetometer (0 or 12.5v).

5. Steering Mode Status - 4.5 volts when steering mode is set.

Tensor Inclinometer
The TENSOR Tri-axial Accelerometer measures three orthogonal axes of inclination (Gx, Gy,
and Gz) and also includes a temperature sensor. The inclinometer has a 1g full scale output in
survey mode and a 7 g full scale output in steering mode. The sensor operates within the
following parameters:

1. Input Voltage +/- 12.5 to 15.5 volts

2. Input Current < 80 ma/g

3. Accelerometer Output 3.0 ma/g

The inclinometer is made up of three accelerometers. The operation of the accelerometer is


based on the movement of a quartz proof mass during acceleration. The figure above is a
diagram of a accelerometer. The accelerometer consists of two magnets and a quartz disc with
a coil attached to it. The quartz disc is a proof mass with a hinge that has been chemically
etched to allow movement in one direction. A torquer coil is attached to the proof mass,
which is suspended between the two permanent magnets. The proof mass position is
maintained by applying current to the torquer coil. The magnets have reference plates, which
measure the capacitance between the two magnets. When a force is applied to the
accelerometer, movement of the proof mass changes the capacitance. A circuit detects the

4 4/24/2002
MWD Survey Measurements

change in capacitance and applies current to the torquer coil to restore the proof mass to its
original position.

The amount of current required to restore the proof mass to its original position is a function
of the amount of force applied to the accelerometer. Force is related to acceleration by F = ma.
We measure the acceleration of gravity in g's (gravity units) in three orthogonal directions
relative to the Directional Sensor probe. This allows us to calculate the inclination of the tool
relative to vertical.

The scaling of the X and Y accelerometer channels depends on the operational mode
(survey or steering), while the Z channel and the temperature sensor have the same
scaling for both modes. The full scale output voltage sensitivity for each mode is as
follows:

CHANNEL SURVEY STEERING


1. X Accelerometer 4.5 v/g 642 mv/g
2. Y Accelerometer 4.5 v/g 642 mv/g
3. Z Accelerometer 4.5 v/g 4.5 v/g
4. Temperature 10 mv/deg K 10 mv/deg K

Tensor Magnetometer
The Tensor Tri-axial Magnetometer measures three orthogonal axes of magnetic bearing (Bx,
By, and Bz) as well as temperature. The Tensor Model 7002MK Magnetometer has an output
operating range of plus and minus 100,000 Nanotesla (the earth's field is about 50,000
Nanotesla) and operates within these parameters:

1. Input voltage +/- 12 - 18 vdc


2. Input current 25 milliamps
3. Flux Gate Output 1 mv / 20 Nanotesla
4. Temperature Output Voltage 10 mv / oK

4/24/2002 5
MWD Survey Measurements

The Tensor magnetometer is a saturable core device. It consists of two coils with a core
between them, which has a certain magnetic permeability. A magnetic field produced by one
coil travels through the core and induces a current in the other coil. The core will only transmit
a certain amount of magnetic field, that is , when the level of magnetic flux gets to a certain
point the core will become saturated and greater amounts of flux will not pass through the
core. The point at which a substance becomes saturated is a property of that substance, i.e.
certain metals will saturate sooner than others. The magnetometer continually drives the core
to saturation. In the presence of an external magnetic field the point that the core saturates is
shifted. The signal shift is detected, amplified, and fed back as a bucking magnetic field to
maintain the core at a balanced around zero magnetizing force. The servo amplifier offset
caused by the signal shift is further amplified and presented as the output of the
magnetometer.

In the tri-axial set of magnetometers, the three flux gate channels and temperature channel are
supplied power conditioned by a common pair of internal regulators. The individual
magnetometer transducers come in biaxial sets. The magnetometer package contains two
biaxial magnetometers, of which only three axes are used. The sub bus around the
magnetometer requires particular attention because the current through the sub bus is
alternating current, any change in that current will produce a magnetic field that can affect the
magnetometer.

6 4/24/2002
MWD Survey Measurements

Directional Sensor Measurements and Calculations

The measurements that we make with the DIRECTIONAL SENSOR are made relative to
these axes. The X-axis is perpendicular to the tools long axis and is in the direction of the
scribe line etched on the DIRECTIONAL SENSOR nonmag sub. The Y-axis is also
perpendicular to the long axis. The Z-axis is along the long axis of the DIRECTIONAL
SENSOR; in the direction the hole is being drilled. The scribe line on the DIRECTIONAL
SENSOR sub allows measurement of the relationship
TOOL PHYSICAL AXIS between the tools axis and the bent sub or mud motor
scribe line. This measurement is called the toolface
offset. The toolface offset is measured by extending the
X
bent sub scribe line to the DIRECTIONAL SENSOR
scribe line and measuring the degrees offset with a
compass. The measurement is made from _________
scribe line scribe line to _____________ scribe line using the right
hand rule, thumb pointing in the direction of the hole,
measure in the direction the fingers of your right hand
are pointing. Running a highside orientation program
in the MWD software can also make the measurement.
Y The main parameters that we calculate with the raw
Z
data from the DIRECTIONAL SENSOR are as follows:

4/24/2002 7
MWD Survey Measurements

Highside Toolface is the angle between the deflection tool scribe line and the top or highside
of the hole. This is calculated using the X-axis and Y-axis inclinometer measurements.

Magnetic Toolface is the direction that the deflection tool scribe line is pointing relative to
true or grid north. This is calculated using the X-axis and Y-axis magnetometer measurements.

Inclination is the angle between vertical and the wellbore in the vertical plane. We measure
this angle by measuring the direction that gravity acts relative to the tool. Gravity acts in a
vertical direction and has a magnitude of 1 g at sea level at the equator.

Azimuth is the direction of the wellbore relative to true or grid north in the horizontal plane.
We measure this angle by measuring the direction of the earth's magnetic field relative to the
tool.

Magnetic Declination is the difference in degrees between magnetic north and true north or
grid north for a particular location on the earth. This value changes with time and location and
must be determined using the software program. On a directional well it is important that the
value for magnetic declination that we use is the same one that the directional driller is using.
Usually there will be a difference between the value that the software calculates and the one
that the directional driller provides, however, always use the value provided by the directional
driller.

8 4/24/2002
MWD Survey Measurements

Magnetic Field Strength is the total magnitude of the earth's magnetic field in Nanotesla for
a particular location on the earth. This value also changes with time and location and can be
determined using the software program.

Magnetic Dip Angle is the angle


between horizontal and the earth's
magnetic field force lines. This
angle increases as you go north
toward the magnetic north pole. If
you were exactly on top of the
magnetic north pole the angle
would be 90 degrees.

Highside Toolface
The X-axis and Y-axis
inclinometer measurements are
required to calculate highside
toolface. The figure below is a
vector diagram showing the
highside toolface measurement. On
the left is a diagram of the tool and

its relationship to the X - Y plane and the gravity vector, along with the components of gravity
in the X - Y plane and on the Z-axis. Gxy is the vector sum of the X and Y components of the
gravity vector measured by the tool. On the right is a diagram of the X - Y plane showing the
X and Y components of the gravity vector and the sum Gxy. Highside toolface is the angle
between the X axis and the highside of the hole and is calculated as follows:

4/24/2002 9
MWD Survey Measurements

Gxy = ( Gx2 + Gy2)1/2


COS ( HSTF) = -Gx / Gxy
SIN (HSTF) = Gy / Gxy

HSTF = ATAN ( Gy / -Gx ) or HSTF = ATAN2 ( Gy, -Gx)

Where: Gx = Gravity vector in the X direction


Gy = Gravity vector in the Y direction
Gxy = Sum of the X and Y vectors
HSTF = Highside toolface
and all vectors are in gravity units.

Magnetic Toolface

The X-axis and Y-axis magnetometer measurements are required to calculate magnetic
toolface. Bxy is the vector sum of the X and Y components of the magnetic vector measured
by the tool. Magnetic toolface is the direction the scribeline is pointing and is calculated as
follows:

Bxy = ( Bx2 + By2)1/2

MTF = ATAN ( By / -Bx ) or MTF = ATAN2 ( By, -Bx)

Where: Bx = Magnetic vector in the X direction


By = Magnetic vector in the Y direction
Bxy = Sum of the X and Y vectors
MTF = Magnetic toolface
and all vectors are in gravity units.

10 4/24/2002
MWD Survey Measurements

Inclination

To calculate inclination we use the X, Y, and Z inclinometer measurements. The figure shows
a diagram of the tool and the relevant axes. Again, Gxy is the sum of the X and Y components
of the gravity vector as calculated above. Gz is the Z component of the gravity vector as
measured by the tool. Gtotal is the total gravity vector and is the sum of the X, Y, and Z
components. This sum should be equal to 1 g, as long as your elevation is relatively close to
sea level. Inclination is the angle between the Z axis and vertical and is calculated as follows:

Gtotal = ( Gxy2 + Gz2 )1/2


Sin ( INC ) = Gxy / Gtotal or INC = ASin Gxy
Cos ( INC) = Gz / Gtotal or INC = ACos Gz

INC = ATAN ( Gxy / Gz )


INC = ATAN2 (Sin (HSTF) Gy – Cos (HSTF) Gx, Gz)

4/24/2002 11
MWD Survey Measurements

Where: Gxy = the sum of X and Y gravity components


Gz = the Z axis gravity component
Gtotal = the sum of the X, Y, and Z gravity components
INC = inclination
units are in g's.

Note that since we know that Gtotal is 1 g, we can calculate inclination from only the X and Y
measurements, or only the Z measurement if one of the accelerometers fail, however, if only
Gz is known the accuracy at low angles is less because the Z accelerometer is near full scale.

For Gz only:
Not accurate for inclination less than 15o
+/- 1/2o accuracy for inclination greater than 15o and less than 30o
+/- 1/4o accuracy for inclination greater than 30o and less than 45o
+/- 1/8o accuracy for inclination greater than 45o

Long Collar Azimuth


To calculate azimuth using the conventional method the following data is required:

1. Bx = magnetic field vector in the X direction

2. By = magnetic vector in the Y direction

3. Bz = magnetic vector in the Z direction

4. HSTF = highside toolface

5. INC = inclination

Azimuth is referenced in the horizontal plane to true or grid north. The magnetic field that we
measure, however, is at some angle from the horizontal, that is the magnetic dip angle.
Therefore to reference our measurement to true north in the horizontal plane we must project
the magnetic vector to the horizontal. This is why you need HSTF and inclination to calculate
azimuth.

12 4/24/2002
MWD Survey Measurements

Where: Bn = horizontal component of the magnetic vector


Btotal = total magnetic field strength
DIP = magnetic dip angle

Combining the above equations for raw azimuth yields the following:

Bx Sin (HSTF) + By Cos (HSTF)


AZ = ATAN {--------------------------------------------------------------------------}
(Bx Cos (HSTF) - By Sin (HSTF)) Cos (Inc) + Bz Sin (Inc)

4/24/2002 13
MWD Survey Measurements

Short Collar Azimuth


Traditional compass type surveying instruments with their ability to sense only the direction
of the local magnetic field vector must be used in conjunction with enough nonmagnetic drill
collars so that the local magnetic field vector is uncorrupted by drill string magnetization.
With solid state magnetometers and their ability to measure 3 orthogonal axes of the local
magnetic vector it is possible to compensate for axial magnetization and use much shorter
lengths of nonmagnetic material. Azimuth is defined as any azimuth measurement made with
respect to the local magnetic field without correction, ie. the long collar azimuth. When there
is no magnetic interference the azimuth is the true azimuth, otherwise an extraneous magnetic
field produces a systematic error in the azimuth measurement and the long collar azimuth
differs from the true azimuth. The short collar azimuth is based upon a patented technique
that uses the magnitudes of the magnetic field components Bx and By in conjunction with the
known values of the earth's magnetic field strength and dip angle to compensate for the
corrupted Bz measurement. An instrument used with the corrected azimuth technique requires
highly accurate calibration, because the absolute magnitudes of the field vector components
are required. The long collar azimuth, however, requires only ratios of the magnitudes of these
components, thus reducing the calibration complexity and scale factor errors for this
measurement.

Survey Quality
The following items will be used to validate a MWD survey:

Gtotal = (Gx2 + Gy2 +Gz2 ) ½

G total - this value is equal to (Gx2 + Gy2 + Gz2)1/2, and should be within +0.003 g of the
local gravity, which is 1.000 g in most locations. A Gtotal value outside of these limits may
indicate that the Directional Sensor did not achieve stability during accelerometer polling,
there was a hardware failure, BHA movement or improper misalignment and/or scale/bias
values were used.

Btotal = (Bx2 + By2 +Bz2 ) ½

B total is equal to (Bx2 + By2 + Bz2)1/2, and should trend consistently over the interval of a
bit run. Under ideal conditions, i.e., no cross-axial or axial magnetic interference, Btotal
should read the earth's local magnetic field strength. Abrupt variations in Btotal during a bit
run will be caused by a "fish", a nearby cased well bore, certain mineral deposits, solar events,
localized magnetic anomalies, or a hardware failure. Since all of the above will typically
affect all three magnetometer responses, magnetic interference will be detectable by tracking
the Btotal value.

14 4/24/2002
MWD Survey Measurements

As a general guideline, Btotal should not vary by more than +- 350 Nanotesla from the local
magnetic field strength or from survey to survey during a bit run. The local magnetic field
strength is determined by using magnetic modeling software or directly measuring it through
infield referencing. Surveys which do not conform to this guideline should alert the field
engineer that some magnetic interference is probable or that there was a hardware failure.
Btotal may also change abruptly from bit run to bit run due to a change in BHA configuration,
which does not have the correct Monel spacing.

Magnetic Dip Angle should trend consistently over the interval of a bit run. Under ideal
conditions, (i.e., no cross-axial or axial magnetic interference or pipe movement), MDIP
should read the earth's local magnetic dip angle. Abrupt variations in MDIP during a bit run
will be caused by a "fish", a nearby cased well bore, certain mineral deposits, solar events,
localized magnetic anomalies, pipe movement or a hardware failure.

(Bx * Gx) + (By * Gy) + (Bz * Gz)


MDIP = ASIN {-------------------------------------------------------}
Gtotal * Btotal

As a general guideline, MDIP should not vary by more than +- 0.3 degrees from the local
magnetic dip angle or from survey to survey during a bit run. The local magnetic dip angle is
determined by using magnetic modeling software or directly measuring it through infield
referencing. Surveys which do not conform to this guideline should alert the field engineer
that some magnetic interference or pipe movement is probable, or that there was a hardware
failure. MDIP may also change abruptly from bit run to bit run due to a change in BHA
configuration, which does not have the correct Monel spacing.

Magnetic Interference
Magnetic interference problems when surveying a well are usually due to casing or a fish that
has been left in the hole. Unfortunately, the majority of the magnetic interference problems
occur when the accuracy of our azimuth is very critical. A well is usually kicked off just
below a casing shoe or through a window in the casing. The casing is a large concentration of
magnetic material, the ends of which act like magnetic poles from which the curving flux lines
cause magnetic interference. On production platforms or pads nearby wells can cause
interference as well.

The magnetic interference that we are primarily concerned with is in the X and Y direction.
This is due to the fact that magnetic toolface uses the X and Y magnetometers to calculate
toolface. Also with the Short collar method of surveying, only the X and Y magnetometers are
used. A good way of determining how much magnetic interference we are getting on the Z-
axis with the Short collar method is to compare Btotal measured with Btotal calculated.

4/24/2002 15
MWD Survey Measurements

The X and Y magnetometers will react to magnetic interference in the same manner as the Z
magnetometer. This would mean that a perpendicular distance of about 30' would be required
when kicking off near casing. The orientation of the casing with respect to the magnetometers
may have some effect on how much azimuth is affected. As the tool is rotated, X and Y
interference changes, but Btotal should stay the same.

Non-Mag Spacing
When kicking off a well below casing, it is necessary to have at least 10 diameters of
clearance between the shoe and the DIRECTIONAL SENSOR. When kicking off next to
another well or a fish, where the magnetic interference is perpendicular to the tool, up to 30'
clearance may be required to obtain good magnetic toolface or surveys.

Take special care when running a magnetic survey to prevent the effects of magnetic
interference. Such interference can be caused by proximity to steel collars and by adjacent
casing, hot spots in nonmagnetic collars, magnetic storms, and formation with diagenetic
minerals.

Nonmagnetic drill collars are used to separate the electronic survey instrumentation from the
magnetic fields of Drill string both above and below and prevent the distortion of the earth's
magnetic field at the sensor. The collars are of four basic compositions: (I) K Monel 500, an
alloy containing 30% copper and 65% nickel, (2) chrome/nickel steels (approximately 18%
chrome, 13% nickel), (3) austenitic steels based on chromium and manganese (over 18%
manganese) and (4) copper beryllium bronzes.

Currently, austenitic steels are used to make most nonmagnetic drill collars. The disadvantage
of the austenitic steel is its susceptibility to stress corrosion in a salt mud environment. The K
Monel and copper beryllium steels are to expensive for most drilling operations; both however
are considerably more resistant to mud correction than austenitic steels. The chrome/nickel
steel tends to gall, causing premature damage to the threads.

16 4/24/2002
MWD Survey Measurements

When the electronic survey instrumentation is located in a nonmagnetic collar between the bit
and steel collars the distortion of the earths magnetic field is minimized and it is isolated from
drill string interference generate both above and below the electronic survey instrumentation
unit. The number of required nonmagnetic collars depends on the location of the well bore on
the earth and inclination and direction of the well bore. The figure above is a compilation of
empirical data that are fairly reliable in selecting the number of nonmagnetic drill collars.

First, a zone is picked where the well bore is located either zone 1, 2 or 3. Then the expected
inclination and direction are used locate the curve, either A, B or C.

Example, on the north slope of Alaska a well plan calls for an inclination of 60 degrees and a
magnetic north azimuth of 50 degrees.

Solution, The north slope of Alaska is in zone 3. From the chart for zone 3 at 60 degrees
inclination and 50 degrees magnetic north azimuth, the point falls in Area B, indicating the
need for two 30’ magnetic collars with the electronic survey instrumentation unit 8 -10 feet
below the center.

This is just a recommendation and the survey should always be checked to make sure it is with
in acceptable tolerances of the (non-corrupted) earth's magnetic field.

4/24/2002 17
MWD Survey Measurements

Empirical Data Charts for Nonmagnetic Drill Collar Spacing

ZONE 1 ZONE 2 ZONE 3


90 90 90
80 80 80
70 70 70
60 60 60
50 50 50
40 40 40
30 30 30
20 20 20
10 10 10

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Direction Angle from Magnetic N or S Direction Angle from Magnetic N or S Direction Angle from Magnetic N or S

Compass Spacing Compass Spacing Compass Spacing


Area A 18’ collar: 1’ to 2’ below center Area A 30’ collar: 3’ to 4’ below center Area A 60’ collar: at center
Area B 30’ collar: 3’ to 4’ below center Area B 60’ collar: at center Area B 60’ collar: 8’ to 10’ below center
Area C tandem 18’+25’: center of Area C 90’ collar: at center Area C 90’ collar: at center
bottom collar

18 4/24/2002
MWD Survey Measurements

Survey Accuracy
Survey accuracy is a function of both instrument related uncertainties and systematic
uncertainties. Instrument related uncertainties include such things as sensor performance,
calibration tolerances, digitizer accuracy, and resolution. This is defined as the baseline
uncertainty and it is present in all survey sensors. Systematic uncertainties are a function of
magnetic interference from the drill string and can be reduced by housing the instrument in a
longer nonmagnetic drill collar. The total uncertainty is equal to the baseline uncertainty plus
the systematic uncertainty.

The long collar azimuth, when measured in an environment free from magnetic interference,
will always provide the most accurate azimuth, the only uncertainty being the baseline
uncertainty. The Short collar algorithm corrects for systematic uncertainties due to the
presence of magnetic interference along the Z axis of the magnetometer. For the Short collar
method, the systematic uncertainty is in the values that we obtain for the magnetic field
strength and dip angle. Due to the fact that this uncertainty is along the Z axis, survey
accuracy will be a function of inclination and azimuth, as well as dip angle and magnetic field
strength.

If we consider only the baseline uncertainty, in the absence of magnetic interference, survey
accuracy will be a function of inclination and magnetic dip angle. This relationship is shown
in figures below, where Bn (Bnorth) is defined as the projection of the magnetic field vector in
the horizontal plane, Berror is defined as the baseline uncertainty and has a constant value, and
Bref is defined as the measured magnetic field vector (Bref = Bn + Berror).

As shown in the figure below, as the inclination increases, the horizontal projection of Berror
is a larger percentage of Bref resulting in a decrease in survey accuracy. In the figure below,
the effect of magnetic dip angle on survey accuracy is shown. As the magnetic dip angle
increases, the size of the horizontal projection of Bn decreases, resulting in a larger percentage
of Berror in Bref. Thus anything that causes the horizontal projection of Berror to increase or
Bn to decrease results in decreased survey accuracy.

4/24/2002 19
MWD Survey Measurements

For systematic uncertainty, the uncertainty is along the Z-axis. This will result in decreased
survey accuracy when drilling east or west as opposed to drilling north or south. This is due to
the fact that Berror will tend to pull Bref in the direction of the Z-axis, away from Bn. This
relationship is shown in the figure below.

Directional Sensor Calibration


The accuracy of borehole azimuth and inclination measurements are largely dependent on our
ability to identify and correct constituent errors in the individual sensors that are used to
calculate the directional parameters of the well bore. These sensors include the three
orthogonal accelerometers and three orthogonal magnetometers. The calibration process is
based upon the known value of the total field intensity of both the gravity and magnetic fields
at the location of the calibration. Each sensor is rotated through the known field and its output
is compared with known values. This process yields a set of values for bias, scale factor, and

20 4/24/2002
MWD Survey Measurements

alignment corrections over a range of temperatures from room temperature to the upper
operating limit. The data is fit to a third order polynomial so that the correction factors can be
applied at any given temperature within the operating range of the tool. To be certain that the a
calibration technique will meet the performance as well as maintenance objectives it must
meet the following objectives:

1. Total package evaluation

2. Repeatability

3. Tolerant of positioning errors during calibration

4. Reliability under down hole conditions

The calibration is performed at the highest level of assembly through the instruments data
acquisition system and final housing. This allows a total package model to be built so that
errors do not accumulate as separate modules are incorporated into each other. Repeatability
and tolerance to positioning errors during calibration is achieved by establishing specific
performance standards for each sensor and through the methodology of the calibration itself.
Reliability under down hole conditions is addressed at the Materials Testing Laboratory by
exposing each sensor to vibration and thermal cycling while monitoring their output.
Reliability is also achieved through failure analysis and design and modification of the sensor
package.

Calibration Methodology
The calibration procedure consists of rotating the sensor through the field of investigation for
each axis and comparing the output with known values. Examine the ideal response of a single
axis rotation, at 0 degrees the sensor axis is aligned with the field and the output voltage is at a
maximum. As you rotate the sensor counter clockwise the voltage decreases until at 90
degrees the output goes to 0 volts. As you continue to rotate the sensor counter clockwise the
output voltage goes negative above 90 degrees and reaches a maximum negative value at 180
degrees. The response as you go from 180 to 360 degrees is similar. Note that this response
applies to both accelerometers and magnetometers when rotated through the gravity or
magnetic field.

Scale factor corrections scale the output of the sensor to a given standard so that all sensors
will have the same voltage response to a given field. Alignment errors are positioning errors
between the individual transducers and the DIRECTIONAL SENSOR probe true physical
axis.

The computation of bias, scale factor, and alignment corrections based on the examination of a
single axis would put considerable accuracy requirements upon both the calibration fixtures
and the personnel that operate them. By performing an analysis using data simultaneously
obtained from multiple axes greatly reduces sensitivity to positioning errors and improves
repeatability.

4/24/2002 21
MWD Survey Measurements

References
1. Estes, R. A., and Walters, P. A., "Improvement of MWD Azimuth Accuracy by use
of Iterative Total Field Calibration Technique and Compensation for System
Environmental Effects", SPE paper presented at the 1986 MWD Seminar, May 16.

2. Russell, A. W., and Roesler, R. F., "Reduction of Nonmagnetic Drill Collar Length
Through Magnetic Azimuth Correction Technique", paper SPE / IADC 13476 presented
at the 1985 Drilling Conference, New Orleans

22 4/24/2002
DAY 3
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Validating Sensor Response
This document describes how to use the excel spreadsheet “INC MAG QC Plots” to validate
the sensor response of the OM (Orientation Module) and IDS (Inclination and Direction
Sensor) from a field operations prospective.

The following items (Gx, Gy, Gz, Bx, By, Bz, Temperature) calculated from the OM and
IDS (with scale, bias and misalignment applied) must be scrutinized to assess the validity of
the calibration and software interaction.

Enter the calculated and measured data from a 24 or 72 point roll test into the “INC MAG QC
Plot” spreadsheet under the appropriate columns shown below.

TMF - proton
Time Gx Gy Gz Bx By Bz mag

This will generate the following information used to validate the sensor response.

Gtotal Btotal Goxy Boxy Inc z Inc xy

Inc xyz GTF LCAZ SCAZ Delta Az Bz Calc

Gtotal – Local Gravity - is equal to (Gx2 + Gy2 + Gz2)1/2, and should be within +0.003 g
of the local gravity, which is 1.000 g in most locations. A Gtotal value outside of these limits
may indicate that the OM or IDS was moving during accelerometer polling, there is a
hardware failure, the improper misalignment and/or scale/bias values were used or some other
problem exist.

Btotal – Local Magnetic Field Strength - is equal to (Bx2 + By2 + Bz2)1/2, and should be
within + 350nTesla of the local magnetic field strength measured by the proton magnetometer.
A Btotal value outside of these limits may indicate that the OM or IDS did not have a stable
magnetic field to measure during magnetometer polling, there is magnetic interference, there
is a hardware failure, the improper misalignment and/or scale/bias values were used or some
other problem exist.

1
Validating Sensor Response

Goxy - is equal to (Gx2 + Gy2)1/2, which represents the cross-axial gravity value of the
accelerometers and should mirror the Gz value measured by the sensor. Look for Goxy to
respond appropriately with sensor position (i.e. 0.00g’s when vertical, 0.707g’s at 45 degrees
inclination, 1.000g’s when horizontal and consistent during a toolface roll). A Goxy value
that is inconsistent with it’s position may indicate that the OM or IDS was moving during
accelerometer polling, there is a hardware failure, the improper misalignment and/or scale/bias
values were used or some other problem exist.

Boxy - is equal to (Bx2 + By2)1/2, which represents the cross-axial magnetic field value of
the magnetometers and should mirror the Bz value measured by the sensor. Look for Boxy to
respond appropriately with sensor position versus local magnetic field position (i.e. match the
proton magnetometer when perpendicular to the magnetic field, 0.0 nTesla’s when parallel to
the magnetic field and consistent during a toolface roll). A Boxy value that is inconsistent
with it’s position may indicate that the OM or IDS did not have a stable magnetic field to
measure during magnetometer polling, there is magnetic interference, there is a hardware
failure, the improper misalignment and/or scale/bias values were used or some other problem
exist.

Inc z – Inclination calculated from Gz - is equal to ACOS(Gz), assuming the total gravity
field is 1.000. This value should match the actual position in the stand within +- 0.1 degrees
between 5 – 90 degrees. This value is compared to the Inc xy and Inc xyz. Between 5 –85
degrees Inclination all three of these values should overlay each other within +- 0.1 degrees
inclination as specified on the product data sheet. An Inclination value that does not overlay
and is outside of these limits may indicate that the OM or IDS was moving during
accelerometer polling, there is a hardware failure, the improper misalignment and/or scale/bias
values were used or some other problem exist.

Inc xy – Inclination calculated from Gx, Gy - is equal to ASIN(Goxy), assuming the total
gravity field is 1.000. This value should match the actual position in the stand within +- 0.1
degrees between 0 – 85 degrees. This value is compared to the Inc z and Inc xyz. Between
5 –85 degrees Inclination all three of these values should overlay each other within +- 0.1
degrees inclination as specified on the product data sheet. An Inclination value that does not
overlay and is outside of these limits may indicate that the OM or IDS was moving during
accelerometer polling, there is a hardware failure, the improper misalignment and/or scale/bias
values were used or some other problem exist.

Inc xyz – Inclination calculated from Gx, Gy, Gz - is equal to ATAN (Goxy / Gz). This
value should match the actual position in the stand within +- 0.1 degrees. This value is
compared to the Inc z and Inc xy. Between 5 –85 degrees Inclination all three of these
values should overlay each other within +- 0.1 degrees inclination as specified on the product
data sheet. This value is used to calculate Azimuth. An Inclination value that does not
overlay and is outside of these limits may indicate that the OM or IDS was moving during
accelerometer polling, there is a hardware failure, the improper misalignment and/or scale/bias
values were used or some other problem exist.

2 4/24/2002
Validating Sensor Response

GTF – Highside or Gravity toolface -is equal to ATAN (Gy / -Gx). Above 5 degrees
Inclination this values should match the actual position in the stand within +- 0.5 degrees.
This value is used to calculate Azimuth.

LCAZ – Long Collar Azimuth - is equal to ATAN{ (Bx Sin (HSTF) + By Cos (HSTF))/( (Bx
Cos (HSTF) - By Sin (HSTF)) Cos (Inc) + Bz Sin (Inc)). This value should match the actual
position in the stand within +- 0.25 degrees. This value is compared to the SCAZ. The
difference between LCAZ and SCAZ should be within +- 0.1 degrees. An Azimuth that does
not match the stand position or the SCAZ calculation indicates an unstable magnetic field
measure during magnetometer polling, there is magnetic interference, there is a hardware
failure, movement during polling, the improper misalignment and/or scale/bias values were
used or some other problem exist.

SCAZ – Short Collar Azimuth - is equal to ATAN{ (Bx Sin (HSTF) + By Cos (HSTF))/( (Bx
Cos (HSTF) - By Sin (HSTF)) Cos (Inc) + BzCalc Sin (Inc)). This value should match the
actual position in the stand within +- 0.25 degrees. This value is compared to the LCAZ. The
difference between LCAZ and SCAZ should be within +- 0.1 degrees. An Azimuth that does
not match the stand position or the LCAZ calculation indicates an unstable magnetic field
measure during magnetometer polling, there is magnetic interference, there is a hardware
failure, movement during polling, the improper misalignment and/or scale/bias values were
used or some other problem exist.

Delta Az – is equal to LCAZ - SCAZ. The difference between LCAZ and SCAZ should be
within +- 0.1 degrees. A value out of limits indicates an unstable magnetic field measure
during magnetometer polling, there is magnetic interference, there is a hardware failure, the
improper misalignment and/or scale/bias values were used for Bz or some other problem exist.

Bz Calc – Bz calculated from the Total Magnetic Field measured by a proton magnetometer,
Bx, By - is equal to (TMF2 - Bx2 - By2 )1/2. This value is used to calculate SCAZ. Bz Calc
replaces Bz measured by the sensor in the Azimuth calculation.

Gt Plot - It is useful to plot Goxy, Gz and Gtotal for each survey station to confirm the sensor
is operating properly and is applying the correct scale/bias and misalignment. This plot also
identifies cross-axial (rotational) and axial tool motion during a survey. The plots of Goxy
and Gz should trend inversely, relative to each other and touch at 45 degrees inclination,
unless a sensor operating error or motion occurs in one or both of the reference planes. For
instance, if the IDS is rotated during a survey attempt, then Goxy and Gtotal will be affected
and Gz will not. If the IDS is moved up and down during a survey attempt, then Gz and
Gtotal will be affected and Goxy will not. A true change in inclination will be indicated by
consistent changes in both Goxy and Gz, while maintaining a constant Gtotal.

4/24/2002 3
Validating Sensor Response

Gx, Gy, Gz - these values should be consistent with the orientation of the sensor. For
example, when the sensor is in the vertical position most of the gravity vector will be acting
on the Gz accelerometer, and little on the Gx and Gy accelerometers. If an accelerometer
experiences a hard failure, an erroneous gravity value will be calculated by the software,
resulting in a Gtotal value that is out of limits. One accelerometer failure that has been
identified is "sticking", which will be evidenced by a non-changing gravity value from the
suspect accelerometer as its orientation changes. A more subtle, and possibly unrecognizable
failure, can occur if a sensors' calibration drifts downhole. It is possible that slight variations
in calibration can occur without causing radical changes in gravity values or Gtotal.

Bt Plot - It is useful to plot Boxy, Bz and Btotal for each survey station to confirm the sensor
is operating properly and is applying the correct scale/bias and misalignment. This plot also
identifies cross-axial and axial magnetic interference during a survey. The plots of Boxy and
Bz should trend inversely, relative to each other and touch when in the same plane as the local
magnetic field and at 45 degrees relative to the magnetic dip angle, unless a sensor operating
error or magnetic interference occurs in one or both of the reference planes. For instance, if
the IDS measures cross-axial magnetic interference during a survey attempt, then Boxy and
Btotal will be affected and Bz will not. If the IDS measures axial magnetic interference
during a survey attempt, then Bz and Btotal will be affected and Boxy. A true change in
azimuth will be indicated by consistent changes in both Boxy and Bz, while maintaining a
constant Btotal.

Bx, By, Bz – these values should be consistent with the orientation of the sensor versus the
local magnetic field. For example, when the sensor is in the parallel position with the local
magnetic field will be acting on the Bz magnetometer, and little on the Bx and By
magnetometers. When the sensor is in the perpendicular position to the local magnetic field
will be acting on the Bx and By magnetometer, and little on the Bz magnetometers. If a
magnetometer experiences a hard failure, an erroneous magnetic value will be calculated by
the software, resulting in a Btotal value that is out of limits.

4 4/24/2002
Validating Sensor Response

Gt Plot: example of bad data

Gz
Gz, Goxy Inc QC Plot Goxy Gtotal
gravity gravity
Gtotal
1.1 1.006
1 1.005
0.9 1.004
0.8 1.003
0.7 1.002
0.6 1.001
0.5 1.000
0.4 0.999
0.3 0.998
0.2 0.997
0.1 0.996
0 0.995
-0.1 0.994

Bt Plot: example of bad data


Bz msrd
Bz, Boxy Mag QC Plot Boxy Btotal
nTesla Btotal msrd nTesla

50000 TMF 51000


45000
40000 50000
35000
30000 49000
25000
20000 48000
15000
10000 47000
5000
0 46000
-5000
-10000 45000
-15000
-20000 44000

4/24/2002 5
Validating Sensor Response

Inc Plot: example of bad data

inc xyz
Inclination Inclination inc xy
degrees
inc z
180.00

160.00

140.00

120.00

100.00

80.00

60.00

40.00

20.00

0.00

Az Plot: example of bad data

Delta Az
degrees
Delta Az
3.00

2.00

1.00

0.00

-1.00

-2.00

-3.00

-4.00

-5.00

6 4/24/2002
Validating Sensor Response

Gt Plot: example of acceptable data


Gz
Gz, Goxy Inc QC Plot Goxy Gtotal
gravity gravity
Gtotal
1.10000 1.006
1.00000 1.005
0.90000 1.004
0.80000 1.003
0.70000 1.002
0.60000 1.001
0.50000 1.000
0.40000 0.999
0.30000 0.998
0.20000 0.997
0.10000 0.996
0.00000 0.995
-0.10000 0.994

Bt Plot: example of acceptable data

Bz msrd
Bz, Boxy Mag QC Plot Boxy Btotal
nTesla Btotal msrd nTesla
TMF
70000 60000
65000
60000 59000
55000
50000 58000
45000
40000 57000
35000
30000 56000
25000
20000 55000
15000
10000 54000
5000
0 53000

4/24/2002 7
Validating Sensor Response

Inc Plot: example of acceptable data

inc xyz
Inclination Inclination
degrees inc xy
60.00 inc z
55.00
50.00
45.00
40.00
35.00
30.00
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00

Az Plot: example of acceptable data

Delta Az
degrees
Delta Az
1.00

0.00

-1.00

-2.00

-3.00

-4.00

-5.00

8 4/24/2002
GEODEC
&
Grid Systems
Examples

1
Location: Geodetic Equator and Central Meridian

• N/S starts at 0.00 on the equator and increases as the latitude moves toward the north.
• Must pick Zone 31S if moving into the southern hemisphere
• E/W starts at a false easting of 500,000 meters and decreases to the west and increases
to the east
• The dip is –28.74 indicating that this geodetic (true north) location is in the southern
hemisphere. Why is the dip not zero degrees as it should be on the equator?

• Convergence is zero since the location is directly on the central meridian of the grid
• Horizontal Field Strength (27829 nT) is large percentage of Total Field Strength (31740
nT)
• Geodetic Declination is –6.00° indicating that magnetic north is 6° west of true north at
this location

2
Location: The Magnetic Equator (June 28, 2001)

• How do we know that this location is directly on the magnetic equator?

• It may surprise some that the magnetic equator is not at 0 degree latitude but actually
at 11.5° latitude (as of June 28, 2001) along longitude 3.11° east (see map)
• At this extreme northern latitude the geodetic declination is a massive 135.03° east
• Amazingly, changing the longitude from –110.8792 to –110.8700 (just 33 seconds)
changes the declination to 149.24° west!!

3
Location: The Magnetic Equator

Magnetic Equator
@ 11.5 N & 3.1 E

Geographic Equator

4
Location: Geodetic Equator and Central Meridian

• N/S starts at 10,000,000 meters on the equator and decreases as the latitude moves
toward the south.
• Must pick Zone 31S since this location is in the southern hemisphere, otherwise the
N/S value will be wrong
• E/W starts at a false easting of 500,000 meters and decreases to the west and increases
to the east
• The Dip is –28.74 indicating that this geodetic (true north) location is in the southern
hemisphere. Why is the dip not zero degrees as it should be on the equator?

• Horizontal Field Strength (27829 nT) is large percentage of Total Field Strength (31740
nT)

5
Location: Geodetic Equator and Prime Meridian

• Geodetic Declination is –7.06° indicating that we have moved further to the west of
magnetic north at this new location which is 3 degrees west of the grid central meridian
along the geodetic equator.
• E/W starts at a false westing of 500,000 meters and decreases to the west (166,021
meters) at this location
• Convergence is essentially zero (-.00015) since we are moving along the geodetic
equator where linear distances are true
• Total Gravity Field is slightly lower (0.997) than 1.000 g near the equator

6
Location: Geodetic Equator and Prime Meridian

• Geodetic Declination is –5.02° indicating that we have moved closer to magnetic north at
this new location, which is 3 degrees east of the grid central meridian along the geodetic
equator.
• E/W starts at a false easting of 500,000 meters and increases to the east (833,978
meters) at this location
• Convergence is essentially zero (+.00015) since we are moving along the geodetic
equator where linear distances are true

7
Location: 30° North Latitude and Central Meridian

• As the location moves north along the Central Meridian notice that the N/S changes
but the Convergence remains at zero. Why is this?

• Moving north along this central meridian puts the location just to the west of the zero
declination line (Declination = -.8068)
• Moving to a higher latitude shows an increase in Dip Angle (40.71°)

8
Location: 90° North Latitude and Central Meridian

• At this location magnetic north is 21.34° west of the geodetic (true) north pole
• Since this location is along the central meridian the convergence is still zero.
• Horizontal Field Strength (2008 nT) is now a small percentage of Total Field Strength
(56356 nT)

9
Location: 45° North Latitude and 1.5° West of Central Meridian

• In the center of the westerly section of this grid the convergence (-1.06) increases

10
Location: 90° North Latitude and 3° West of Central Meridian

• On the western longitude boundary and northernmost latitude of this grid the
convergence goes to its maximum value of -3°. NOTE: Assuming that the
appropriate grid zone has been chosen for the specified location, the grid convergence
should not exceed +/- 3°
• Total Gravity Field increases slightly toward the poles

11
Location: The North Magnetic Pole on June 28, 2001

• How do we know that this location is directly on the north magnetic pole?

• It may surprise some that the magnetic north pole is not at 90 degree latitude but
actually at 81° latitude (as of June 28, 2001)
• At this extreme northern latitude the geodetic declination is a massive 135.03° east
• Amazingly, changing the longitude from –110.8792 to –110.8700 (just 33 seconds)
changes the declination to 149.24° west!!

12
Location: The North Magnetic Pole

North Magnetic Pole


1000 nT

7000 nT

Magnetic Equator

13
Question:

On June 28, 2001 the Magnetic North Pole was 2.74° west of True North. A well
surveyed that day showed a bottom hole azimuth of 92.74° Magnetic North. What
Magnetic North bottom hole azimuth will the survey tool read on June 28, 2004?

14
THE BOREHOLE ENVIRONMENT

The Borehole Environment

• We will consider the borehole environment to


be the borehole annulus and the formation
affected by invasion of the drilling fluid
• Any physical barrier between the sensor
detector and the uninvaded formation rock
must be accounted for prior to log
interpretation
• Key aspects to discuss:
• Drilling Fluid Properties
• Formation Properties
• Formation/Borehole Pressure Differential

1
Radial Borehole Profile

KEY POINT:
• LWD sensors do not
preferentially
measure the virgin
formation alone;
their response is
affected by whatever
is between the sensor
and the uninvaded
formation

DRILLING FLUID PROPERTIES

• Drilling Fluid provides many critical functions


during the drilling of a well:
• Hole cleaning (transport of cuttings)
• Solids suspension (gel strength, PV/YP)
• Bit hydraulics (aid the bit in rock failure and chip removal)
• Lubricity (reduce torque and drag)
• Control formation damage (oil-based mud, fluid loss)
• Hole stability (control formation pressure, prevent hole collapse,
inhibit shale swelling)
• Cooling the BHA

2
DRILLING FLUID PROPERTIES

• Drilling fluid can also create some unfortunate “side


effects”:
• Decreases drilling rate as mud density increases
• Causes real-time data detection problems if mud viscosity is
too high
• Can cause irreversible formation damage
• Expensive – oil-based mud requires careful containment and
cutting recycling processes
• Percolates into permeable formation pore spaces (in
overbalanced situations) making log interpretation more
difficult and complex
• Renders some logging tools unusable or ineffective (oil-based
mud, salt saturated mud) and can severely alter sensor
response (mud additives)

FORMATION PROPERTIES

• The physical makeup of the formation will


affect sensor response. Some of the
properties that we must consider are:
• Formation Porosity
• Formation Permeability
• Pore Fluid Saturation and Density
• Lithology
• Formation Thickness
• Shale Content

3
Formation Porosity
• Total porosity is the ratio of the total pore
space volume to the bulk formation
volume
• For example, a total porosity of 25%
means that per cubic foot of formation,
there is ¼ cubic foot of void space
dispersed throughout (a sponge is a good
analogy)
• Maximum theoretical porosity is 42% if
the grains are same size perfect spheres
stacked on end (perfect sorting, cubic
packing)
• Porosity is the ultimate storage space for
formation fluids (gas/oil/water)
• Effective porosity is the ratio of the
interconnected pore space volume to the
bulk formation volume; this is the fluid
volume that can potentially be removed
from the formation

Formation Permeability
• Formation Permeability is a measure of
how easily fluid flows through
interconnected formation pore spaces
• Permeability is a function of the size of the
pore openings, the viscosity of the fluid,
and the pressure acting on the fluid
• Measured in units of Darcies
• By definition, one darcy of permeability is
equal to 1 cc/sec of flow of 1 cp viscosity
fluid from a core sample with an area of 1
cm2 at a differential pressure of 1 atm
• Permeability over 0.5 darcy (500
millidarcies) is considered excellent
• Permeability indicates the potential
mobility of the fluids from the formation
during production

4
Pore Fluid Saturation and Density

• All available pore space will be filled with fluid


• There will always be water present within the
pore space*
• The sum of the fluid saturations of gas, oil, and
water is 100% (Sg + So + Sw = 100%)
• The saturations of each fluid throughout the
formation will affect LWD sensor response in
very distinct ways

Pore Fluid Saturation and Density


• If gas, oil, and water are
present in a formation
they will be distributed by
density
• Gas will be on top,
followed by oil, then water
• The type of fluid filling
the formation pore space
will affect LWD sensor
response in very distinct
ways

5
Lithology

• Lithology corrections are required for some


sensor data when logging formations different
from the calibration standard which is
typically limestone

Formation Thickness

• When formations beds


are thinner than the
vertical resolution of the
sensor, the response of
that sensor will not be
able to yield a “true”
formation value due to
the effect of the
surrounding “shoulder
beds”

6
Shale Content
• Shales are sedimentary rocks
composed primarily of clays
• Clays can be distributed in sand
formations in three different ways:
dispersed, laminated, and structural
• Regardless of the distribution,
different clay types have properties
that affect all LWD sensor responses
• Shale content calculations are key to
correcting LWD data

PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL

• The pressure differential between the borehole


and the formation can have a large effect on
LWD sensor response
• There are 2 scenarios to consider:
• Overbalanced
• Underbalanced

7
Overbalanced Condition

• An overbalanced condition exists when the bottomhole


circulating pressure is greater than the formation
pressure
• Although this condition is considered the safest
method to drill under it can cause the following
undesirable effects:
• Drilling Fluid Invasion
• Terminal fluid loss
• Differential sticking of drillpipe
• Low drilling penetration rates
• Expensive drilling fluid systems
• Expensive and ineffective stimulations

Underbalanced Condition
• Underbalanced drilling can reduce or eliminate some of the
problems associated with overbalanced drilling by reducing the
bottomhole circulating pressure to pressures below or equivalent
to the formation pressure
• Underbalanced drilling has the following benefits:
• Controlled inflow of reservoir fluid or gases during drilling operations
• Controlled drilling condition while accurately separating and measuring
recovered drilling fluids as well as produced liquids and gases
• Higher rates of penetration
• Eliminates differential sticking
• Uses simplified drilling fluid systems
• Allows formation evaluation to be conducted during drilling*
• *A major disadvantage is that conventional LWD mud pulse
telemetry systems cannot be used in compressible drilling fluids;
only electromagnetic telemetry can be used

8
The Borehole Environment

• Questions

• Next Topic: Data Acquisition Methods

• Take a 10-minute break

9
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DAY 4
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LWD SENSOR THEORY,
APPLICATION, & INTERPRETATION

Shale

Gas
Oil
Salt Water

Shale

Salt
Gamma Ray Sensor Theory
• Natural Gamma Ray devices are
“passive” detectors of radioactive
gamma ray decay occurring within
formations
• The three most common gamma
emitting isotopes found in the
earth’s crust are Potassium-40,
Thorium-232, and Uranium-238
• High gamma counts measured by
the sensor indicate a high
concentration of radioactive
material
• Natural gamma devices cannot
distinguish the origin of the
gamma radiation because of the
type of detector they employ
(Geiger-Mueller tubes)
Gamma Ray Sensor Theory
• Potassium and Thorium are typically associated with clay
minerals which are a large component in SHALE
• Log analysts generally infer that high gamma count formations
are shale and low gamma count formations are “non-shales”
(sandstone, limestone, halite, gypsum, coal, etc.)
• Gamma count values higher than the shale baseline are
uncommon and are typically seen in rock of volcanic origin or in
permeable reservoir rock where uranium has precipitated out in
the pore space
• Gamma Ray sensors indicate matrix clay content, but DO NOT
directly reveal fluid contents (i.e., gas, oil, water)
• Can be run in any environment – air, any salinity fluid, oil-based
fluids, open hole or cased hole wells
Gamma Ray Sensor Theory
Decay Spectrums of Potassium,
• Spectral Gamma Ray devices Thorium, & Uranium
are also “passive” detectors of
radioactive gamma ray decay 1.46

occurring within formations


• Unlike natural gamma devices, 0.23
however, the spectral device
uses a detector which can
distinguish the origin of each
gamma ray it detects 0.61

• This can be done because


potassium, thorium, and
uranium each have unique
decay spectrums
Gamma Ray Sensor Theory
• The ability to determine the
potassium, thorium, and uranium
components of a formation may Natural GR Spectral GR
allow the log analyst to identify
specific clay mineralogy
• Spectral analysis can also be used
to reveal situations that could
cause the analyst to misinterpret
some log responses
• In the isolated zone in the example,
the natural gamma curve shows
higher radiation than the zones
above and below it, indicating
shale; the zone is actually a
sandstone with a high
concentration of uranium
Gamma Ray Sensor Theory

• Azimuthal Gamma Ray devices


are also “passive” detectors of
radioactive gamma ray decay
occurring within formations
• The azimuthal gamma
detector is partially shielded to
attenuate gamma radiation on
one side of the tool and uses an
accelerometer to give
information about the up or
down position of the tool
during the measurement
• Used in “geosteering”
applications
Gamma Ray Sensor Applications

• Lithology Identification
• Formation Thickness
• Stratigraphic Correlation
• Geosteering
• Shale Volume Estimation
Gamma Ray Sensor Applications
• Lithology Identification
• Shale versus “non-shale”
indicator
• Low gamma response can
indicate potential reservoir
rock
• Formation Thickness
• Differences in the radioactivity
level between formations allows
log analysts to use gamma data to
determine formation thickness
• The thick sandstone interval in
the example is well defined on the
gamma curve
Gamma Ray Sensor Applications

• Stratigraphic Correlation
• Gamma data can be used
to correlate formation tops
and “marker beds”
between nearby wells to
determine the areal extent
of the reservoir
Gamma Ray Sensor Applications
• Geosteering
• The intentional directional control
of a well based on the results of
downhole geological logging
measurements rather than three-
dimensional targets in space,
usually to keep a directional
wellbore within a pay zone
• In mature areas, geosteering may
be used to keep a near horizontal
wellbore in a particular section of
a reservoir
• Azimuthal Gamma Ray sensors
were designed specifically for
geosteering applications
Gamma Ray Sensor Applications Clean Line
(25 api)
Shale Baseline
(75 api)

• Shale Volume Estimation


• Shale Volume is the ratio
between the zone value and the
spread between the clean and
Zone of Interest
shale lines (50 api)

• Used to correct other formation


evaluation sensor data for the
effect the shale has on the data
• Example calculation:
VSH (%) = GRlog – GRclean X 100
GRlog – GRclean

VSH (%) = 50 – 25 X 100


75 – 25

VSH (%) = 50%


Gamma Ray Data Interpretation
• Lithology response is
different between shale and
sandstone due to the varying
amounts of radioactivity
within the matrix of each
• No change in gamma
response in the sandstone Shale
despite the change in fluid
type through the formation Gas
• Gamma data can NOT Sandstone Oil
be used to identify the
presence or type of Salt H2O
hydrocarbon in the
formation Shale
Gamma Ray Data Interpretation

• Shale is fairly consistent over short


intervals allowing the analyst to
determine the “shale baseline”
• Halite (NaCl), which is not a
Shale reservoir rock, has an extremely
low gamma response because it is
Gas pure and has no radioactive
Oil components
Salt Water • Gypsum, anhydrite, coal are other
Shale formation types that will generate
very low gamma counts

Halite
Gamma Ray Data Interpretation

• Log analysts can


make qualitative
inferences based on
the shape and trend
of the gamma curve
• This is an example
of a sandstone
“cleaning up”
(decreasing in shale
content) from top to
bottom
LWD SENSOR THEORY,
APPLICATION, & INTERPRETATION

Shale

Gas
Oil
Salt Water

Shale

Salt
Resistivity Sensor Theory
• Physical Principles
• Electromagnetic wave resistivity sensors respond to the way RF
waves propagate (move) through the formation
• The propagation of an RF wave is controlled by the following
physical properties of the material through which the wave is
moving:
• Electrical Conductivity, which is the ability of a material to conduct an
electrical current
• Dielectric Permittivity, which is the ability of a material to store electrical
charge
• Magnetic Permeability, which is the ability of a material to become
magnetized
• At transmission frequencies below 10 MHz, the formation
conductivity is the dominant factor
• If reasonable assumptions are made for the dielectric permittivity
and magnetic permeability, measured wave parameters can be
related to the formation resistivity
Resistivity Sensor Theory
• What does the
Electromagnetic Resistivity
sensor measure?
• Phase Shift - the time
difference of arrival of the RF
wave between the two receivers
• Attenuation - the difference in
intensity of the RF wave signal
at each of the receivers
• Both the phase shift and
attenuation data can be used to
compute a formation resistivity
value
Resistivity Sensor Theory

Resistivity Conductivity Phase Shift Attenuation


High Low Small Low
Low High Large High

• Electromagnetic waves can propagate through any


medium, however, low resistivity (high conductivity)
mediums cause the most signal reduction
• Electromagnetic sensors can be used in any type of drilling
fluid (they actually perform better in high resistivity mud)
• Salinity of the drilling mud and the formation water,
along with the formation temperature, have the greatest
effect on the measured resistivity
Resistivity Sensor Theory
• Why two measurements?
• The physics behind the
measurements dictate that the
attenuation has a deeper depth Phase DOI Attenuation DOI
of investigation than the phase
• However, the dynamic range of
the phase is much better than
the attenuation
• Typically the phase data is used
quantitatively whereas the
attenuation data is used
qualitatively
Resistivity Sensor Theory

100
• The dynamic range
of the phase
Phase Shift (°)

10

1
measurement
extends out to
0.1
1000 ohm-m
0.01
0.1 1 10 100 1000

Resistivity (ohm-m)
Resistivity Sensor Theory

10
• The dynamic range
Attenuation (-dB)

1 of the attenuation
0.1
measurement is
typically less than
0.01
100 ohm-m
0.001
0.1 1 10 100 1000

Resistivity (ohm-m)
Resistivity Sensor Theory

• Breaking down the


formation components
• Hydrocarbons, rock
matrix, and dry clay are
infinitely resistive
• Since formation water is
the only conductive
component in the
formation, the amount
of water present in the
formation volume, its
salinity, and the
formation temperature
drives the resistivity
response
Resistivity Sensor Theory
• Why Multiple Transmission Frequencies?
• The choice of transmission frequency is dictated by two physical
phenomena:
• The measured phase shift and attenuation values are more dependent on
the formations dielectric permittivity than its resistivity at frequencies
greater than 10 MHz
• At frequencies below 100 KHz electrical eddy currents are induced in the
steel drill collar, essentially “short circuiting” the measurement between
the transmitters and receivers
• Lower frequencies allow for creating higher amplitude signals, which
allows for development of sensors with longer transmitter to receiver
spacing
• The more frequencies, the more measurements that can be made
Resistivity Sensor Theory
(50% Pseudo Geometric Factor, 1 ohmm)
Computalog’s Multi-
Computalog (MFR-80)
Frequency Resistivity
(MFR) sensor has a
deeper depth of
Computalog (MFR-46) investigation from its
46” spacing than the
industry average
Industry Average deepest reading spacing

0 50 100 150 200


Diameter of Investigation in Inches
Resistivity Sensor Theory
• Why Longer and Multiple
Transmitter to Receiver
Spacings?
• The depth of investigation of the sensor
increases with increasing transmitter to
receiver spacing
• Having multiple spacings allows the sensor
to “see” at different distances into the
formation
• Typical sensor design allows for
determination of the flushed zone, invaded
zone, and virgin zone resistivities
• The virgin zone resistivity (true formation
resistivity) is the most challenging to
obtain because the measurement is
affected by all the zones in between the
sensor and the formation
Resistivity Sensor Theory

• Shallow, Medium, and Deep spacings will provide 2 MHz and 400 KHz
transmission frequencies and yield phase and attenuation data (12 curves total)
• Shallow - 16”/ 24”
• Medium – 26”/ 34”
• Deep – 42”/ 50”
• MegaDeep spacing will utilize 100 KHz transmission frequency (2 curves only)
• MegaDeep – 76”/ 84”
• Highly accurate, even at high resistivities
Resistivity Sensor Theory
Percent Error vs. Resistivity
2000ohm⋅m 2000

The MFR accuracy is MFR Error Bands


ARC-5 Error Bands
better than the Anadrill Rup0 , i
1500

and Sperry-Sun

Apparent Resistivity (ohm-m)


Rlo0 , i

Rup1 , i
resistivity sensors Rlo1 , i
1000
Rup2 , i

Rlo2 , i

Ri
500

0ohm⋅m EWR Phase-4 Error Bands


0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
0 ⋅ohm⋅m Ri 2000⋅ohm⋅m
Formation Resistivity (ohm-m)
Resistivity Sensor Applications

• Qualitative Hydrocarbon Zone Indentification


• Determine Rt in Invaded Zones
• Quantitative Petrophysical Evaluation (fluid
saturations, formation porosity)
• Identify Movable Fluids (permeability indicator)
• Determine Casing and Coring points
• Predict Abnormal Formation Pore Pressure
• Geosteering
• Indicate Bed Boundaries in Horizontal Wells
(Polarization Horns)
• Indicate the presence of anisotropic formations
Resistivity Sensor Applications
Increasing Resistivity
• Qualitative Hydrocarbon
Zone Identification
• In general, when the
resistivity response is higher
than the shale baseline it is an
indication of the presence of
hydrocarbons
• In general, when the
resistivity response is lower Shale Baseline

than the shale baseline it is an


indication of the presence of
salt water
Resistivity Sensor Applications

• MWD data is less


affected by mud
invasion than
wireline data
• Typical MWD
exposure time is
less than one hour,
whereas wireline
exposure time is
generally from one
to seven days
Resistivity Sensor Applications

• Quantitative Petrophysical
Evaluation to calculate
formation porosity, water
saturation, and in-situ
reserves
• Archie’s equations provide
a quick-look estimation
• Other calculation methods
are much more rigorous
and take into account
many more parameters
Resistivity Sensor Applications
• Time-Lapse Logging aids
in identifying movable
fluids
• Re-logging a potential
pay zone and comparing
the resistivity values from
each pass can
qualitatively indicated
formation permeability
• Multiple spacing
resistivity sensors can
provide similar
information in a single
pass
Resistivity Sensor Applications
• Casing Point Selection Set casing here…

• Resistivity data can be used


to determine acceptable
casing points
• Casing is set in non-
permeable formations like
shale
• Trying to set casing in a
permeable sandstone may
cause the formation to
fracture or even collapse
the casing

… or here
Resistivity Sensor Applications
• Coring Point Selection
• Resistivity data can be used
to determine coring
intervals on subsequent
wells drilled after the pilot
hole
• Coring is very time
consuming and expensive,
therefore we would only
want to core the
hydrocarbon zone and not
the salt water zone
Resistivity Sensor Applications

• Pore pressure estimation in


under-compacted shales
• By monitoring shale
resistivity values, the
presence of an overpressure
transition zone can be seen
• Drilling into formation
pressure that is higher than
borehole pressure can cause
a “kick” and if uncontrolled
can result in a “blowout”
Resistivity Sensor Applications
Saturation Water
-18 1 % 0
Water
SW
Oil Water Saturation
Neutron Porosity

Neutron Porosity
(LS pu)
CNφ®
42 200

Resistivity
Resistivity
(Ohm-m)
EWR®
0 2
100
Gamma Ray

Rate of
DGR™
(AAPI)

(ft/hr)
ROP

Penetration

Gamma
500

Ray
0

X00
Well Path

Well Path
TVD Zone A
(FT)
X50 Zone B
X000 Measured Depth (Ft) X500

• Deeper depth of investigation is very useful for many real-time


geosteering applications
• The deeper the depth of investigation the better chance of
staying in the zone of interest
Resistivity Sensor Applications

When logging at high relative dip angles, the


resistivity sensor may yield some unusual responses
100 ohm-m
Near Bit Resistivity

o
1 Attack Angle
0.63 ft 0.37 ft

36 ft
0.37 ft
0.2 ohm-m

Deep Resistivity

100 ohm-m

3.44 ft 3.15 ft

163.67 ft

197 ft
0.2 ohm-m
Resistivity Sensor Applications
• Polarization Horns
• This phenomenon is caused by a
discontinuity in the propagating
electrical field as the tool crosses
the boundary between beds
having different resistivities
• The size of the horn depends on
the contrast between the
resistivities of the adjacent beds
and the relative dip angle
between the borehole and the
formation; the higher the
relative dip angle and greater
the resistivity contrast, the
larger the horn
• The magnitude of the horn
diminishes with decreasing
transmitter to receiver spacing
Resistivity Sensor Applications

• Anisotropic Formation
Indicator
• Anisotropic means that the
resistivity measured parallel
to the bedding planes is
different from the resistivity
measured perpendicular to
the bedding plane
• Shale, with its flat clay
structure, is a classic example
of an electrically anisotropic
rock
• The effect increases as the
relative dip angle increases Rh = 1Ω-m, Rv = 4 Ω-m
and is more pronounced on
the shallow reading spacings
Environmental Effects on the Measurement

• Borehole Enlargement (washout)


• Drilling Fluid (depth of investigation)
• Formation Shale Content (“bound” water)
• Formation Resistivity (depth of investigation)
• Bed Thickness (vertical resolution)
• “Shoulder Bed” Resistivity (masks Rt)
• Anisotropic Effects (curve separation in shale)
• Formation Temperature (fluid resistivity)
• Metallic Shielding (signal attenuation in casing)
• Formation Dielectric Effects (assumed value)
Resistivity Sensor Data Interpretation

• General Resistivity
Response
Shale • Shale response is typically low
due to the high amount of
associated water with clays
Gas • The hydrocarbon response (gas
Oil and oil) is generally the same,
but very different from the salt
Salt Water
water
• Salt has no fluid associated with
Shale it therefore its’ response is
infinite (off scale)

Salt
Resistivity Sensor Data Interpretation

• Formation Exposure Time


• Data logged in a high salinity
water sand with fresh mud
• No appreciable invasion seen on
the MWD data (1 hour)
• Significant invasion seen on the
MAD data (7.5 days, 23”)
• Wireline data shows even more
invasion effect (12 days, 63”)
• Shallowest MWD spacing
equivalent to wireline shallow
guard measurement
• Notice the superior vertical
resolution of the MWD data
versus the wireline
Resistivity Sensor Data Interpretation

• Step Invasion Profile


(Rxo>Rt)
• High salinity water
sands logged with fresh
Deep Shallow
mud will show an
invasion profile with
the deepest reading
spacing showing the
lowest resistivity and
the shallowest spacing
showing the highest
resistivity
Resistivity Sensor Data Interpretation

• Phase vs. Attenuation


Depth of Investigation Phase Attenuation
• Attenuation data has deeper
depth of investigation than
the phase data
• After 1.4 hours of exposure
time the phase shows more
effect from invasion than
the attenuation data (more
separation between the
curves)
• Phase data has better
vertical resolution than the
attenuation data
Resistivity Sensor Data Interpretation
Gamma Resistivity Neu / Den
• Zone #1 Evidence
• Resistivity decreases,
indicating either a Zone #1
decrease in the resistivity
of the pore fluids or an
increase in porosity
• Bulk density decreases
and the neutron porosity
increases, both indicating
an increase in porosity
• Gamma ray moves from
the shale baseline
towards a less shaley
formation
• Qualitative interpretation
of this zone based on
these curves is a porous,
wet zone
Resistivity Sensor Data Interpretation
• Zone #2 Evidence Gamma Resistivity Neu / Den

• Resistivity increases,
indicating either an
increase in the resistivity
of the pore fluids or a
decrease in porosity
• Bulk density increases
and the neutron porosity Zone #2
decreases, both indicating
a decrease in porosity
• Gamma ray moves from
the shale baseline
towards a less shaley
formation
• Qualitative interpretation
of this zone based on
these curves is a low
porosity (tight) zone
Resistivity Sensor Data Interpretation
Gamma Resistivity Neu / Den
• Zone #3 Evidence
• Resistivity increases,
indicating either an increase
in the resistivity of the pore
fluids or a decrease in
porosity
• Bulk density decreases
indicating an increase in
porosity; however, the
neutron porosity is showing
a decrease in porosity (the
two curves crossover each
other)
• Gamma ray moves from the Zone #3
shale baseline towards a less
shaley formation
• Qualitative interpretation of
this zone based on these
curves is a porous, gas zone
Resistivity Sensor Data Interpretation

Geosteering Objective:
Keep wellbore in oil zone (avoid shale, SHALE

gas, and water)

Sensors Required for Geosteering: GAS SAND

Gamma Ray - to differentiate between


shale and sandstone

Resistivity - to differentiate between oil OIL SAND

and water zones

Neutron porosity and Formation


Density – to differentiate between oil WATER SAND

and gas zones


LWD SENSOR THEORY,
APPLICATION, & INTERPRETATION

Shale

Gas
Oil
Salt Water

Shale

Salt
Pressure Sensor Theory
• Downhole pressure sensors
are drilling performance
tools that provide continuous
and direct downhole
measurement of internal and
annular pressure
• These pressure
measurements provide
information on downhole
hydraulics and fluid
performance that help the
driller avoid drilling
problems and optimize the
drilling process
Pressure Sensor Theory

• Absolute downhole pressure is measured using pressure


transducers and is best utilized in real-time
• An annular pressure sensor is used to provide an accurate
downhole pressure reading used to calculate equivalent mud
weight (EMW)
• EMW is the total pressure exerted on the formation by the
drilling fluid , expressed as though all pressures were from
mud weight alone
• EMW is calculated to make easier comparisons with mud
properties, surface readings, and pressure gradients
• True vertical depth must be accurate to effectively use EMW
to make real-time drilling decisions
• EMW = Annular Pressure / (TVD * K)
Pressure Sensor Theory

• Factors Affecting EMW


• Mud Weight
• Breaking a Gel
• Cuttings Load
• Flow Rate
• Formation Fluid Influx
• Restrictions in the Annulus
• Swab and Surge Pressures
• Sliding versus Rotary Drilling
Pressure Sensor Theory

• Mud Weight
• The measured surface mud weight is the
primary factor controlling downhole
pressure
• The mud weight set the baseline around
which all other factors vary
Pressure Sensor Theory

• Breaking a Gel
• Mud “sets up” as a gel when not flowing
• The force needed to break the gel and return
the mud to a fluid state adds to the annulus
pressure losses until the mud is fluid again
Pressure Sensor Theory

• Cuttings Load
• Suspended solids in the mud increase the mud
weight, which increases the hydrostatic
pressure of the mud column
Pressure Sensor Theory

• Flow Rate
• The pressure necessary at the bit to push the
mud up the annulus increases with increasing
flow rate
Pressure Sensor Theory

• Formation Fluid Influx


• When formation fluid flows into the annulus,
it changes the mud properties, which changes
the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the mud
• During a gas kick, the gas bubble displaces
mud and expands as it rises in the annulus,
drastically reducing the hydrostatic pressure
Pressure Sensor Theory

• Restrictions in the Annulus


• Restrictions to circulation increase the
pressure necessary to move the fluid at a
specific flow rate
• Restrictions can be caused by swelling
formations, poor hole cleaning, hole collapse,
fractured formations, or any other formation
factor that causes the walls of the borehole to
come loose and enter the annulus
Pressure Sensor Theory

• Swab and Surge Pressures


• Moving the drillstring axially in the hole
displaces the drilling fluid like a piston in a
cylinder
• Swabbing the hole decreases the annulus
pressure and surging the hole increases the
annulus pressure
Pressure Sensor Theory

• Sliding versus Rotary Drilling


• The annular fluid flow path when sliding is
different from the flow path when rotating
the drillpipe
• This changes the resistance to the flow, the
type of flow regime, and the path length of
the flow
Pressure Sensor Data Interpretation

• Circulation & Rotation


• During circulation (pumps on)
the EMW increases because
cuttings are suspended; the
EMW will drop as the cuttings
are circulated out
• During pumps off, the EMW
decreases to hydrostatic
• Rotation of the drillpipe
increases the EMW (see next
slide)
Pressure Sensor Data Interpretation

• How Rotation increases EMW


• Rotation changes the eccentricity of the drillpipe which
adds turbulence that requires more pressure to move the
fluid; this effect is increased with increasing hole
inclination and rotation speed
• Rotation keeps solids suspended which increases mud
weight; how much of an increase is determined by the
rate of rotation, mud properties, and the well geometry
Pressure Sensor Data Interpretation

• Surge and Swab


• Surge pressures force the
fluid up the annulus with
increased velocity,
resulting in an increase in
EMW
• Swab pressures force the
fluid down the annulus;
this subtracts from the
pressures felt at the sensor
and lowers the EMW
• Running speed and
“tightness” of the hole will
dictate the severity of the
change in EMW
Pressure Sensor Data Interpretation

• Rig Heave
• When the bit is off bottom
and there is no active rig
heave compensation, rig
heave causes low
frequency reciprocal
surge-swab variations in
the EMW
• In this North Sea
example, rig heave during
high seas in winter caused
enough swab to collapse
the hole and induce
packoff, lost circulation,
and hole fill
Pressure Sensor Data Interpretation

• Poor Hole
Cleaning
• Uneven EMW during
drilling is an indication
of poor hole conditions
and varying
restrictions to
circulation
Pressure Sensor Data Interpretation

• Gas Influx
• Gas influx into the
annulus appears as a
rapid and sometimes
dramatic decrease in the
EMW
Pressure Sensor Data Interpretation

• Salt Water and Sand


Influx during
Riserless Drilling
• A salt water kick from an
unconsolidated formation
can carry sand into the
annulus resulting in an
increase in EMW
Pressure Sensor Data Interpretation

• Gel Strength
Pressure Spikes
• Gellation produces an
initial resistance to
circulation which may
require significant Fracture Pressure

pressure to overcome
• In this example, the gel
pressure spikes initiated
fractures in the formation
which caused lost
circulation
Pressure Sensor Data Interpretation

• Packoff Pressure Spikes


• Packoff occurs when enough settled cuttings are present to
create a restriction in the annulus which causes a sudden
increase in EMW
• Packoff usually is a result of hole collapse or poor hole
cleaning
• Packoff spikes can be large enough to cause formation fracture
Pressure Sensor Data Interpretation
• Lost Circulation
• The pressure sensor does
not provide a direct
indication of lost circulation
unless the loss is severe
enough to cause a loss of
hydrostatic head
• Pressure data is often useful
in determining how the lost
circulation occurred and
what the EMW was when it
occurred
• In this instance a large
reaming down surge
immediately preceded a lost
circulation incident
Pressure Sensor Applications
Applications Pressure Response Comments
Formation Integrity Test Lack of pressure bleed off The data from the test is
after shutting in the well transmitted to the surface
indicates the formation will when the pumps come on
withstand the tested pressure
Leak Off Test The pressure at which there The data from the test is
is a break in the slope of the transmitted to the surface
LOT pressure curve when the pumps come on
indicates the fracture
pressure of the formation
Measuring Pumps-Off Swab The pumps-off maximum The pumps-off minimum
and Surge Pressures and Gel pressure captures the largest captures the lowest swab
Strength of the mud surge or gel pressure pressure
experienced during the
pumps off cycle
Detecting Packoff The appearance of a series of This results in a pressure
positive spikes in the EMW spike only when the packoff
indicates packoff is above the pressure sensor
Pressure Sensor Applications
Applications Pressure Response Comments
Monitoring Hole Cleaning A gradual decrease in EMW This results from cuttings
while steering indicates poor settling out in high angle
hole cleaning wellbores

A steady increase in EMW This results from settled


while rotating indicates poor cuttings being lifted back into
hole cleaning suspension

Short term variations in EMW This results from restrictions


can indicate poor hole in the wellbore while
cleaning circulating

A decrease of EMW to the EMW is the same as the


input mud weight while calculated ECD
circulating indicates the hole is
clean
Pressure Sensor Applications
Applications Pressure Response Comments
Measuring Pressures from EMW shifts with a change in
Rotation or Flow rotary speed or flow

Detecting Formation Fluid A decrease in EMW that The size of the decrease is
Influx when drilling with does not correlate to rig relative to the mud densities
mud operations and the volume of influx

Detecting Gas Influx A sudden large decrease in This is usually a dramatic


EMW that does not correlate change and not seen at the
to rig operations surface for several minutes

Mud Weight Optimization A stable EMW between the


fracture pressure and pore
pressure

Detecting Hole Instability Hole collapse causes a Often correlates with high
sudden increase in EMW as rotary torque
solids load up in the annulus
This page intentionally left blank.
Gamma Ray Sensor Theory
What Are Gamma Rays?
Gamma rays are a form of high energy electromagnetic (EM) radiation. Other examples of
EM radiation are visible light, radio and microwaves, infrared and ultraviolet light, and x-rays.
Each of these forms is distinguished in the EM spectrum by their frequency (f) and wavelength
(λ). In free space (that is, a vacuum) all EM waves travel at the speed of light, c, which is 3 ×
108 meters/second, or 186,000 miles/second 1. The frequency and wavelength are related to the
speed by the equation
c =λf
While the characterization of EM energy by frequency and wavelength implies wavelike
behavior, it is a reality of the microscopic (i.e., quantum mechanical) world that waves of
short enough wavelength exhibit particle-like behavior. Such “particles” of light are
designated “photons”. This particle-like behavior is important in the physics of gamma-
gamma logging devices.
Whether or not it is appropriate to treat EM radiation of a particular frequency as a particle is a
function of the wavelength of the radiation and how it compares with atomic dimensions.
Visible light, which has wavelengths that are a factor of about 107 greater than atomic
dimensions, and the even longer wavelength radio waves, are almost always analyzed as
waves. But x-rays and gamma rays, which are at the short end of the spectrum of wavelengths,
are most often thought of as particles rather than waves. Photons have no mass as do the
electron and proton, but they do have energy and momentum. These are dependent on their
frequency (or wavelength, since given a knowledge of the speed of light, one can be computed
from the other) 2.
It is important to realize that a gamma ray’s energy is proportional to its frequency. Thus, as
its energy decreases, its speed, c, remains the same (it does not “slow down”); rather, its
frequency decreases. Although we speak of gamma rays as particles, they have no mass (in
contrast to electrons, protons, and neutrons, which each have their own characteristic mass).
However, a fundamental interaction of electrons with gamma rays, that of Compton scattering,
is adequately understood by analyzing the interaction as one would a billiard ball type
collision between two particles.
Finally, we note that the electron volt (eV) is the unit used to characterize the energy of
gamma rays and most other entities in the atomic and nuclear world. The electron volt is the
amount of energy gained by an electron when it is accelerated through an electrical potential
difference of one volt. It is equal to 1.6 × 10-19 joules of energy (or 4.4 × 10-26 Kilowatt-hours).
For comparison, the energy required to ionize a hydrogen atom (separate it into a free proton
and electron) is 13.6 eV, and the energy of the gamma rays emitted by the Cs137 logging source
is 662 KeV (that is, 662 × 103 eV).
1. The letter “c”, which often designates the speed of light mathematically, is chosen thanks to the word “celerity”, which denotes rapidity of
motion or action.
2. The kinetic energy, or energy associated with the motion of a particle, is given by the formula (1/2)mv2, where m and v are mass and
velocity respectively. Likewise, the momentum of a particle is the product of its mass and velocity. However, this only applies to particles
which have mass. Photons have no mass. The energy of a photon is given by the equation E=hf, where f is the frequency in Hertz, or cycles
per second, h is Planck’s constant, which is 4.14 × 10-15 eV-s, and E is energy in electron volts (eV). The momentum of a photon is
p=h/λ=hf/c.

1
Gamma Ray Sensor Theory

The Gamma Sensor Measurement


Gamma sensors measure naturally occurring radiation rather than induced gamma rays from a
source. These natural gamma rays emanate from radioactive elements contained in
sedimentary formations, mainly potassium (K), thorium (Th), and uranium (U). Potassium and
thorium are closely associated with the presence of clay minerals in shale (illite, kaolinite, and
montmorillonite), while uranium may be found in sands, shale, and certain carbonates. The
gamma sensors provide an excellent indicator of the presence of shale.

Gamma Ray Emission Spectra of Potassium, Thorium & Uranium


The radiation from potassium is distinct, with a single energy value of 1.46 MeV. Both
thorium and uranium emit radiation with a range of energies, but with certain peak
frequencies. These peaks are especially distinct at energy levels of 2.62 MeV for thorium and
1.7 MeV for uranium. Emission spectra for potassium, thorium, and uranium are shown in the
figure below.

Figure 1 - Gamma Ray Emission Spectra

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Gamma Ray Sensor Theory

A gamma sensor counts the gamma rays emitted by the formation. The relationship between
counts and gamma ray energy from potassium, thorium, and uranium is shown in the figure
below.

Figure 2 - Complex Spectrum Observed from a Radioactive Source Containing K, Th, and U

Gamma Scattering and Interactions with Matter


There are three mechanisms by which gamma rays may interact with matter: Pair Production,
Compton Scattering, and the Photoelectric Effect. Which of these effects occur, and their
relative probability of occurrence, is governed by the energy available in the photon and by
the physics involved in the interaction of the photon and its environment.
Pair Production
In the case of pair production, the gamma ray is converted into an electron/positron pair. In
order for this to occur, the photon must have an energy above threshold of 1.02 MeV, which is
simply the sum of the rest mass energies of the electron/positron pair, as determined by
Einstein’s formula, E=mc2. If the photon energy is less than 1.02 MeV, pair production is
prohibited since the energy required to produce the two particles is unavailable. The most
common source of gamma rays used in well logging is radioactive cesium, which emits
gamma rays with energies of 662 KeV. Since this energy is less than 1.02 MeV, pair
production is excluded as a possibility and will be considered no further here.
Compton Scattering
Compton scattering refers to the particle-like interaction between a gamma ray and a free
electron. The outcome of scattering between a gamma ray and an electron is governed by the
laws of conservation of energy and momentum. Basically, these laws establish limits on the
possible outcomes of the interaction. The best analogy to Compton scattering is that of a
collision between two billiard balls. In such a collision, a ball moving at some velocity
collides with a second ball that can be considered without loss of generality to be initially at
rest. In the collision, the first ball transfers some of its energy and momentum to the second
ball. After the collision, the balls leave the collision site with values of momentum and energy
that are constrained by the physical laws – those of conservation of energy and conservation of
momentum.

4/8/2002 3
Gamma Ray Sensor Theory

For energy to be conserved, the total kinetic energy of the two balls after the collision cannot
be greater than the total kinetic energy of the balls before the collision. If the second ball is at
rest before the collision, as we have said, then the total kinetic energy before the collision is
simply that which the first ball had before the collision. To conserve momentum, the vector
sum of the momentum of the balls following the collision must be the same as the vector sum
of the momentum of the balls preceding the collision.

Figure 3 - Representation of a Scattering Event by Billiard Balls

In the interaction between a gamma ray and an electron, the gamma ray is the incoming
particle with both energy and momentum. In the collision, some energy and momentum are
transferred to the electron from the gamma ray. The Compton interaction is perfectly “elastic”,
in that all of the energy lost by the gamma ray appears as kinetic energy gained by the
electron. This is different from the billiard ball case in that the sum of the kinetic energies of
the balls after the collision is always slightly less than the kinetic energy of the cue ball before
the collision because some energy is transformed into heat and sound during the collision. The
billiard ball collision is always an “inelastic” collision. The directions of travel of the electron
and gamma ray after the collision are such that their combined momentum after the collision is
the same as before the collision.
The specific case of head-on collisions is of particular interest in both billiards and Compton
scattering. For such a collision the maximum amount of energy is transferred when two
billiard balls collide head-on, the energy and momentum of the first ball is completely
transferred to the second, with the result that the first stops completely at the interaction site
and the second continues on with the velocity and energy that the first ball had before the
collision. The laws of physics allow this complete transfer of energy and momentum to occur
only in head-on collisions between balls -- or particles -- of equal mass.
For Compton scattering, however, the gamma ray has no mass; as a consequence, it is
impossible for it to completely transfer its energy to the electron. So a head-on collision

4 4/8/2002
Gamma Ray Sensor Theory

between a gamma ray and electron may occur, but the maximum amount of energy that can be
transferred from the gamma ray to the electron in the Compton interaction will always be less
than the total energy of the gamma ray, and the gamma ray will always still exist after a
Compton scattering event.
Photoelectric Effect
While gamma rays always emerge from the Compton interaction, albeit with a reduced
energy, they do completely disappear as a result of the third form of gamma ray interaction
with matter, the photoelectric interaction, or photoelectric effect. In this case, a gamma ray
encounters an electron bound in an atom and the energy of the gamma ray is completely
absorbed by the electron - atom system. The energy of the gamma ray is distributed between
the electron, which is completely ejected from the atom as a result of the interaction, and the
remainder of the atom (now a positive ion after the ejection of the electron). The reason the
gamma ray can completely disappear in this case, and not in the case of the Compton
interaction, is the fact that after the interaction there are two particles -- the electron and the
positive ion -- which in combination can always allow momentum to be conserved in the
interaction.

The Life History of a Gamma Ray


It is now useful to discuss the “life history” of a gamma ray in matter. We imagine the simple
situation of a source of gamma rays imbedded in a homogenous formation. When a gamma
ray is emitted from an atom, it travels in a straight line until it interacts with an electron. Since
the speed of all gamma rays is the same (3.0 × 108 meters/second), the distance the gamma ray
travels before its collision will depend just on the density of electrons.
As indicated above, for the chemicals in that part of the earth typically measured by logging
tools, the first interaction will most likely be Compton scattering. This is represented by point
A, where such an event is schematically depicted. At point A, an electron acquires some of the
energy of the gamma ray, and the gamma ray itself recoils in another direction with its energy
reduced by the amount given to the electron. Eventually the gamma ray encounters another
electron (point B) and a second interaction occurs, with the result that yet more energy is lost
by the gamma ray, which undergoes another change in its direction of travel. This may occur
several times in succession, with the energy decreasing further with each interaction. The
amount of energy lost at each interaction point (A, B, C, and D) and the deviation in the
direction of travel of the gamma ray is random with each occurrence. With each interaction
and associated reduction of gamma ray energy, the probability of a photoelectric event in the
next interaction increases.
When the photoelectric event finally occurs (point E), all of the remaining energy of the
gamma ray is transferred to the electron and its associated atom, and the gamma ray ceases to
exist. For each successive gamma ray, the distances between interactions and the outcome of
each are random. On the average however, the distance between interactions decreases for
each successive interaction and this average will be a function of the electron density of the
material

4/8/2002 5
Gamma Ray Sensor Theory

Figure 4 - Life History of a Gamma Ray

It may be useful at this point to imagine a cloud of gamma rays in the vicinity of the source.
Near the source, the cloud has its highest density. The gamma rays have their highest energies
near the source and are moving primarily in a direction radially away from it in this region. As
the distance from the source increases, gamma rays are likely to have scattered at least once,
with the result that the average energy of the gamma rays in the cloud is decreased.
With greater distances from the source, the probability of additional scatterings is larger and
the average energy of the gamma rays in the cloud is even lower. The density of gamma rays
in the cloud decreases with increasing distance from the source. This is true for two reasons:
first, simple geometrical spreading occurs; second, the decreased energy of the gamma rays
with increasing distance renders their disappearance due to the photoelectric effect
progressively more likely. At sufficiently great distances from the source, the gamma rays will
all have been reduced in energy through multiple scatterings to be removed altogether through
the photoelectric interaction.

Figure 5 - Gamma Ray Density as a Function of Distance from Source

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Gamma Ray Sensor Theory

Gamma Ray Spectral Analysis


The gamma ray spectrum, otherwise known as a pulse height spectrum or pulse height
distribution, is a method to analyze the energy information obtained from a scintillation
detector. It consists of obtaining the distribution of gamma rays detected according to pulse
height or energy.
There are several steps in the process of producing such a spectrum. First, the electronic pulses
from the PMT are digitized according to pulse amplitude. That is each pulse is assigned a
number, the magnitude of which is proportional to the pulse height (in volts) of the gamma
ray. Since the pulse height is proportional to the energy that the gamma ray deposited in the
scintillator, it follows that this number is then proportional to that energy as well. In the
production of a spectrum the energy range of the gamma rays is divided into discrete intervals,
or channels. Each of these channels is assigned a memory location in the computer, which
serves as a scalar, or counter, of detected gamma rays whose energies fall in its range. The
pulse height spectrum is a display of the number of counts per channel versus the channel
number, or versus the energy corresponding to each channel.

Figure 6 - Illustration of Voltage Pulse Conversion into a Pulse Height Distribution

4/8/2002 7
Gamma Ray Sensor Hardware

Gamma Ray Detection with GMT’s and Scintillators


In order to count gamma rays, one must detect them. Detection is universally accomplished
through exploiting the fact that the interaction of the gamma rays with matter produces
electron-ion pairs. Two types of gamma ray detectors are commonly used in MWD/LWD
sensors: Geiger-Mueller (G-M) tubes and NaI Scintillators (a scintillator is a material that
converts energy into light).

Geiger-Mueller Tubes
The G-M tube has a crude detection capability. The tube consists of a metal cylinder, which
functions electrically as a cathode and a single anode wire down its center. The tube contains inert
gases (e.g., bromine, neon) in which ionization takes place. A high voltage (usually >1000 volts) is
placed between the wire and the cylinder, with the wire functioning as the (positive) anode.
Operationally, a gamma ray is detected when it interacts with an electron in the wall of the tube
(either through Compton scattering or the photoelectric effect) causing the electron to be ejected
into the gas of the tube. Interactions in the gas are much less likely than in the wall because of the
much lower density of the gas.
Once the negatively charged electron is in the gas it is attracted to the positive anode wire. As it
approaches the wire, it gains energy from the electric field, and collides with atoms of gas in the
tube causing further ionization in the tube gas. The free electrons created in these collisions are
also attracted to the anode, and as they gain energy, they ionize more atoms themselves. A
multiplicative effect ensues, which eventually results in a momentary electrical breakdown of the
tube. This is observed as a voltage pulse across the cathode and anode of the tube, and may be
counted electronically.
The G-M tube is a simple, rugged device. However, one of its disadvantages is its low counting
efficiency. The most likely place for an interaction causing a breakdown is in the small volume
constituting the inner surface of the tube. The gas itself is of low enough density that ionizing
events are seldom initiated in it. Another disadvantage is the fact that the G-M tube gives no
information about the energy of the gamma ray it detected. Low and high energy gamma rays will
produce pulses that are, for all practical purposes, indistinguishable.

Scintillation Detectors
Detection of gamma rays using Scintillators represents a significant improvement over both the
efficiency and spectral deficiencies of G-M tubes. The most common scintillation detector, and the
one used in MLW/LWD sensors, is the sodium iodide (NaI) crystal.
Again, the detection occurs as the gamma ray interacts with the electrons in the NaI crystal, either
through Compton scattering or the photoelectric event. However, the effective volume of the
detector is that of the crystal (to be compared with the small volume defined by the inner surface of
the G-M tube). That is, an interaction occurring anywhere in the crystal will be detected. This
means that an NaI crystal will be as effective at detecting gamma rays as a G-M tube(s) occupying
many times the NaI volume.

8
Gamma Ray Sensor Theory

A second desirable feature of the NaI detector is its energy, or spectral, sensitivity. Spectral
sensitivity follows from the way detection is actually accomplished. When a gamma ray interacts
with an electron in the NaI crystal through Compton or photoelectric mechanisms, all
(photoelectric interaction) or part (Compton) of the gamma energy will be imparted to the electron.
In its turn the electron interacts with atoms in the NaI crystal, and it is a property of the crystal that
a repeatable fraction of the energy of the electron is converted to light within the crystal. Hence the
term “scintillation detection”. The amount, or intensity, or brightness of the light pulse is
proportional to the energy of the electron.
The light that is produced by even the highest energy gamma ray is still much too dim to be seen
with the unaided eye; however, it may be detected by converting it to an electronic signal and
amplifying that signal using a photomultiplier tube (PMT). Such a tube is connected optically to
the crystal, and light entering the tube from the crystal is converted to an electrical pulse. The
electrical pulse amplitude is proportional to the brightness of the light pulse and, therefore,
proportional to the energy of the electron in turn. Thus, the NaI crystal/PMT combination
constitutes a detector capable of measuring the energy given to the electron by the gamma ray.
Note again that the energy obtained by the electron as a result of Compton scattering is not that of
the gamma ray but some lesser amount. However, if the scintillation crystal is large enough, it is
possible that successive multiple scatterings of an individual gamma ray can occur within the
crystal until all of the gamma energy is converted to light. Since the gamma ray travels with the
speed of light, such multiple events are all simultaneous within the resolution of the electronics.
Thus, the energies of the electrons created by all the interactions all add together to produce an
optical pulse, and in its turn an electronic pulse that is proportional to the energy of the fully
absorbed gamma ray. In this case then, a relationship may be drawn between electronic pulse
amplitude and gamma ray energy.

Environmental Effects on the Gamma Ray Measurement


Washout
The Gamma Ray log is relatively unaffected by small borehole irregularities, but is greatly affected
by large washouts. This is due to the increase in drilling fluid between the formation and the
detector which causes increased Compton scattering and a decrease in the gamma ray log value.
As the hole gets larger relative to the tool size, fewer gamma counts are detected. Turbulent flow
of mud occurs when annular velocity exceeds critical velocity. Turbulent mud flow causes a
washout to occur more quickly than under laminar flow conditions.
Mud Weight
Gamma ray energy is attenuated by dense material. Barite is a highly efficient absorber of gamma
ray energy (about 5.5 g/cc). Since barite is a weighting material, gamma ray response decreases as
mud weight increases.

4/8/2002 9
Gamma Ray Sensor Theory

Borehole Effects
On the other hand, the opposite effect is caused by the use of radioactive drilling fluid additives,
such as KCl. The Gamma Ray sensor detects radioactivity in the potassium and results in an
increase in absolute values, particularly in the area of a washout. Introduction of KCl into the mud
system causes a positive baseline shift, as shown in the figure below.

Figure 7 - Effects of KCl drilling fluid on log

Gamma Ray Sensor Response


Shale (Clays)
Shale is a mixture of clay minerals and silt laid down in a very low energy depositional
environment. Solids in typical shale may consist of about 50% clay (mostly potassium and
thorium), 25% silica, 10% feldspar, 10% carbonate, and 2% organic matter. Organic matter gives
shale its’ dark color and is the main ingredient that allows shale to be a hydrocarbon source rock.
Since the depositional environment for shale is fairly consistent, the response from the sensor
should be fairly uniform through short intervals, revealing a shale baseline which can be used to
distinguish them from reservoir zones.

10 4/8/2002
Gamma Ray Sensor Theory

Reservoir Rocks
Reservoir rocks are generally sandstone (SiO2), limestone (CaO3), or dolomite (CaMgCO2). In
“clean”, clay-free reservoirs the gamma ray response will be fairly low, but not zero, due to the
presence of some radioactive impurities. However, if clay is present in a reservoir rock, the gamma
ray response will be somewhere between the clean zone and a shale response.
Salt
Halite is crystalline NaCl, with no radioactive impurities. The gamma response will be very close
to zero.
Note: Coal, anhydrite, and gypsum appear similar to salt on a log.
Hot Streaks
High radiation zones, or hot streaks, are usually thin layers due to depositional conditions of the
time period associated with volcanic activity. These streaks typically have a much higher gamma
response than the shale baseline
Uranium
Uranium is soluble in water and can migrate into permeable beds. This can mask the response of a
reservoir rock if uranium is present
Overpressured Zones
In an overpressured zone, excess bound water replaces matrix thereby reducing the overall gamma
response. This trend is very slight and not very noticeable over a short interval on the Gamma
curve.

Analysis & Interpretation of Gamma Ray Logs

Add in examples as they are obtained

4/8/2002 11
Gamma Ray Sensor Theory

Factors Affecting Gamma Log Quality

Depth of Investigation
Generally speaking, the gamma ray sensor measures naturally occurring radiation from within 30
cm (both horizontally and vertically) of the sensor detector. The relationship between the percent
of contribution to the radiation signal measured by the detector and the distance from the borehole
wall is shown in the figure below.

Figure 8 – Gamma Ray sensor depth of investigation

Hole Size vs. Tool Size


As the distance between the sensor and the hole decreases, gamma counts increase, and vice versa.
This can occur as a result of a change in tool size during a BHA change with the same hole size.
Rotation vs. Sliding
During a slide in a directional hole, the detector bank may coincidentally be closer to the
formation. The phenomenon may reverse or be eliminated during the next slide depending upon
the position of the sensor.
Calibration Factors
Inaccurate correction factors used for processing data can appear on as log as a shift in the gamma
ray curve.
Logging Speed and Sampling Interval
There are restrictions on logging speeds when using the Gamma Ray sensor because gamma
rays are counted over a fixed time period, called the sampling interval. Practically speaking,
the gamma ray sensor should not travel more than 30 cm during the sampling interval.
The goals in any type of nuclear logging are mutually exclusive. That is, we know that the
longest sampling interval possible is best for precise statistics, but that the shortest sampling
interval provides for the maximum log data density.

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Gamma Ray Sensor Theory

Important: Data density and vertical resolution are frequently confused. Vertical resolution is
defined by the sensor design, not be data rate. Effective resolution can be decreased, however,
for any sensor if the sample rate is insufficient.
In order to resolve these two requirements, we must develop guidelines based on minimum
acceptable precision and minimum acceptable data density, and then choose the appropriate
sampling intervals and data densities to meet these minimum requirements.
Gamma sensors count gamma rays during the entire sampling period. This means that the
distance the drill pipe moves during the sampling interval is significant. Although we plot
only one point at the end of the sampling interval, this value represents an average of the
formation encountered during the entire sampling interval. Nuclear sensors will provide a
legitimate average of the formations traversed, and will merely tend to smear the beds rather
than miss them entirely.
However, as we increase the sampling interval in an attempt to increase data density, we know
that the precision of the measurement decreases. The statistical error in a 16 second
measurement will be exactly twice the error at 64 seconds. At 4 seconds, the error will be
double the 16 second error, and so on. There is a point (different for each sensor) where the
error (noise) becomes very large compared with the measurement itself, and it at this point
that the data becomes essentially meaningless.

Important: Any time there is a question about sample rates, it is better to be in error on the
side of choosing a faster sampling rate. In the event the statistics are poor, we can always
average multiple measurements and achieve the same statistical precision as would have been
achieved with the longer sampling interval. Going in the reverse direction is impossible. There
is no way to improve the effective resolution of a log made with long sampling intervals.

Effects of Statistics on Log Quality

A full understanding of the effects of nuclear statistics on log quality is imperative for
individuals working with such logs. Accuracy and precision are not interchangeable terms.
Accuracy is the extent to which a measuring device is capable of determining the true value of
the parameter being measured. Precision is the extent to which a single measurement of the
device may differ from the true value of the parameter.
This is significant because a very precise measurement will have very little variation from one
measurement to the next, but may or may not be accurate. An accurate device may yield
individual measurements that differ greatly from the true value, but the average of multiple
measurements will be equal to the true value.
Since gamma sensors rely on measurements of the rate at which nuclear particles enter a
detector, they are, by definition, statistical in nature. All purely statistical measurements can
be assessed for accuracy only through probability theory. This means that unless there is some
non-statistical method for measuring the parameter of interest, one can never measure the
absolute accuracy of the parameter. The only way to measure gamma values in any zone is to
make repeat measurements with a sensor of known precision, and average them to determine
the true value.

4/8/2002 13
Gamma Ray Sensor Theory

When designing a gamma ray sensor, trade-offs between precision, accuracy, and sampling
interval must be considered. Accuracy of gamma ray sensors is adjusted through appropriate
calibration procedures. Precision, however, is a function of the detector efficiency. In nuclear
statistics, the number of counts per second detected is generally directly related to the
measurement precision. Thus, a sensor with 90 percent efficiency is likely to have better
precision than a sensor with 10 percent efficiency, since an error of 10 counts in 100 is much
greater than an error of 10 counts in 1000.

Gamma Ray Applications

Gamma ray applications include:


• Determining shale volume - By using the relative response of the gamma curve compared
with a 100% shale reading, the shale volume (Vsh) in the formation can be estimated from the
following equation:

To calculate the shale volume (Vsh) of any zone, determine the denominator of the equation
by subtracting the clean sand reading (GRclean) from the shale baseline reading (GRsh).
Then, determine the numerator of the equation by subtracting the reading in the zone of
interest (GRzone) from the shale baseline (GRsh). Calculate the shale volume (Vsh) by
dividing the numerator by the denominator.
• Well offset correlation - The gamma ray sensor provides excellent correlation in field
appraisal and development drilling, particularly if initially used on exploratory and delineation
wells for development well correlation. In many fields, the gamma ray sensor alone is suitable
for real-time casing and core point selection.
• Safety - The gamma ray sensor will accurately chart bed stratification. In combination with
the resistivity sensor, the gamma ray sensor enables pore pressure prediction, leading to faster,
safer exploratory drilling and operations in difficult fields.
• Log of record – In combination with the resistivity sensor, the gamma ray sensor will
provide intermediate logs of definitive quality for archive uses while providing information to
improve drilling operational efficiency.
• Enhanced interpretation of wireline logs - Higher data sampling rates (recorded logs) give
greater definition and more exact bed delineation, which aids in identifying the
smoothing/averaging effects of high wireline traverse speeds. Because at typical drilling rates
the gamma ray sensor passes formations slower than typical wireline gamma ray sensors, the
resulting logs have higher definition and less statistical uncertainty.
• Directional control - The gamma ray sensor allows for improved trajectory monitoring. By
removing one bank of detectors and replaying them with shielding, azimuthal readings may be
taken. In its azimuthal configuration, the gamma ray may be used not only to differentiate
between shale and reservoir rock, but to also determine whether the wellbore has exited out of
the top or bottom of the reservoir.

14 4/8/2002
Reprinted with permission from
THE LOG ANALYST
Vol. XXIV, No. 1
January-February 1983
GAMMA RAY
MEASUREMENT-WHILE-DRILLING
DANIEL F. COOPE
NL Industries

ABSTRACT ment theoretically and in our test facility. Our study includes
A number of petroleum service companies offer downhole extensive testing in the field.
measurement-while-drilling (MWD) services. The gamma ray The gamma ray sensor, like other MWD sensors, is best
(GR) log is a component of all systems offering more than placed inside the drill collar portion of the drill string, near
just directional only MWD. It is used alone and together with the bit. There is more room for packaging electronics in the
wireline logs and mud logs for correlation and to enhance collars than in the drill pipe, the position in the hole is easier
formation evaluation. MWD GR and formation resistivity to control, and the sensor is near the bottom of the hole where
measurements can be used in concert to signal the onset of information is most desirable. Unless the sensor is placed on
an under-compacted zone which may be overpressured. This the outside of the collar (a difficult mechanical feat), the
predictive aspect of MWD will make drilling exploratory wells formation gamma rays must pass through at least one inch,
safer and more efficient. but usually more, of steel collar to reach the detector. In the
The GR MWD measurement technique is significantly dif- case of the wireline measurement, the effects of mud cake and
ferent from the wireline technique and, as a result, comparison casing have been well-studied, and are minor effects for a cor-
of MWD and wireline logs may at times display significant rectly calibrated tool (Tittman, 1956; American Petroleum
differences. The predominant differences will be caused by Institute, 1974). In contrast, a few inches of drill collar can
the drill collars and drilling rate. Often, depth resolution and significantly affect the MWD log.
vertical bed delineation of MWD logs will be superior to con- Another aspect of the MWD GR measurement that is
ventional wireline logs, providing improved stratigraphic cor- different from the wireline measurement is logging speed.
relation. We have studied these effects theoretically, in our Wireline GR logs are usually run at constant speeds,
test facility, and in the field. This paper describes these typically 1800 ft/hr. Drilling rate determines the MWD
effects and their impact on the GR MWD log. We believe logging speed, which will vary from about 10 ft/hr to over
that by anticipating and understanding the effects, the MWD 100 ft/hr. The variable MWD logging speed can affect the
log will have added benefits over wireline logs. vertical resolution of the log, as we shall show. Compared to
wireline logs, the slow logging speed leads to much improved
INTRODUCTION resolution-bed boundary and thickness.
The directional measurement-while-drilling (MWD) service Although we do expect to see differences between MWD
is widely recognized in the oil field, but other measurements and wireline measured GR logs, the MWD log will serve the
same uses as traditional GR logs. In addition, we point out
are also offered, including gamma Ray (GR) and formation
resistivity. These two measurements can be used to replace new uses and advantages, some of which are a result of these
some wireline logging runs, and used in concert with wireline differences. Uses envisioned for MWD GR logs are:
● The log can be used by the driller to identify “markers” for
logs for correlation and to enhance formation evaluation. GR
and resistivity can be used to signal the onset of an under- casing points or entry into a known abnormally pressured
compacted zone, which can be over-pressured (Fertl, 1976). zone.
● Alone, or with resistivity, it can signal entry into abnormal
This predictive aspect of MWD will make drilling exploratory
wells safer and more efficient. pressures (Fertl, 1976; Tanguy and Zoeller, 1981).
The GR log is a component of all commercial, multi-sensor ● It provides an “API type” log for formation evaluation and

MWD services (Franz, 1981; Gearhart, 1981; Tanguy and correlation with wireline logs. It will provide stratigraphic
Zoeller, 1981). As will be demonstrated in this article, the correlation with offset wells. Resolution will often be
MWD GR measurement technique is different from the superior to wireline, leading to better correlation.
wireline GR measurement. We have looked closely at this dif- ● When used with wireline, MWD GR may give lithology

ference and believe that it needs to be generally understood. information other than just “shale or sand” indications.
We have studied the special aspects of the MWD GR measure- ● MWD will provide logs for holes that cannot be logged, or

THE LOG ANALYST


are hard to log, with a wireline. An obvious use is in highly ACCURACY AND BED RESOLUTION
deviated wells. The drill collar reduces gamma ray intensity by roughly a
There are other more general differences between MWD factor of five to ten, depending on collar thickness (Cobern
and wireline logs. For example, hole definition will often be and Coope, TBP). Loss of intensity can affect accuracy, and
better for MWD, since the measurement is made soon after can indirectly affect bed resolution, because both are a func-
the hole is drilled, before caving occurs. In this case, a caliper tion of the total number of counts detected in a given depth
correction is not needed. Other corrections normally needed interval. But one drills much slower than typical wireline run-
for wireline will not be needed for MWD, such as sonde posi- ning speeds (typical values are one-half ft/min vs. one ft/sec);
tion in the borehole or invasion effects. However, the scope this more than compensates for the attenuation by the drill
of this article is confined to differences specific to GR logs. collars because more time is spent at each depth. The improved
THE GAMMA RAY MEASUREMENT resolution is evinced by sharper changes in amplitude, and
more structure and character in the log.
The formation gamma ray (GR) log is a long-established Figure la is a log section produced at an average drilling
downhole measurement in oil and gas wireline logging (Titt- rate of only 10 ft/hr. It has been smoothed slightly, using a
man, 1956; Green and Fearon, 1940) and in mineral assay Kalman filter technique. Notice the very good spatial resolu-
logging. The log of radiation intensity is used as a shale in- tion in the thin shale sections (e.g., Zone B), quite unlike
dicator, for stratigraphic correlation, to estimate shaliness for wireline logs. This resolution may lead to better correlation
correcting other logs, and as an aid in determining lithology. through much more detailed analysis of the stratigraphic
In mineral logging, it is sometimes used to estimate ore grade character of the formation. The deconvolution techniques
and volume. regularly used in mineral logging (Conaway and Killeen, 1978)
The radiations from the formation that are indicated by and now being employed for oil well logging (Looyestijn, 1982)
a GR log are due to naturally occurring radioactive isotopes could be applied to improved shaliness estimates, better define
of potassium (’oK), thorium (Th), and uranium (U), and the bed boundaries, and improve the characteristic signatures of
decay products of Th and U. These elements occur primarily well-known (“marker”) zones. Of course the MWD log can
in shales. Gamma rays of various energies are emitted by these be smoothed to make it resemble a wireline log. In Figure 1 b,
elements, and the energy distribution, called the energy spec- the solid line is the same log section of Figure la after more
trum, is characteristic of that element. As gamma rays radiate smoothing. The dashed log (Fig. 1 b) is a wireline log for that
through the formation, they frequently scatter, changing their section. The qualitative features of the logs agree, but the
direction and lowering their energy. Some, predominantly the MWD log has much more character. Now, when the logging
lower energy ones, are absorbed by the formation and cease speed varies from slow to fast, the spatial resolution will vary.
to exist. The scattered radiation that reaches the borehole wall Faster logging speeds will tend to smooth the log, as in Figure
has an energy spectrum different from the characteristic spec- 1 b. Thin bed response would be most affected; two thin beds
trum of the element. that are in fact identical would look quite different logged at
The GR log is produced by running a gamma ray detector much different logging speeds. The results could be confus-
along the borehole either with the drill string or on wireline, ing if this phenomenon is not recognized. When drilling rate
the detector recording intensity of radiation versus depth. varies erratically, it may become necessary to use data
(Spectral content is not registered by the conventional GR processing on-site to remove drilling rate effects from the log.
tool.) The ideal log would record absolute intensity, or the The maximum allowable drilling rate that will yield an
number of gamma rays, as a function of depth. Actual logs, acceptable log is determined by the accuracy and bed resolu-
however, will be affected by the measurement technique; that tion that are required. Considerations for determining these
is, by the type of detector, the detector housing, borehole con- are not completely analogous to wireline logging. If, for
ditions, and the logging speed. The influence of these factors example, the log is intended for identification of a distinctive
may either mask characteristics of the formation, for marker, or cap rock, less accuracy may be acceptable than
example by worsening bed resolution, or it may cause per- is required for detailed correlation or formation evaluation.
manent loss of information. Logging speed and drill collar We consider that a minimally acceptable log requires at least
attenuation of gamma ray intensity will be a predominant one-foot bed resolution. The method we use to determine the
influence on MWD GR measurements. [Drill cuttings and maximum drilling rate that will yield an acceptable log is
high potassium (K) mud will have more influence on the explained in the Appendix. There, we relate drilling rate to
MWD log than they do on the wireline log (Cox and Raymer, tool parameters, sensitivity, intrinsic resolution, and time
1976). However, the effects of cuttings or K mud are usually constant.
of minor magnitude when compared to the two effects dis- Results of this analysis (Appendix) show the maximum
cussed above.] drilling rate for our tools to be about 120-150 ft/hr. As an
In this article we concentrate on describing differences interesting example, we have logged wells at this rate after
between MWD and wireline logs caused by the different drilling. In these cases, the tool was used in highly deviated
measurement techniques; the major differences are due to wells where wireline logging was difficult. The time constant,
gamma ray attenuation by the drill collars and the different or integration time, was set to 32 seconds. This should give
logging speeds. These factors influence log accuracy and bed good accuracy in sands and shales, and one-foot bed resolution
resolution, and log amplitude variations due to spectral (Appendix). Figure 2 shows a section of an MWD log for one
biasing. of these highly deviated wells that was also logged by wireline.

4 JANUARY-FEBRUARY, 1983
x 300

1
t I t – t

Fig. 2. MWD log (below) measured at 120 ft/hr compared with


the wireline log.

Fig. 1.1 a is an example of the good vertical resolution one


often expect with an MWD GR log. 1 b is the same MWD Iog
(solid log) smoothed and cornpared with the wireline GR log
(dashed line).

THE LOG ANALYST 5


Note the excellent agreement between the logs. The MWD Th by weight. A zone containing twice this concentration is
and wireline logs have virtually the same bed resolution, even embodied in the API calibration pit at the University of
at 120 ft/hr for the MWD GR, as is shown for example in Sec- Houston. Using this definition, and knowledge of the relative
tion A. As stated earlier, drilling rates in many areas are often radiation (above 0.1 MeV) due to each constituent, one can
far less than this case. assign API units to concentrations of K, U, and Th. These
values are given in Table 1.
LOG BIASING BY THE DRILL COLLAR
TABLE 1
The possible effect on GR logs, due to varying attenuation lo/o K 1 ppm U 1 ppm Th
of formation gamma rays of different energies, has long been API Units (Wireline) 9.5 7.2 2.8
recognized (Tittman, 1956). This type of effect, due to atten- Apparent API Units (2” steel) 17 5.8 2.3
tuation by casing, sonde pressure housing, or borehole fluid,
is recognized in wireline logging, but in practice has only minor The same calibration procedure for an MWD tool, i.e., the
influence on the log. A more significant spectral effect in University of Houston pit, will force it also to read 100 API
wireline logs is the differing responses of particular detectors units in a shale consisting of 2% K, 6.5 ppm U, and 12 ppm
and/or tool types to the spectrum of radiation incident upon Th. However, for other relative concentrations (of K, U, and
them. In the discussions in this paper we are not concerned Th), the MWD tool would disagree with an API wireline
with these minor spectral effects since they are truly measurement because the U and Th are attenuated by the
negligible compared to the biasing effect of the collar. We also steel collar about twice as much as the K. We have calculated
will not deal with differences in detector response, since we the MWD tool’s response to K, U, and Th in a similar way
are concerned with radiation that emanates from the forma- to what was done for the wireline tool (above), except that
tion, to the borehole, and through the collar. we needed to use the Monte Carlo attenuation fractions. The
We used the Monte Carlo analysis technique to study this results for a collar with 2-inch wall thickness are given in Table
problem of drill collar induced bias. Although Monte Carlo 1 as Apparent API units. These values represent what a GR
computer calculations are complicated and time-consuming, tool will register through two inches of steel if it is calibrated
they nevertheless provide an effective method for determin- to read 100 API in the University of Houston pit. (Note that
ing the results of radiation transmission through a drill this comparison does assume similar gamma ray detectors are
collar. Measuring the effects in the laboratory is difficult and used for the wireline and MWD tools.) To demonstrate the
tedious. First of all, measurements depend directly upon the use of Table 1, consider a shale containing 3% K, 2 ppm of
detector used, and this can mask the aspects we wish to study. U, and 10 ppm of Th. Table 1 tells us that a properly calibrated
Also, removing the detector response from a measurement wireline GR will register 71 API*, an MWD GR tool will
is complex; it must be done by computer and large uncer- register 86 Apparent API*; this is a twenty percent difference.
tainties are endemic to this process. Measurements are Table 1 shows that lithologies richer in potassium will read
especially tedious since each change of source type or higher when logged using MWD tools than when using
geometry (collar size, borehole size, formation make-up) wireline tools; conversely, zones deplete of potassium but
requires time and effort. active due to Th and/or U will read higher using wireline tools.
Our collar calculations were made using the Monte Carlo Differences should be most evident in the shales. Clays (shale)
code SAM-CE (Cohen, et al, 1977; Smith and Schultz, 1981). can range from high potassium content (illite) to low potassium
The calculations and results are reported elsewhere (Cobern (e.g. montmorillonite) for comparable amounts of Th and U.
and Coope, TBP). Here we will show how the MWD log is Feldspathic sedimentary rocks, for example, arkoses sand
affected compared to a wireline log. Our calculations were (“granite wash”) and high-rank graywacke, will read higher
for a range of steel collar sizes from 1.00-inch to 2.50-inch on MWD logs. Figure 3 illustrates these observations. Using
wall thickness. We present the results from the 2-inch wall; Table 1, API (wireline) and Aparent API (MWD) units have
for thinner walls, such as the 1.25 inch for our tool, the been calculated for representative hydrocarbon source and
effects will not be as pronounced. The aim of these calcula- reservoir lithologies. (Geochemical compositions were deter-
tions was to determine to what degree radiation due to K, mined from “Spectral Log” data (e.g., Fertl, 1979) and pub-
U, and Th in the formation is attenuated by the drill collar. lished chemical analysis (Pettijohn, 1949). The solid lines give
Th and U arrive at the borehole with spectra that are quite the expected wireline values. The textured areas are the MWD
similar to each other, but different from K. We calculated the values. Note that the first block on the left shows the calibra-
transmission of Th through the collars, and assume that U tion to the API definition of 100 units for an average shale.
is affected similarly. The result of our study is a determina- Here the MWD and wireline agree by definition. Since rock
tion of the fractions of radiation due to K, U, and Th respec- constituents vary widely for a given rock type, sloping lines
tively, that survive passage through various collar thicknesses. show a range of values, horizontal lines are average values.
Wireline logs are expressed in API units (American We are interested herein demonstrating differences that may
Petroleum Institute, 1974); we feel it makes sense to show be observed. In specific instances, chemical compositions may
the relation between wireline and MWD logs in terms of API occur so as to coincidentally conceal such effects, or to exag-
units. By definition, a wireline tool should read 100 API in gerate the effects over that depicted in Figure 3. Our choice
an average shale. As defined by the Nuclear Logging Sub of calibration was chosen not only because it is the same
Committee of the API (American Petroleum Institute, 1974), *71= 3 x 9.5 + 2 x 7.2 +10 x 2.8
the average shale contains 2% K, 6.5 ppm U, and 12 ppm 86 = 3 x 17 + 2 x 5.8 +10 x 2.3

6 JANUARY-FEBRUARY, 1983
approach as wireline GR calibration, but because it minimizes formation with A API units. N is related to k, At and A as
somewhat variation between the MWD and wireline logs; that follows:
is, variations of the MWD values swing both above and below
the wireline values. If one wished to exaggerate the difference, Ν= k ∆ t A . (1)
another calibration should be used, such as calibration in an
average sand. S is defined as the fractional uncertainty in N at the 95%
We suggest that plots like Figure 3 could be used by the confidence level. Therefore:
geologist for log interpretation. The MWD log should be
used in combination with the mud log and offset data to (2)
develop a lithology log and to identify key strata. Later, when
a GR wireline is run, even more geochemical information can The tool’s spatial resolution is a function of logging speed,
be gleaned from synthesis of the MWD, mud logging, and R, detector length, l, and At. It is approximated by:
wireline information.
Figure lb shows differences that could possibly be the (3)
spectral biasing effect discussed above. Note that section A
shows the MWD log below the wireline; the opposite is shown Combining Equations 2 and 3 gives:
for section C. We can speculate that the shale zone C is
relatively high in potassium (K). However, at this point, such (4)
discussions are conjecture; much more field experience is
needed before conclusions can be drawn. and,

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS (5)


We have demonstrated that there will be noticeable We now assume that drilling will be fastest in sands and
differences between MWD and wireline GR logs due to set A = 30. (Of course, for slower rates, the log will be
measuring techniques — drilling rate and attenuation by drill better.) Also, assume a detector length of 6 inches and require
collars. The MWD log will often have superior spatial resolu- the bed resolution, AZ, to be 12 inches. Then,
tion; lithology maybe identified comparing MWD and wire-
line logs from offset wells or logs run later on the same well. R (ft/hr) = 23,380 KS2 (6)
Although the GR MWD log will serve the usual purposes of
a wireline GR log, the special features should be used to and
further advantage. Through log processing, it should be
possible to glean more information from the MWD log than (7)
is normally realized from wireline gamma ray. In the future,
processing may be done routinely on site by computer (for
example, inverse filtering of the spatial information), or it may At (see)
be done later in combination with other logs (wireline, mud, 5001
offset). Once the log analyst is aware of these new features,
benefits of improved correlation, formation evaluation, and
shaliness volume evaluation can result from this new MWD NOMOGRAM FOR THE RELATIONSHIPS :

service. R (ft/hr) = 23,380 kS2

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is a pleasure to acknowledge the valuable discussions and
suggestions concerning this work with my friends and fellow
workers at NL MWD and NL McCullough. I am particularly
grateful to Rich Meador, Dick Murphy, Bob Pitts, Tom
Daugherty and Martin Cobern. Special thanks to Diane Jones
and Jo Roberts for their extra efforts in preparing this
manuscript. Finally, I would like to thank NL management,
especially Sam Varnado, John Fontenot and Dan Sarik for
their encouragement in this work and for permission to
publish.

APPENDIX
The maximum drilling rate (R) that will yield an acceptable R (ft/hr)
log is determined by tool sensitivity (k), the required log
accuracy (S), and spatial resolution (AZ).
In a time interval At the sensor registers N counts in a Figure 1A

8 JANUARY-FEBRUARY, 1983
The factor k, the GR sensor’s sensitivity, is determined the American Physical Society, Society of Petroleum
mostly by detector efficiency and collar thickness. GR Engineers (SPE), The University of Houston Industrial
logging tools make measurements over characteristic time Logging Advisory Committee, and a committee member of
intervals. The length of the time interval At, either the the SPE Drilling Study Group in Houston.
integration time or the rate meter time constant, is chosen
to be long enough to smooth out the statistical fluctuations
that result from nuclear measurements, but not so long as to
smooth out the information content of the log.
For field use, equations 6 and 7 are converted to a
nomogram, Figure 1A, which allows easy determination of
expected log accuracy (S) for given drilling and tool parameters
— R, At, and k. For a typical case, a GR tool may have a
performance rating of k = 0.15. As an example, the operator
can determine (Fig. 1A) that if he sets the integration time
to 64 seconds, for driling rates up to about 50 ft/hr, the
resulting log will have better than 12% amplitude accuracy
and one foot bed resolution. (The accuracy is at the 95% con-
fidence level.) At higher rates, the accuracy would be less.
Also, the integration time of 64 seconds would not be short
enough to give good spatial bed resolution.

REFERENCES
American Petroleum Institute, 1974, Recommended practice for standard
calibration and format for nuclear logs: API RP 33, 3rd cd.,
Washington, D. C., April.
Cobern, M. E. and Coope, Daniel F., to be published, Monte Carlo analysis
of natural gamma-ray transmission through drill collars.
Cohen, M. O. (cd.), Steinberg, H. A., Troubetzkoy, E. S., Liechtenstein, H.
and Beer, M., 1977, SAM-CE: A Monte Carlo code for three
dimensional neutron, gamma ray and electron transport (Revision 5):
Mathematical Applications Group, Inc., Elmsford, New York, May.
Conaway, J. G. and Killeen, P. G., 1978, Quantitative uranium determinations
from gamma-ray logs by application of digital time series analysis:
Geophysics, v. 43, no. 6, p. 1204, October.
Cox, J. W. and Raymer, L. L., 1976, The effects of potassium-salt muds on
gamma ray and spontaneous potential measurements: SPWLA Tran-
sactions, June.
Fertl, W. H., 1976, Abnormal Formation Pressures: Elsevier Scientific
Publishing Co.
----, 1979, Gamma ray spectral data assists in complex formation evaluation:
The Log Analyst, v. XX, no. 5, p. 3, September.
Franz, D. G., 1981, Downhole recording system for MWD: SPE 10054.
Gearhart, M., 1981, Mud pulse MWD systems report: SPE 10053.
Green, G. W. and Fearon, R. E., 1940, Well logging by radioactivity:
Geophysics, no. 5, p. 272.
Looyestijn, W. J., 1982, Deconvolution of Petrophysical Logs: Applications
and Limitations: SPWLA Transactions, July.
Pettijohn, F. J., 1949, Sedimentary Rocks: Harper Brothers, New York.
Smith, Harry D. and Schultz, Ward E., 1981, Computer simulation of two
nuclear well logging methods: SPE Journal, p. 315, June.
Tanguy, D. R. and Zoeller, W. A., 1981, The use of MWD information to
improve drilling: SPE 10324.
Tittman, Jay, 1956, Radiation logging Petroleum Engineering Conference,
Univ. of Kansas, April.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Daniel F. Coope is a Staff Physicist at NL Inudstries, MWD
Division. He received his BSE degree from the University of
Michigan and his MS and PhD degrees in physics from the
University of Illinois. In addition to measurement-while-
drilling, Dan’s areas of research include gamma ray and fast
neutron scattering, non-destructive testing, medical radio-
nuclide production, and physical analysis. He has taught high
school and university physics. He is a member of SPWLA,

THE LOG ANALYST 9


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Resistivity Theory and Application
Physical Principles
The Resistivity sensor responds to the way in which RF electromagnetic waves propagate
through the formation. The propagation of an RF wave is controlled by the following physical
properties of the material through which the wave is propagating:
• Electrical conductivity (σ), which is the ability of a material to conduct an electrical
current.
• Dielectric permittivity (ε), which is the ability of a material to store an electrical charge.
• Magnetic permeability (µ), which is the ability of a material to become magnetized.
At frequencies below about 10 MHz, the formation conductivity is the dominant factor
affecting RF wave propagation. Thus, by making reasonable assumptions for the dielectric
permittivity and magnetic permeability values, measured wave propagation parameters (phase
shift and attenuation) can be related to the formation conductivity or Resistivity.

Resistivity Frequencies 4KHz and 2 MHz


The Resistivity tool operates at frequencies of 2 MHz (shallow, and medium spacing
measurements) and 400 KHz (deep spacing measurement). 400 KHz is in the medium wave or
AM radio band, and 2 MHz lies between the AM and FM radio wave frequency bands. The
choice of this frequency range is dictated by two physical phenomena. First, at frequencies
above about 10 MHz, the dielectric permittivity dominates the wave propagation, and the
measured phase shift and attenuation values are more dependent on the formation’s dielectric
permittivity than on its conductivity or Resistivity. Secondly, at frequencies below about 0.1
MHz, electrical eddy currents are induced in the steel drill collar. These eddy currents would
flow between the transmitter and receivers and “short circuit” the measurement. Thus, the
Resistivity tool must operate within a fairly narrow frequency window to allow us to measure
formation Resistivity while using an electrically conductive drill collar.
The shallow, and medium transmitters operate at a frequency of 2 MHz, while the deep-
spacing transmitter operates at 400 KHz. During the development of the Resistivity tool, it
was realized that we needed to reduce the deep transmitter’s frequency in order to receive
signals of sufficient amplitudes at the longer spaced receivers in all formation Resistivity. For
the same conditions, the amplitude of a propagating 400-kHz wave is √2 times greater than
that of a 2-MHz wave.

Phase Shift Measurement


Although the propagation velocity for electromagnetic waves is normally thought of as a
constant (300,000 km/second, commonly referred to as the “speed of light”), this is actually
the case only for an electromagnetic (EM) wave traveling through a vacuum or free space. In
an electrically conductive material, the velocity of a propagating EM wave slows in proportion
to the conductivity of the material.

1
Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

The wavelength, frequency, and velocity of a propagating wave are related by the following
equations:
V= ω∗λ or V = 2πf * λ

where λ is the wavelength, V is the velocity of the propagating wave, f is the frequency, and
ω is the angular frequency. The wave travels at higher speeds in resistive formations than it
does in conductive formations. Thus, the transmitted Resistivity signal will have a longer
wavelength in higher-Resistivity formations and a shorter wavelength in more conductive,
lower-Resistivity formations. The velocities of propagating electromagnetic waves can be
expressed in the traditional units of velocity (length/time), or alternatively, in what electrical
engineers called phase shift, which has units of degrees. Historically, people have preferred to
use the concept of phase shift when describing the velocity measurement made by an MWD
propagation Resistivity tool.
The shift in phase that occurs between two receivers is basically a measurement of the fraction
of one wavelength that occurs between the 8 – inch spacing that separates the two receivers
(see Figure 1). For example, if the wavelength (one complete 360-degree cycle) were 12
inches, then we would expect to measure a phase shift of 180 degrees, or one-half of a
complete cycle, between two receivers spaced 8 inches apart. In a more resistive formation, in
which the wavelength was 80 inches, we would expect to measure a phase shift of (8/80) ×
360, or 36, degrees between the two receivers. Finally, as the conductivity approaches zero
(Resistivity approaches infinity), the wavelength becomes many meters in length and the
measured phase shift that occurs over the Resistivity tool’s 8 - inch spacing becomes very
small. Table 1 summarizes the interrelationships among these parameters.

Figure 1 Phase Resistivity Measurement Principle

2 4/24/2002
Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

Table 1 Velocity, Phase Shift, and Wavelength, as a Function of Resistivity and Conductivity

The three phase shift-to-Resistivity transforms that we use are graphically depicted in Figure 2
below. These transforms are based on well established theoretical models that have been
bench-marked with laboratory data. The lab data were acquired in very large fiberglass tanks
filled with salt water of known Resistivity.

Figure 2 Phase Shift-to-Resistivity Conversions

Attenuation Measurement
An EM wave will decay exponentially as it propagates through a conductive formation. The
rate of decay, or attenuation, is directly proportional to the formation conductivity.
Attenuation (sometimes referred to as amplitude ratio) is calculated from the “ratio” of the
amplitudes of the signals detected at the two receivers, which are at different distances from
the transmitter. A root-mean-squared (RMS) circuit in the receiver electronics is used to
measure these signal amplitudes. This circuit outputs an RMS DC voltage, which is
proportional to the amplitude of the detected AC signal.

4/24/2002 3
Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

The most common unit for quantifying the level of attenuation is the decibel (dB).
This “amplitude ratio” unit is defined as:

Amplitude Ratio (dB) = 20 x log (Afar/Anear)

where the Amplitude, A, is in units of volts.


Since the signal amplitude at the near receiver is typically greater than that at the far receiver,
the amplitude ratio, as defined by the above equation, is usually a negative number. The
greater the attenuation, the larger, in terms of absolute value, this negative number becomes.
In a high-conductivity formation, the high degree of attenuation will result in a significant
signal decay between the near and far receivers, with the far receiver signal amplitude being
significantly weaker than the near receiver signal. At high Resistivity, the transmitted signal
suffers less attenuation, and the far receiver amplitude will be only slightly less than the near
receiver amplitude. Table 2 summarizes the interrelationships among these parameters.

Table 2. Attenuation as a Function of Resistivity and Conductivity

The three attenuation-to-Resistivity transforms are graphically depicted in Figure 3. These


transforms are based on well-established theoretical models that have been bench-marked with
laboratory data. The lab data were acquired in very large fiberglass tanks filled with salt water
of known Resistivity.

Figure 3 Attenuation to Resistivity

4 4/24/2002
Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

CPA Resistivity
Because the measured values of both phase shift and attenuation are inversely proportional to
Resistivity, a formation Resistivity measurement can be computed from any one of the
following:
1. phase shift measurement
2. attenuation measurement
3. a combination of the phase shift and attenuation measurements
The Resistivity service provides Resistivity values computed from the phase shift
measurement, and from a mathematical combination of phase shift and attenuation
measurements; the latter is known as the combined phase and attenuation (CPA) Resistivity.
To produce the CPA Resistivity value, the measured phase shift and attenuation values are
mathematically combined to produce a new computed parameter, known as the CPA value. A
transform is then used to compute the CPA Resistivity from the computed CPA value for each
of the three transmitter-receiver spacings. These transforms are depicted in Figure 4 below.

Figure 4 CPA to Resistivity Conversion

Calibration Theory
The Resistivity tool measures basic physical parameters (phase shift and attenuation) of
electromagnetic waves. Thus, it is not necessary to calibrate each tool in a simulated formation
or “calibration pit”. The fundamental mathematical transforms between Resistivity and the
measured values of phase shift and attenuation are based on well-established electromagnetic
principles that are described by Maxwell’s equations, and have been experimentally verified
by logging large bodies of water of known Resistivity with the tool.

4/24/2002 5
Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

For the phase shift measurement, we assume that the velocity of the EM wave in air is the
speed of light, and consequently, the observed phase shift in air or a vacuum should be a very
small constant value. When we “air hang” a tool and observe its reading in air, we assume that
ALL of the observed offset from zero degrees of phase shift is due to tool “imperfection.” This
airhang value, in degrees of phase shift, is subsequently used to calibrate the raw
measurements made by the tool. In the Resistivity tool software this value is subtracted from
each raw phase shift measurement made, before it is pulsed to the surface and/or recorded in
memory. Of course, for the Resistivity tool, we have a unique airhang calibration factor for
each of the four spacings. Furthermore, since these hardware dependent “imperfections” can
be temperature sensitive, we characterize them as a function of temperature from 20oC to
150oC.
A propagating EM wave is attenuated by the conductivity of the medium through which it
passes, and when its amplitude is measured at two different distances from a transmitter,
additional attenuation, due to what is commonly referred to as geometrical spreading, is also
observed. This geometrical spreading loss term is significant and must be accounted for;
however, it is not Resistivity dependent. Consequently, we determine its magnitude in air, and
similar to the phase shift data downhole processing, it is subtracted from each raw
measurement of attenuation that is made. Other hardware-induced “measurement
imperfections” are implicitly included in these airhang attenuation values. These
“imperfections” can also be temperature dependent; therefore, we characterize them as a
function of temperature from 20oC to 150oC.
NOTE: The output of each receiver insert’s RMS circuit is also extensively calibrated against
precision lab equipment to ensure that the amplitude measured by any insert will be the same
for a particular received signal. These calibration data are used by the tool’s software to
compute calibrated amplitudes for both the near and far receiver signals, before the attenuation
is calculated and the airhang correction is applied.
The raw amplitude of the signal detected at each receiver, V (in volts), is converted into a
calibrated value of amplitude in the receiver insert. During the calibration step, the unit used to
quantify the amplitude of the signal is also changed from the volt to the decibel-milliwatt, or
dBm. The equation defining this unit of relative (to 1 milliwatt) power is:

Amplitude (dBm) = 10 x log [(V2/R)/.001]

The reference power for the dBm unit is one milliwatt, or 0.001 watt. The impedance, R, of
the receiver circuit is nominally 50 ohms, and the receiver insert amplitude calibration
performed in the lab uses a 50-ohm load. Substituting 50 for R in the above equation yields:

Amplitude (dBm) = 10 x log [(V2/50)/.001]

The above equation is used in the Resistivity 4 tool’s software and the surface software to
convert the raw, uncalibrated receiver voltages into calibrated values of relative power.
Using the units of dBm for the two signal amplitudes (relative powers) in the amplitude ratio,
or attenuation, equation results in the following simple relationship:

Amplitude Ratio (dB) = Afar (dBm) - Anear (dBm)

Therefore, the amplitude of the FAR receiver’s signal, in dBm, can be easily calculated, since
we record the near receiver signal’s amplitude (in dBm) and the downhole calculated value of
the amplitude ratio (in dB). Since the far receiver’s signal amplitude is typically lower than the
near receiver’s, the amplitude ratio (in dB) is typically a negative quantity.

6 4/24/2002
Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

Accuracy
The accuracy of the Resistivity measurements varies with the formation Resistivity. Like
wireline induction tools, propagation Resistivity sensors are most accurate at low Resistivity,
where small changes in Resistivity correspond to large, easily-measured changes in phase shift
and/or attenuation. The measurements become less accurate at higher Resistivity where small
changes in phase shift and/or attenuation correspond to large changes in Resistivity.
Since phase shift-derived Resistivity measurements are useful over a wider range of
Resistivity than either attenuation-derived or CPA-derived Resistivity measurements, their
accuracies will be discussed in more detail. Table 3 illustrates the relationships between
measured phase shifts and derived Resistivity.
Table 3 Resistivity vs. Phase Shift

The accuracy of the Resistivity raw measurements should be constant in terms of degrees of
phase shift and decibels of attenuation. However, the non-linear relationship between
Resistivity and these measured parameters results in an accuracy, expressed in ohm-m, which
varies with formation Resistivity. As the Resistivity increases, a given error in the phase shift
and attenuation measurements translates into a larger error in the derived phase shift
Resistivity and CPA Resistivity values.
Table 4 illustrates the effect of a constant error of +0.1 degree in phase shift on the percentage
error in the medium phase shift-based Resistivity value in ohm-meters. In terms of ohm-
meters, the percentage error increases dramatically as the Resistivity increases from 0.1 to
1000 ohm-m.
Table 4 Resistivity Error Resulting from a +0.10 Degree Medium Phase Shift Error

4/24/2002 7
Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

Based on reviewing many sets of Resistivity tool airhang data, a reasonable measurement
uncertainty to assume for a stable, well-calibrated tool is ±0.05 degrees of phase shift. This
amount of uncertainty should be considered “best case” for this tool design. Figure 5 through
Figure 8 illustrate the effect this small constant error in phase shift has on the inferred
Resistivity. In Figure 5, an example depicts the situation in which the X-shallow phase shift-
based Resistivity log reading (R a) is 300 ohm-m. For this assumed uncertainty, the true
Resistivity (Rt) could be as low as 210 ohm-m or as high as 520 ohm-m, depending on the
sign of the error.
NOTE: how the effect of this constant error in phase shift varies dramatically with Resistivity.
Also, note how the effect varies with transmitter-receiver spacing and frequency, remembering
that the deep transmitter operates at 400 KHz.

Figure 5 Shallow Phase Shift Uncertainty = ± 0.05 degrees

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Figure 6 Shallow Phase Shift Uncertainty = ± 0.05 degrees

Figure 7 Medium Phase Shift Uncertainty = ± 0.05 degrees

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Figure 8 Deep Phase Shift Uncertainty = ± 0.05 degrees

Phase Shift vs. CPA Resistivity Accuracy


At higher formation Resistivity, the phase shift Resistivity is more accurate than the CPA
Resistivity. There are two reasons for this. First, as the formation Resistivity increases, the
change in attenuation with a further increase in Resistivity becomes very small and difficult to
accurately resolve. In other words, a cross-plot of attenuation vs. Resistivity (see Figure 3)
would show the relationship to “flatten-out” above about 20-50 ohm-m, whereas there remains
a small but measurable change in phase shift with changing Resistivity for Resistivity values
up to approximately 1000 ohm-m (see Figure 2) . Because the attenuation measurement is a
component of the CPA Resistivity, this loss of sensitivity of the attenuation measurement is
also reflected in a decrease in the accuracy of the CPA Resistivity values at higher Resistivity
(see Figure 4).
The second factor contributing to the poorer high-Resistivity accuracy of the CPA Resistivity
logs results from the greater dielectric sensitivity of the attenuation measurement, as compared
with the phase shift measurement. This results in the CPA Resistivity being more sensitive to
dielectric constant-related errors than the phase shift Resistivity. Thus, because dielectric
errors become more significant as the Resistivity increases, and because the CPA Resistivity is
more sensitive to dielectric effects than is the phase shift measurement, the CPA Resistivity is
more likely to suffer from significant dielectric effects at higher Resistivity than is the phase
shift Resistivity.
As a rule of thumb, the Resistivity phase shift Resistivity measurements can be considered
quantitatively accurate up to about 200 to 500 ohm-m, and qualitatively useful up to about
1000 ohm-m. The CPA Resistivity values should only be used quantitatively at Resistivity
below about 30 ohm-m.

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Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

Antenna Configurations
The First Resistivity tool had a single transmitter antenna and two receiver antennas. The
receivers are 6 inches apart and the transmitter is 24 inches from the near receiver. The current
Resistivity design begins with the a basic configuration and then adds additional transmitters:
two shorter-spaced transmitters located 20 and 30 inches from the near receiver, and one
longer-spaced transmitter located 48 inches from the near receiver. The purpose for employing
multiple transmitter-receiver spacings is to provide multiple formation Resistivity
measurements with different depths of investigation. Generally, Resistivity measurements
acquired from longer transmitter-receiver spacings will “read deeper” into the formation than
measurements from shorter transmitter-receiver spacings.

Figure 9 Comparisons Between Resistivity Tool Configurations

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Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

Depth of Investigation
The depth of investigation (DOI) of a particular Resistivity measurement is dependent on
several parameters, including: the transmitter-to-receiver spacing, the transmitter frequency,
and the measured parameter from which Resistivity is computed, i.e., phase shift, attenuation,
or CPA. However, the parameter with the greatest effect on the DOI of the Resistivity
measurement is the formation Resistivity itself.

Transmitter-to-Receiver Spacing
The depth of investigation of Resistivity measurements increases with increasing transmitter-
to-receiver spacing. This principle is illustrated by the generalized diagrams below, which
show the lines of constant phase of the shallow and medium-spaced transmitters in an
isotropic medium. The shaded area indicates the region that will influence the phase shift
measured between the near and far receivers. Note that for a longer transmitter-receiver
spacing, this area of investigation extends farther laterally into the formation, providing a
greater depth of investigation. Also note, however, that this increase in DOI is accompanied
by a decrease in the vertical resolution for longer spacing measurements, as the area of
investigation also extends farther “up and down” in the direction of the tool axis.

Shallow phase Shift Medium phase shift


Resistivity measurement. Resistivity measurement.

Figure 10 Area of Investigation of Shallow and Medium Phase


Shift Resistivity Measurements

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Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

Phase Shift vs. Attenuation

The depth of investigation is also a function of which measured parameter (phase shift,
attenuation, or CPA) is used to compute Resistivity. This difference in depth of investigation
results from a difference in the spatial distribution of the phase and amplitude fields, as
illustrated below.

Phase Amplitude

Figure 11 Comparisons Between Phase and Amplitude Fields for


Medium Spacing

For medium measurements, these are the lines of constant phase and amplitude. Note the
different depths of investigation of phase shift and amplitude attenuation Resistivity
measurements.
In an isotropic medium, the electromagnetic field will radiate from the transmitter at the same
velocity in all directions. Thus, lines of constant phase will form spheres around the transmitter
(see the left side of Figure 11). However, the field is radiated perpendicular to the tool axis with
greater intensity than in directions closer to the tool axis. Thus, the lines of constant amplitude are
not spherical and are as shown on the right side of Figure 11. Therefore, the shaded area affecting
the attenuation measurement is different (and deeper into the formation) than the area which
affects the phase shift measurement.

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This difference in the spatial distribution of the phase and amplitude fields may seem difficult
to understand, but consider the simple acoustic analogy of a trumpet. Sound waves emanate
from the horn of the trumpet and travel at the speed of sound in all directions. Thus, a listener
standing 10 meters to the side of the trumpet would hear notes at exactly the same time as a
listener standing 10 meters in front of the trumpet. However, the person standing directly in
front of the trumpet would hear a louder volume than the person standing off to the side. Both
the Resistivity transmitters and the trumpet are directional transmitters, radiating a stronger
signal in one direction, even though the signal will travel at the same velocity in all directions.
Thus, lines of constant phase and amplitude of the acoustic energy around a trumpet would
show a different spatial distribution, not unlike the phase and amplitude fields surrounding an
Resistivity transmitter.

CPA
A Resistivity measurement derived from a combination of the phase shift and attenuation
measurements can have a depth of investigation which is either deeper than the attenuation
Resistivity, shallower than the phase shift Resistivity, or intermediate between the phase shift
and attenuation Resistivity values, depending on the way in which the phase shift and
attenuation values are mathematically combined. Although the exact formula for combining
the phase and attenuation values to produce the CPA value (from which the CPA Resistivity is
computed) is rather complex, consider the simple case illustrated below.

Figure 12 Radial Response of Two Overlapping Measurements

This diagram depicts the radial response of two overlapping measurements. The vertical Y-
axis represents the relative sensitivity, or the amount of signal, coming from various
diameters. The shallower measurement is defined by areas A and B, whereas the deeper
measurement is defined by areas B and C. These two raw measurements could be combined in
several different ways to give a different effective depths of investigation. For example, if the
shallower measurement were subtracted from the deeper measurement, we would be left with
the response illustrated by area C. By subtracting the shallower component, B, of the deeper
measurement, the resultant combined measurement (represented by area C) would have a
deeper depth of investigation than either of the two basic measurements. In other words, by
using the shallower phase shift measurement to cancel-out the shallower component of the
deeper attenuation measurement, the resultant CPA value yields an effective depth of
investigation that is deeper than either the phase shift or the attenuation measurements.

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Frequency Effects
The depth of investigation of a propagation Resistivity measurement is also a function of the
frequency of the transmitted signal. Generally speaking, lower frequency measurements will
have a greater depth of investigation than otherwise-equivalent higher frequency
measurements. Aside from depth of investigation issues, lower frequency measurements will
also be less sensitive to dielectric effects, but will exhibit poorer precision at high Resistivity.

Formation Resistivity Effects


The factor having the greatest effect on depth of investigation is the formation Resistivity
itself. As previously mentioned under the discussion of the principles of the attenuation
measurement, a radio-frequency electromagnetic wave suffers greater attenuation in a low-
Resistivity medium than in a high-Resistivity medium. This increased attenuation at low
Resistivity means that the transmitted field will not extend as deep into the formation at low
Resistivity as it will at higher Resistivity. This results in the phase shift and CPA Resistivity
measurements, for a given transmitter-receiver spacing, having a much greater depth of
investigation at high Resistivity than at low Resistivity.
This variation in depth of investigation with Resistivity is illustrated in Figure 13 through
Figure 20, which show the depth of investigation of the Resistivity phase shift and CPA
Resistivity measurements for formation Resistivity values ranging from 0.2 ohm-m to 100
ohm-m. These figures show the fraction of the total measured conductivity signal (the
integrated radial pseudo-geometric factor or IRPGF) vs. diameter of investigation. This
diameter is measured from the center of the tool. This calculation of IRPGF is performed by
assuming that:

• There is no borehole.
• The formation is isotropic.
• The formation is infinitely thick.
• In the step invasion model, the difference between Rt and Rxo is infinitesimally small
(uninvaded, for all practical purposes).

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Figure 13 Depth of Investigation: Deep CPA

Figure 14 Depth of Investigation: Deep Phase Shift

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Figure 15 Depth of Investigation: Medium CPA

Figure 16 Depth of Investigation: Medium Phase Shift

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Figure 17 Depth of Investigation: Shallow CPA

Figure 18 Depth of Investigation: Shallow Phase Shift

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The historical definition for depth of investigation for Resistivity tools is the 50% point on the
IRPGF curve, meaning that half of the total signal sensed comes from within this diameter and
half of the total signal comes from outside this diameter. In other words, when the diameter of
invasion reaches the IRPGF 50% point, the tool reading will be mid-way between the
conductivity of the flushed zone (CX0) and the conductivity of the uninvaded formation (Ct) in
the step invasion model.
A few very important insights into the nature of the response of a propagating wave
Resistivity tool can be gleaned by close examination of these IRPGF curves:
1 For low values of Rt, all four phase shift-based Resistivity measurements (and, to a lesser
degree also, the four CPA-derived resistivities) exhibit a diametrical area, between
approximately 25 and 55 inches, in which the IRPGF significantly exceeds a value of 1.0.
Consequently, for the case of a low Resistivity zone that is invaded to this depth range with
mud filtrate, the various Resistivity measurements provided by the Resistivity tool can
overshoot (either higher or lower, depending on the values of Rt and Rxo) the theoretical limit
(calculated assuming 100% flushing) of Rxo.
2 For low values of Rt, all four CPA-based Resistivity measurements exhibit a diametrical
area, between approximately 10 and 45 inches, in which the IRGPF is significantly less
than zero, or negative. This region of negative IRPGFs is not unusual for Resistivity tools,
such as the Resistivity, that use the difference or the ratio of measurements made at two
receivers to compute apparent Resistivity. This phenomenon provides inherent borehole
compensation by rejecting (subtracting) the conductivity contributions from nearby
regions, e.g., the borehole.
Therefore, for the case of a low Resistivity zone that is invaded to this depth range with mud
filtrate, the CPA-based Resistivity measurements provided by the Resistivity service can
overshoot (either higher or lower, depending on the values of Rt and Rxo) the true formation
Resistivity in what may be considered the counterintuitive direction. Shallow resistive (Rxo >
Rt) invasion will cause the apparent CPA Resistivity to be too low, while shallow conductive
(Rxo < Rt) invasion will cause the apparent CPA Resistivity to be too high. This also applies to
plain attenuation measurements.
Alternatively, IRPGF data can be presented as a family of curves, one for each spacing, for a
specific apparent Resistivity (Ra). Figure 21 through Figure 24 de scribe the depths of
investigation of both the phase shift- and CPA-derived measurements for apparent resistivities
of 0.5 and 50 ohm-m.

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Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

Figure 21 Phase Shift Depths of Investigation: R a = 0.5 ohm-m

Figure 22 CPA Depths of Investigation: R a = 0.5 ohm-m

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Figure 23 Phase Shift Depths of Investigation: R a = 50 ohm-m

Figure 24 CPA Depths of Investigation: R a = 50 ohm-m

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The depths of investigation (using the IRPGF 50% point as the definition for DOI) for the
Resistivity measurements at these two different resistivities (0.5 and 50 ohm-m) are listed in
Table 5. Note the dramatic increase in depth of investigation as the formation resistivity
changes, such that the phase shift-based resistivity measurements at 50 ohm-m “read deeper”
than the CPA Resistivity measurements at 0.5 ohm-m.
An interesting point to note is that at high resistivities the shallow, medium, and deep phase
shift resistivity curves have DOI values which are very similar to wireline SFL, medium
induction, and deep induction curves, respectively.

Table 5 Depths of Investigation (IRPGF = 0.5) for Resistivity Measurements

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Dielectric Effects

The dielectric permittivity of a material is quantified by what is called the dielectric constant.
Typically, scientists ratio a material’s dielectric constant, ε, to the dielectric constant of free
space (vacuum), εo, to simply change the range of typical values. This relative value is
referred to as the relative dielectric constant, εr, and is defined as follows:

ε r = ε /ε o
where,
εo = 8.8542 x 10-12 farads/m

All the resistivity transforms we use assume a relative dielectric constant (εr) of 10. For a
given formation resistivity, if the actual formation εr value is higher than this assumed value of
10, the measured phase shift will be slightly higher than expected and the measured
attenuation will be significantly lower than expected. Consequently, the inferred resistivities
will be in error (see Table 6). Thus, because the attenuation is more sensitive to changes in the
relative dielectric constant than is the phase shift, the CPA-derived resistivity is more likely to
suffer significant dielectric-related errors than is the phase shift-derived resistivity.

Table 6 Effect of (εr) on Measured Phase Shift & Attenuation and Phase Shift & CPA Resistivities

The dielectric sensitivity of a particular measurement is also a function of the transmitter-to-


receiver spacing as well as the measurement frequency. Longer-spaced measurements have a
greater dielectric sensitivity than shorter-spaced measurements, and higher-frequency
measurements are more sensitive to dielectric effects than lower-frequency measurements.
Thus, in a shale with a very high εr value, we may see separation of the phase shift resistivity
measurements with RMEDIUM < RSHALLOW < RDEEP. Note that, with respect to dielectric
effects, the lower frequency of the deep-spacing measurement almost exactly offsets the effect
of the longer transmitter-receiver spacing. Figure 25 through Figure 36 illustrate the
sensitivities of the various types of derived resistivities to the difference between the actual
relative dielectric constant, εr , of the formation and the assumed value of 10.

4/24/2002 23
Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

Figure 3.26 Shallow Phase Shift

Figure 27 Medium Phase Shift

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Figure 28 Deep Phase Shift

Figure 30 Shallow Attenuation

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Figure 31 Medium Attenuation

Figure 32 Deep Attenuation

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Figure 34 Shallow CPA

Figure 35 Medium CPA

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Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

Figure 36 Deep CPA

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Anisotropy Effects
Because of their layered nature, many sedimentary formations are electrically anisotropic.
This means that the electrical resistivity measured parallel to the bedding planes is different
from the resistivity measured perpendicular to the bedding plane. This phenomenon can be
caused by either of two distinctly different geologic situations. However, to the Resistivity
tool, these two different geologic settings appear the same. One type of anisotropy is
commonly called microscopic anisotropy. This refers to a single sedimentary rock that
exhibits intrinsic anisotropy due to its structure. Shale, with its flat clay platelet structure, is a
classic example of an electrically anisotropic rock. During deposition and subsequent
overburden loading, these platelets tend to align themselves horizontally. Consequently,
electricity flows easier parallel to these flat platelets than perpendicular to them (Figure 37).
Another anisotropic phenomenon is caused by the layering of formations and is commonly
referred to as macroscopic anisotropy. This can occur when the scale of the layering is much
less that the resolution of the measuring device. A laminated sand-shale sequence is a classic
example of this type of electrical anisotropy (Figure 38). Also, each layer (bed) can be
isotropic and the unit can still be anisotropic.

Figure 37 Microscopic Anisotropy in Shale

Figure 38 Macroscopic Anisotropy in Laminated Formation

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Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

If we think of the different rock layers as being electrical resistors in a circuit, they act as
resistors wired in parallel to current flowing parallel to the bedding planes, and as resistors
wired in series to current flowing perpendicular to the bedding planes. Like wireline induction
tools, the Resistivity tool induces an eddy current which circles the tool in a plane
perpendicular to the tool axis. Thus, the Resistivity tool measures the resistivity in a plane
perpendicular to the borehole. Therefore, in a vertical well with horizontal beds, the
Resistivity will read the horizontal resistivity of the formation. However, in a horizontal well,
the induced eddy current will circle the borehole in a vertical plane, encountering both the
horizontal and vertical components of the formation resistivity. In this latter situation, the
Resistivity tool response will be a complex function of both the horizontal and vertical
components of the formation resistivity, as well as the angle between the tool axis and the
formation bedding planes. Because this function varies with transmitter-receiver spacing and
frequency, the different Resistivity curves respond differently to anisotropic formations
encountered at high angles.

Figure 39 Phase Shift Resistivity Responses where R h = 1 ohm-m and Rv = 4 ohm-m

Figure 39 illustrates the modeled responses of the phase shift-based Resistivity measurements
in a formation having a horizontal resistivity, Rh, of 1 ohm-m and a vertical resistivity, Rv, of
4 ohm-m. The first letter, M, in each curve name means it is modeled or calculated (not
measured) data.

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Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

Figure 40 Relative Dip Angle Definition

For relative dip angles (see Figure 40 for definition) less than about 30 degrees, all four curves
read close to the horizontal resistivity value of 1 ohm-m (this would be typical of a vertical
well with horizontal or slightly dipping beds). However, as the relative dip angle increases
above about 50 degrees (as would be the case in high-angle wells) the phase shift resistivity
values depart from the Rh value and increase toward Rv. In fact, in some cases, the measured
(apparent) resistivities will exceed the value of Rv. Also notice that the shallow, and medium
curves are affected to differing degrees by the anisotropy, resulting in significant curve
separation with RSP < RMP . The medium and deep Resistivity curves read almost the same
value because the effect of the different transmitter spacing is almost exactly offset by the
effect of different frequencies (1 MHz for the deep transmitter; 2 MHz for the medium and
shallow transmitters). Thus, the characteristic log signature of formation anisotropy is
RSHALLOW < RMEDIUM < RDEEP .
A computer program has been developed which computes Rv, Rh, and the relative dip angle
based on the shallow, and medium phase shift-based Resistivity log values. Note that this
inversion calculation yields only the magnitude of the relative dip angle, not the azimuth
direction. The computed Rh value can be compared with induction or 2MHz type logs
recorded in vertical wells. Also, the Rh value can be used to compute water saturation in a
“laminated sand” or parallel resistor interpretation model.
The major limitation of this program is that it assumes that all of the separation between the
three curves is due only to anisotropic effects. While this may be the case in impermeable
shales or hydrocarbon-bearing reservoirs drilled with oil-based mud, a number of other effects
such as invasion, dielectric constant differences, residual borehole effects, and/or shoulder bed
effects may also contribute to the Resistivity curve separation. If present, these other effects
will induce error in, or perhaps completely invalidate, the anisotropy inversion calculation.
Thus, this model must be applied cautiously, with careful consideration given to these other
potentially disturbing effects.

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Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

Analysis and Interpretation of Logs


Several case studies are presented here.1
Note: The data used in these examples pre-dated the introduction of the CPA-based resistivity
computation. Consequently, plain attenuation-based resistivity curves are displayed. For the
most part, comments relating to attenuation resistivity responses can also be applied to CPA-
based resistivity responses.

Invasion Process - Verification of R t


This S-shaped well, located in the Gulf of Mexico, was drilled with a 9.875-inch diameter drill bit
using a bentonite-based fresh water drilling mud. Mud weight in these intervals was 9.7
pounds/gallon, API fluid loss was 4.8 cc/30 minutes, and mud resistivity was 0.26 ohm-m at
reservoir temperature. Formation water resistivity was 0.025 ohm-m at reservoir temperature, and
the mud filtrate resistivity was 0.17 ohm-m at reservoir temperature.
Log ex. 1 displays a gas sand with a porosity of 31%, sidewall core empirical permeability of 900
md, and a relative dip angle, due to hole inclination and formation dip, of 30 degrees. Four MWD
phase shift resistivity curves are plotted in Track II. Formation exposure time (i.e., the elapsed time
between drilling and logging) for this interval was only one hour. The shallow phase resistivity
values were reduced due to invasion of the fresh mud filtrate. Tracking of the medium and deep
phase curves verified that they were indeed providing values of true formation resistivity. The
diameter of invasion, calculated assuming a step-profile invasion model, was 20 inches at drilling
time.
Track III contains the MAD phase shift resistivity curves recorded eight days after drilling. The
apparent diameter of invasion from the step-profile invasion model was 16 inches. Wireline
resistivity data shown in Track IV were recorded 12 days after the well was drilled and show no
apparent indication of invasion. Such reversals in apparent invasion depths have been discussed in
prior literature. It has been proposed that this phenomenon can occur in gas zones logged in
deviated wells and/or dipping beds, and is possibly due to gravity-induced fluid migration.2
It has also been suggested that the validity of these diameters of invasion, calculated by step-
profile invasion models, is suspect because the transition from the flushed zone’s water resistivity
to the virgin zone’s water resistivity is not sharp, but gradational3.

Reference:
1. Ball, S., and Hendricks, W.E.: “Formation Evaluation Utilizing a New MWD
Multiple Depth of Investigation Resistivity Sensor,” paper presented at the 15th
European Formation Evaluation Symposium, May 5-7, 1993.
2. Woodhouse, R., Opstad, E. A., and Cunningham, A.B.: “Vertical Migration of
Invaded Fluids in Horizontal Wells,” paper A presented at the SPWLA 32nd Annual
Logging Symposium, Midland, Texas, U.S.A, June 16-19, 1991.
3. Beck, G. F., Oberkircher, J., and Mack, S.: “Measurement of Invasion Using an
MWD Multiple Depth of Investigation Resistivity Tool,” paper SPE 24674 presented
at the 67th Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Washington, DC, U.S.A,
October 4-7, 1992.

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Log example 1 Gulf of Mexico Gas Sand MWD/MAD/Wireline – Phase Resistivities

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Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

Invasion Process - Measurement of Rxo


Log ex. 2 displays a water zone located deeper in the same well as above. The MWD curves in
Track II had a formation exposure time of only one hour, and the agreement of all four phase
shift resistivity curves signified that no appreciable invasion had occurred. Track III shows the
same interval logged 71/2 days later, and significant invasion (Di = 23 inches) had occurred, as
indicated by the interrelationship of the curves. This profile is commonly observed in Gulf
Coast high salinity water sands invaded by a fresh mud filtrate. Wireline logs were run after
12 days of formation exposure time and indicated significant invasion, with a diameter of
invasion computed to be 63 inches from the wireline service company’s tornado chart. The
value of Rxo from the tornado chart was 0.96 ohm-m and the maximum (Sxo = 100%)
theoretical value was 1.23 ohm-m. These are very close to the values of both the wireline
shallow guard and MAD shallow phase resistivity measurements. Their agreement indicate
that the shallow phase shift measurement can be used to estimate the flushed zone resistivity
in this MAD environment.

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Log Example 2 Gulf of Mexico Water Sand MWD/MAD/Wireline – Phase Resistivities

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Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

Analysis in Oil-Based Mud


Log ex. 3 and Log ex. 4 are examples taken from one of the first Resistivtiy logs run in the
North Sea. It is also the first Resistivity log run in an oil-based drilling fluid. This well was
drilled with an 8.5-inch diameter drill bit and a borehole inclination of 37 degrees. The
intervals shown are a sandstone formation with 25% average porosity. Connate water
resistivity is 0.021 ohm-m at formation temperature.

Log example 3 North Sea Oil Zone Logged After Coring Operation

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Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

The phase shift resistivity curves displayed in Log ex. 3 (Track II) were run in a MAD mode
due to a prior coring operation through this interval. Formation exposure time was 45 to 60
hours. With an oil-based mud and low formation water saturation (i.e., low relative
permeability to water), significant differences among the various resistivity curves, due to
filtrate invasion, would not be anticipated. Slight curve separations seen in the higher
resistivity intervals are due to small differences in the vertical resolutions of the various
spacings in this resistivity range.

Track III is a conventional 2 MHz log presentation, containing the medium phase shift and
medium attenuation resistivity curves only. An inexperienced user might wrongly interpret the
separation of these two curves as an indication of mud filtrate invasion. However, the correct
explanation for the observed differences is simply the different vertical resolutions of these
two measurements.

Attenuation resistivity curves are plotted in Track IV. Comparison of these curves with their
phase shift counterparts in Track II highlights the much sharper vertical resolution of the
phase shift-derived resistivity measurements. The magnitude of this difference in vertical
resolution is a function of resistivity and it increases with increasing resistivity.

In contrast, Zone A in Log ex. 4 exhibits the effects of invasion by the resistive oil-based mud
filtrate within three hours after drilling. All four phase shift resistivity values plotted in Track
II are affected to varying degrees in this permeable water-bearing sandstone. In comparison,
the attenuation resistivity values shown in Track III exhibit invasion effects on the shallow
curve only. The medium and deep attenuation resistivity curves overlay, confirming the
measurement of Ro. Note that in this range of resistivities, the attenuation-based measurement
has good vertical resolution.

Zone B in Log ex. 4 is similar to Zone A, except that the formation exposure time in only 1.4
hours. Increases in the shallow phase shift resistivity values above the expected water zone
resistivity values indicate invasion of the oil filtrate. The medium and deep phase resistivity
curves provide a direct measurement of Ro. Note that the four attenuation resistivity curves are
in good agreement with the medium and deep phase resistivity curves, thereby confirming
measurement of Ro.

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Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

Log example 4 North Sea Water Zone Logged While Drilling

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Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

The sand shown in Log example 5 is usually deeply invaded at the time of wireline logging,
thereby complicating accurate evaluation of its fluid saturations. It is also well known for
producing commercial quantities of hydrocarbons when calculated values of water saturation
are relatively high. The connate water resistivity, calculated in a nearby water sand, is 0.02
ohm-m at formation temperature. The mud filtrate resistivity is 0.11 ohm-m at formation
temperature. After several unsuccessful attempts to record wireline logs through this sand, it
was logged with the Resistivity tool approximately seven days after drilling.

The separations of the phase resistivity curves (Track II) and the attenuation resistivity curves
(Track III) are indicative of a deeply invaded formation. Utilizing a step-profile model of
invasion and the phase shift resistivity data as inputs, Di-P (Track I), Rxo-P (Track IV), and Rt-
P (Track IV) have been calculated continuously through this sand. The fact that the shallow
phase curve overlay one another from ×400 to ×410 feet is a good indication that they are
providing a measurement of Rxo. This supposition is confirmed by their very close agreement
with the computed Rxo curve through this interval.

The deep attenuation measurement is the only one of the eight measurements that is providing
accurate values of Rt in this sand. It is consistent with, though slightly lower than, the value of
Rt-P computed from the phase resistivity data. Using a step-profile invasion model and the
attenuation resistivity data as inputs, an Rt curve (not shown) that is similar to the Rt-P curve,
but with less character, was computed. Invasion of fresh mud filtrate has caused the other
seven curves to read too high. Correct analysis of this sand’s water saturation requires a
multiple depth of investigation resistivity tool that includes a relatively deep-reading
measurement and modeling software to confirm that its readings have not been compromised
by very deep invasion.

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Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

Log example 5 Results from Step-Profile Invasion Model

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North Sea Horizontal Well Project: Oil-Based Mud vs. KCl Mud
Log ex. 6 displays a section of the pilot hole drilled in conjunction with a horizontal well in
the North Sea. The pilot well, drilled with an 8.5 inch diameter bit and at an inclination of 60
degrees through the target formation, utilized a KCL/polymer mud system. At the circulating
temperature of 77o C, Rm was 0.05 ohm-m and Rmf was 0.036 ohm-m. Formation water
resistivity was 0.075 ohm-m at 77o C.

The phase shift-derived resistivity curves exhibit a slightly erratic character in the ××58 to
××61 meter interval, due to the combination of thin resistive coal streaks, irregular hole size,
and the very conductive mud. The attenuation measurements are similarly affected, but to a
lesser degree.

A whole core was cut from ××77 to ×142 meters, which included an oil/water transition zone
from ××96 to ×104 meters. The long formation exposure time, due to the two-day coring
operation, created the potential for deep invasion in the hydrocarbon-bearing interval from
××61 to ×104 meters. The effect of the very conductive invading mud filtrate on the eight
Resistivity curves is apparent in Log ex. 6. The attenuation-derived resistivity curves plotted
in Track III exhibit much less separation than do the phase shift-derived resistivity curves
plotted in Track II, because of the apparent deeper depths of investigation of the attenuation
measurements in this environment. On the other hand, the vertical resolutions of the phase
shift resistivity measurements are superior to their attenuation counterparts.

Some values of Rxo, Di, and Rt, calculated using a step-profile model of invasion and the
phase resistivity data as inputs, are annotated on Log ex. 6. From ××65 to ×125 meters,
invasion diameters vary from 16 inches to 43 inches. The computed values of Rt are consistent
with the medium and deep attenuation resistivity values in zones where these two
measurements agree. When the computed value of Di is less than approximately 30 inches, the
deep phase resistivity measurement agrees with the modeled value of Rt. When Di exceeds 30
inches, the computed Rt value is slightly greater than the deep phase resistivity value.

4/24/2002 41
Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

Log example 6 Phase vs. Attenuation Resistivities in North Sea Pilot Hole

42 4/24/2002
Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

Figure 7 illustrates a section of the horizontal well through the hydrocarbon zone shown in
Figure 4. The attenuation resistivity data are not presented because they add minimal
additional information in this particular environment. In contrast to the pilot hole, this
horizontal borehole was drilled with an oil-based mud. The coal interval at ×221 to ×227
meters is more easily identified because borehole effects are much less pronounced in oil-
based mud than in the very conductive mud used in the pilot hole.

The resistivity peak at ×256.5 meters is a “polarization horn.” This phenomenon is caused by
a discontinuity in the propagating electrical field as the tool crosses the boundary between
beds having different resistivities. The size of the polarization horn depends on the contrast
between the resistivities of the adjacent beds and the relative dip angle between the borehole
and the formation. The higher the relative dip angle and greater the resistivity contrast, the
larger the “horn.”4 Also, note how the magnitude of this horn diminishes with decreasing
transmitter-receiver spacing for the four phase resistivity curves plotted.

The different depths of investigation of the Resistivity tool are apparent in the varying degrees
of anticipation of the formation top at ×256.5 meters. The deepest reading curve plotted in
Figure 7, D-RES, “sees” the approaching bed first, followed by the M-RES, S-RES, and X-
RES curves respectively.

Reference:
4. Anderson, B., Bonner, S., Luling, M.G., and Rosthal, R.: “Response of 2-MHz LWD
Resistivity and Wireline Induction Tools in Dipping Beds and Laminated
Formations,” paper A presented at the SPWLA 31st Annual Logging Symposium,
Lafayette, Louisiana, U.S.A., June 24-27, 1990.

4/24/2002 43
Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

Log example 7 North Sea Horizontal Well Phase Resistivities in Oil-Based Mud

44 4/24/2002
Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

Triple Combo Log Example

4/24/2002 45
Resistivity Sensor Theory and Application

One of the customer log presentations is the triple-combo log. This log includes data from the
gamma, resistivity, density, and neutron sensors on the same log.

In Zone 1 of Figure 8, the bulk density decreases and the neutron porosity increases, both
indicating an increase in porosity. The gamma ray moves from the shale baseline towards a
less shaley formation. The resistivity decreases, indicating either a decrease in the resistivity
of the pore fluids or an increase in porosity. A qualitative interpretation of this zone based on
these curves is a porous wet zone.

In Zone 2 the bulk density increases and the neutron porosity decreases, both indicating a
decrease in porosity. The gamma ray moves from the shale baseline towards a less shaley
formation. The resistivity increases, indicating either an increase in the resistivity of the pore
fluids or a decrease in porosity. A qualitative interpretation of this zone based on these curves
is a low porosity zone.

In Zone 3 the bulk density decreases, indicating an increase in porosity, however, the neutron
SS Porosity is showing a decrease in porosity. The gamma ray moves from the shale baseline
towards a less shaley formation. The resistivity increases, indicating either an increase in the
resistivity of the pore fluids or a decrease in porosity. The density-neutron cross-over is a
typical response in a gas zone. It is caused by the differing effect of the gas’s decreased
hydrogen content on the Neutron and Density sensors. The Neutron primarily measures the
formation’s hydrogen content, whereas the Density measures the formation’s electron density.
When a formation’s pore space fluid, such as water or oil, is replaced by gas there is a
reduction in both the hydrogen content and the electron density. The Neutron responds to this
reduction in hydrogen content by calculating a lower porosity, whereas the Density responds
to the decreased electron density by calculating a higher porosity. This density-neutron cross-
over is a result of these responses. A qualitative interpretation of this zone based on these
curves is a porous gas zone.

46 4/24/2002
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

Pressure Response to Rig Activities

Downhole Pressure
The actual downhole pressure has 3 primary components.
1. Hydrostatic pressure
2. Dynamic pressure components
3. Shut in pressure

Hydrostatic Pressure
The density of the fluid and the true vertical depth of the fluid column determine the
hydrostatic pressure. The density of the mud can change due to:
• Changes in the mud density going in the well
• Changes in solids load (barite, sand, cuttings. etc.)
• Influx of formation fluids or gas.
These events show up as changes in the annular pressure and therefore, a change in the EMW.

Dynamic Pressure
Dynamic pressure is the pressure required to move the fluid. This pressure must overcome a
combination of five factors that resist the fluid flow.
• Frictional effects from the surfaces in contact with the flow
• Fluid resistance to movement (viscosity, solids loading, gel properties, etc.)
• Type of fluid flow (turbulent, laminar, etc.)
• Annular geometry (size of the annulus, restrictions, washouts, etc.)
• Rate of flow

Any changes to these factors cause a change in the downhole pressure. This is most clearly
seen when the pressure is expressed as EMW.
There are four prominent rig activities that effect these factors.
1. Circulation rate
2. Rotation of the drill pipe
3. Axial movement of the drill pipe
4. Mud properties

1
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

Hydrostatic Pressure (HSP) Calculation

Hydrostatic Pressure - TVD * MW * K = HSP

K - is a units conversion constant.


TVD - is true vertical depth
MW - is mud weight

Equivalent Mud Weight (EMW)


The measurement taken by the pressure sensor is an absolute pressure measurement. In theory
Hydrostatic Pressure and Equivalent Mud Weight are the same if the borehole is free of
cuttings. More often than not the borehole is not free of cuttings and the Annular Pressure
sensor is used to provide an accurate downhole pressure reading used to calculate equivalent
mud weight (EMW). True Vertical Depth (TVD) must be correct to effectively use EMW to
make realtime drilling decisions.
EMW is calculated to make this data easier to compare with mud properties, surface readings
and pressure gradients. The surface software converts the pressure to psig and then to
equivalent mud weight (EMW).
Therefore, the equation used for EMW is:

EMW = Annular Pressure / (TVD *K )⋅

In the imperial system with pressure in psi, mud weight in lb/gal and depth in feet,

K = 0.052.

In the metric system with pressure in KPa, mud weight in gm/cc or specific gravity and depth
in meters,

K = 9.81.

The presence of the TVD in the equivalent mud weight calculation makes this value sensitive
to depth and survey errors. Accurate depth is vital to report accurate Pressure data. This
applies during all drilling conditions (tripping, reaming, etc.) because the Pressure sensor
collects data during all these operations.
EMW is the total pressure exerted on the formation by the drilling fluid, expressed as though all
pressures were from mud weight alone. This includes the ECD plus all other factors (such as surge
pressure or choke setting) that effect pressure. EMW is a dynamic value that is constantly changing
as the circulating conditions change.

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Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

Equivalent mud weight is derived from the following formulas:


Imperial Units
EMW at depth D = (Annulus Pressure Loss Imposed Pressures + HSP) / (0.052 * TVD)
Metric Units
EMW at depth D = (Annulus Pressure Loss Imposed Pressures + HSP) / (9.81 * TVD)

HSP is the hydrostatic pressure

Example:

Annulus pressure loss = 200 psi


Depth (TVD) = l5,000 ft
Surge pressure = 400 psi
Mud weight = 12 ppg
HSP of 12 ppg at 15,000 ft = 9360 psi

EMW = (200 psi + 400 psi + 9360 psi)/ (0.052 *15 000ft) = 12.8 ppg
Even though the annulus has 12 ppg mud in it, the formation sees pressure equivalent to that
of a 12.8 ppg mud during the reaming down surge.
Engineering models cannot accurately calculate the effect of factors such as ECD, cuttings
load, poor hole cleaning, swab and surge pressures, or gel pressure spikes. The most accurate
measure of the pressure exerted on the formation, and therefore most accurate EMW, comes
from a direct downhole measurement.

Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD) Calculations using


Annulus Pressure
The ECD is the effective mud density resulting from the circulating pressure and mud weight.
It is defined by the equation:

ECD = {Annulus Pressure Loss (psi) / (0.052 *TVD (ft))} + MW(lb/gal)


In Metric Units
ECD = {Annulus pressure loss (Kpa)/ (9.81 TVD (m))} + MW (gm/cc or sg)
MW = mud weight

ECD is the annulus pressure loss plus the hydrostatic pressure. ECDs normally range from 0.2
to about 1.0 ppg above the original mud weight. They may be as high as 3.0 ppg above the
original mud weight under some conditions.

4/8/2002 3
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

Factors Effecting EMW

Equivalent mud weight includes all factors that affect the pressure exerted on the formation.
These may be long term or very short duration.

Breaking a Gel: Mud sets up in a thixotropic time-dependent gel when it is not flowing. The
force needed to break the gel and return the mud to a fluid state adds to the annulus pressure
losses until the mud is again fluid.

Cuttings Load: Suspended solids in the mud increase the mud weight. This increases the
hydrostatic pressure of the mud column.

Downhole Pressure: Downhole pressure causes a small compression of the drilling fluid and
therefore, a small change in density.

Flow Rate: The pressure necessary at the bit to push the mud up the annulus increases with
increasing flow rate.

Formation Fluid Influx: When formation fluid flows into the annulus, it changes the mud
properties and, therefore, the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the mud. The extreme case is a
gas kick. The gas bubble displaces mud and expands as it rises in the annulus. This drastically
reduces the hydrostatic pressure.

Original Mud Weight: The measured surface mud weight is the primary factor controlling
downhole pressure. The mud weight sets the baseline around which all other factors vary.

Restrictions in the Annulus: Restrictions to circulation increase the pressure necessary to


move the fluid at a specific flow rate. These restrictions can result from swelling formation,
poor hole cleaning, hole collapse, fractured formation, or any other formation factor that
causes the walls of the annulus to come loose and enter the annulus.

Swab and Surge Pressures: Moving the drillstring axially in the hole, displaces the drilling
fluid like a piston in a cylinder. This adds to or subtracts from the existing pressure.

Temperature Downhole: Temperature changes cause an expansion or contraction of the mud


and, therefore, a small change in the density.

Type of Fluid Flow Pattern and Regime: The annular fluid flow path when sliding is
different from the flow path when rotating the drill pipe. This changes the resistance to the
flow, the type of flow regime, and the path length of the flow. These factors change the
pressure loss in the annulus and therefore, change the EMW felt by the formation.

4 4/8/2002
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

Real-Time, Recorded, and Pumps-Cycle Pressure Measurements

Recorded data usually has a much higher data density than real-time or pumps-off data and is
recorded regardless of the status of the pumps. This allows recorded data to capture short term
pressure transients. Real-time data may miss these events because of the slower transmit
frequency. Figure 1 displays both real-time and recorded data for comparison.

Figure 1 Comparison of Real-time and Recorded


Annular Pressure Data

The pumps-off algorithm captures minimum,


maximum, and average pressures during a pumps-
off condition. This can be transmitted to the
surface when the pumps come on. Therefore, this
is semi-real-time data (see Figure 2).

Figure 2 Pumps-Off Data

4/8/2002 5
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

Surface vs. Downhole Measurement

EMW measured downhole can differ by more than ±0.5 ppg from that predicted by hydraulic
modeling or surface measurements. The many possible causes for the surface-to-downhole
difference include:
• Uncertainties in the hydraulic model (pipe rotation, drillstring eccentricity)
• Changes in the mud at downhole temperature
• Fluid compression due to confining pressure
• The presence of solids in the mud (cuttings, sand, cavings, etc.) These significantly
increase the EMW.
• Error in surface measurements.

Figure 3 Surface and Downhole Pressure During a Leak Off Test

Shut In Pressure
Shut in pressures are the pressure components present when the well is not an open system.
This includes:

• Pressures applied by pumps when the well is shut in (FIT, LOT).


• Pressure applied by restricting the choke.

6 4/8/2002
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

EMW Response to Circulation and Rotation

Circulation
The dynamic pressures are present only when the fluid is circulating. Therefore, a pumps-
on/off change causes a prominent immediate shift in the EMW. Figure 1 shows this effect
clearly. The amplitude of this shift is determined by the rate of circulation, well geometry, and
the mud properties.

Rotation
The presence of rotation of the drill pipe increases the EMW in several ways. • When steering
in a non vertical well, the drill pipe lays against the low side of the annulus. With rotation, the
drill pipe is more centralized in the annulus but it constantly moves about laterally. This
change in eccentricity changes the flow path and flow regime of the fluid. This adds
turbulence that requires more pressure to move the fluid. These changes increase the pressure
drop in the annulus. • This effect is increased with increasing hole inclination and rotation
speed. • It keeps solids suspended which increases mud weight. The amplitude of this increase
caused by rotation is determined by the rate of rotation, mud properties and the well geometry:
size of the annulus, concentricity of the pipe in the annulus, etc. (see Figure 4).

Figure 4 Effect of Pumps On/Off and Rotation on EMW

4/8/2002 7
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

EMW Response to Axial Movement of Drill Pipe while Tripping In


the Well

Movement of the drillstring in or out of the well causes a movement of fluid displaced by the
pipe (surge) or a movement of fluid to fill the space vacated by the pipe (swab). In a surge, the
fluid is moving up the annulus with increased velocity. The pressure for this increased velocity
comes from the pipe acting like a piston in the annulus. This shows up as an increase in EMW.
In a swab, the fluid flows down the annulus. This subtracts from the pressure felt at the sensor
and lowers the EMW (see Figure 5). The speed of pipe movement, mud properties, and the
annulus geometry determine the amplitude of the change in EMW.

Figure 5 Effect of Moving Pipe on EMW

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Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

Rig Heave
When the bit is off bottom and there is no active heave compensation, rig heave causes a short
frequency reciprocal surge swab variation in EMW. These variations are shorter frequency
than the real-time data frequency and show up as scatter in the real-time data and a very noisy
trace in the recorded data (see Figure 6). The severity of this effect depends more on the speed
of the rig movement than on the height of the heave.

Figure 6 Effect of Rig Heave on EMW

In this example from the North Sea in winter, swab was sufficient to collapse the hole and
induce packoff, lost circulation, and hole fill.

4/8/2002 9
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

EMW Responses to Mud Density Changes

Hole Cleaning
Circulating cuttings out of the hole decreases the mud density. As the cuttings are removed,
the density of the annular fluid drops and the EMW reflects this decrease (see Figure 7).

Figure 7 Circulating the Hole Clean

10 4/8/2002
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

Formation Influx
Formation fluids are usually less dense than drilling muds. Therefore, any formation fluid in
the mud decreases the mud density. This shows up in the EMW as a rapid and sometimes
dramatic decrease (see Figure 8). The exception to this is in riser-less drilling using sea water
as the drilling fluid. A water kick from an unconsolidated formation can carry sand into the
annulus and increase the density of the annular fluid. This causes an increase in the EMW (see
Figure 9).

Figure 8 Effect of a Gas Kick on EMW Real-time Data

4/8/2002 11
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

Figure 9 Water and Sand Influx in Riser-less Drilling

Swab and Surge Pressure


Swab and surge are frictional pressures generated by fluid flow due to pipe movement. A
positive surge pressure occurs when running the pipe in, and a negative swab pressure occurs
when pulling the pipe out. The complexity of the fluid flow caused by moving pipe is difficult
to model. Fluid close to the pipe is moving in the same direction as the pipe due to friction,
while fluid in the center of the annular space is moving in the opposite direction to
compensate for the volume of the pipe. Further modeling difficulties arise from pipe
acceleration effects, elasticity of pipe and formation, and fluid inertia.

Factors Contributing to Swab and Surge


Swab and surge pressures are principally related to the wellbore geometry, mud properties,
pipe running speed and circulation.

• The wellbore geometry and the size of the drill pipe determine the size of the annulus. A
larger annulus allows a slower movement of displaced fluid past the moving drill pipe.
This reduces the swab or surge pressure effect. Any restrictions such as packoff or
swelling of the well bore reduces the annulus size and increases the swab or surge effect.
See Figure 11.

12 4/8/2002
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

• The mud properties (viscosity, gel properties, solids load, etc.) determine the resistance to
movement and, therefore, the pressure required to move the fluid. The more viscous or
gelled the fluid, the greater the swab or surge effect.

• Pipe running speed determines how fast the fluid must move as it is displaced and
therefore, how much pressure is necessary to move it. This is the main factor in
controlling surge and swab pressures.

• Circulation pressures adds to surge pressure because the displaced fluid adds to the
annulus flow. Circulation reduces the swab effect because the circulating fluid is filling
the space vacated by the pipe.

Surge pressure is maximum at the bit because this is the point of maximum annular pressure
loss by the moving fluid. Below the bit, there is no fluid flow, and the fluid below the bit acts
as a closed hydraulic system. In a non-gelled mud, surge or swab pressure at the bit is felt
equally throughout the fluid below the bit. A gelled mud reduces the pressure felt below the
bit by an unknown amount.

Above the bit the surge is felt throughout the annulus. The swab or surge is the result of fluid
flow, not hydrostatic pressure. Therefore, it is not effected by the inclination of the well.

Real-Time Swab and Surge Measurement


If there is circulation while the pipe is moving, swab and surge show up in the real-time data.
However, the sampling frequency of real-time data does not accurately define the short
duration pressure changes caused by surge and swab. The plotted trace may show the presence
of pressure spikes, but the values are seldom accurate measures of the maximum pressure
experienced.
When the pumps are off while moving the drillstring, the pump cycle data catches the
maximum and minimum value during each pump cycle. However, these values are time
stamped with the pumps off time. If the drill string is moved while the pumps are off, the
EMW is calculated with the depth at pumps off, not the depth at the time of the surge or swab.
This source of error can be minimized by limiting the pipe movement to one stand before the
pumps are turned on again. This error decreases with increasing depth and has little effect in
high inclination sections. In a highly gelled mud the gel pressure may be the maximum
reported rather than a surge pressure.

Recorded Surge and Swab Measurement


The recorded data can be plotted with a number of other surface parameters to give an
accurate picture of the cause and effects of downhole pressure variations. Figure 10 is an
example of measured surge and swab pressures. In this case, an EMW variance between 1.57
sg and 1.73 sg is generated. In some situations, this is sufficient to damage the formation.
Recorded surge and swab data must be time synchronized before it is used.

4/8/2002 13
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

Figure 10 Recorded Swab and Surge Pressures

Figure 11 shows the effect of a tight hole on swab pressure. Between 12:15 and 12:25, the
string was pulled through a tight section of the hole. The EMW dropped to 1.20 gm/cc.
Between 12:35 and 12:40 a slightly higher running speed produced a swab of 1.23 gm/cc.

Figure 11 Differences in Swab Due to a Tight Hole

14 4/8/2002
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

Leak Off Test (LOT) and Formation Integrity Test (FIT)


Both LOT and FIT are designed to verify that the casing, cement, and formation below the
casing shoe can withstand the pressure required to drill to the next casing point or next section
of the well. The data has application in planning the next casing point selection, well control
planning, and preventing lost circulation. Pressure downhole pressure is a definitive
measurement for the LOT/FIT. This removes many uncertainties (in the hydrostatic density of
the mud column and the pressure to break the gels) inherent in measuring the pressure at the
surface. The pressure sensors record the pressures while the well is closed in and transmit the
data to the surface when the pumps are started.

Figure 12 LOT Example

The LOT or FIT is normally performed after drilling a few meters past the casing shoe to
expose the formation. The well is shut-in using the BOPs, and the cement pumping unit
applies pressure, usually through the choke line. The pump is then stopped and the pressure is
observed for at least 10 minutes to determine the rate of pressure decline. In a FIT, pressure is
applied to a predetermined level that will not fracture the formation (usually the level needed
to drill to the next casing point). Figure 12 is an example of a FIT plot.

During a LOT, pressure is applied to the open formation until a fracture develops.
Figure 12 and Figure 13 show the results of a typical leak-off test.

4/8/2002 15
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

Figure 13 Classical LOT

The straight-line pressure increase continues to point A, where the formation starts to fracture.
The leak-off pressure, point B, where the formation starts to take whole mud is used to
calculate the fracture gradient. Pumping stops at point B, to observe the pressure decline. The
rate of pressure decline indicates the rate at which mud is being lost.

LOT Errors
When measured from the surface, hydrostatic pressure is added to the surface pressure
readings to obtain the actual pressure exerted on the formation. Hydrostatic pressure
calculations use the surface mud weight. Cuttings in the annulus or poorly conditioned mud
can introduce errors into this hydrostatic measurement. This is why it is standard practice to
circulate uniform mud for 1 to 2 hours before performing the LOT or FIT.

There are also pressure transmission losses associated with surface pressure measurements
which lead to errors in LOT interpretation.
• Gelled muds may not transmit pressure effectively. This results in a difference between
surface and downhole pressure readings.

• Surface instruments may not be calibrated or accurate.

• Surface lines and valves may have pressure drops that introduce error in the pressure
readings.

16 4/8/2002
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

The direct measurement of downhole pressure eliminates these sources of error and reduces
the need for the circulation time.
Figure 14 shows data from a FIT test in a high pressure high temperature North Sea well. The
pumps-off maximum in Figure 14 gives the actual pressure of the FIT as soon as the pumps
came on.
In this example the surface measurement was significantly lower than the pumps off
maximum pressure. The main source of error was an out of calibration surface gauge. If the
erroneous surface measurement was not detected, the well would have developed severe
problems and not been able to reach TD in the subsequent section.

Figure 14 Real-Time Data During a FIT Test

4/8/2002 17
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

Controlling Gel Strength Pressure Spikes


The gel strength of drilling mud prevents cuttings and barite from dropping out of suspension
when the mud is static. However, this gellation produces an initial resistance to circulation
when pressure is applied to the mud. This gellation may require significant force or pressure to
break the gel and start fluid movement. In Figure 15 the sharp spikes are a measure of the
extra pressure necessary to break a gel each time the pumps come on. This increase pressure
of up to 0.06 sg is greater than the circulating annular pressure loss of 0.04 sg. The mud
logging data was insufficient to tell how quickly the pumps and rotary started in this case.

Figure 15 Pressure Spikes from Breaking Gels

A large amount of Pressure data shows this phenomena to be a rare occurrence, but when it
does occur it can be significant. The pressure required to break the gel is currently not
modeled due to the uncertainty in the time-dependent gel properties of the mud. When drilling
at pressures close to the fracture pressure, gel pressure spikes can initiate fractures in the
formation that propagate at drilling pressures and initiate lost circulation. Figure 16 is an
example of fractured formation and lost circulation due to a large gel pressure spike.

18 4/8/2002
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

Figure 16 Lost Circulation Due to a Gel Pressure Spike

Measuring Gel Strength Pressure Spikes


Real-time data does not detect gel spikes because they occur before the tool begins
transmitting data to the surface when the pumps come on. The pumps-off maximum pressure
records the maximum pressure that occurred during a pumps-off cycle. This is the gel pressure
if there was no LOT and pipe movement speed was controlled. Figure 9.16 gives an example
of the pumps-off pressure data plotted with the real-time data during a gel pressure spike. The
recorded data is the primary measure of gel pressures. This data displays a clear picture of the
magnitude of the spikes. Recorded data helps the driller to adjust his pumps-on procedure to
prevent the spikes and protect the formation from damage.

4/8/2002 19
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

Drilling Operation Applications, Hole Cleaning and


Packoff Prevention

Determining When the Hole is Clean


Common practice in cleaning cuttings from the hole is to circulate for a set time or set number
of bottoms-up times. Pressure has shown that often the well is clean before this circulation
time finishes. By monitoring the EMW with Presuure, it is possible to determine when the
circulation is no longer removing cuttings (see Figure 17). If the mud is effectively removing
the cuttings this steady state indicates the hole is clean and circulation can end. If the
circulation is not effectively removing the cuttings due to lack of rotation or mud properties,
this steady state indicates that the hole is as clean as possible with the circulating conditions.

Figure 17 EMW Response to Circulating the Hole Clean

Indications of Poor Hole Cleaning


Pressure data provides these indicators of poor hole cleaning:

• Cuttings settling while sliding in high angle holes


• Packoff pressure spikes
• A rapid increase in EMW after starting rotation
• Short term variations in EMW

Cuttings Settling while Sliding in High Angle Wells The effect of sliding on hole cleaning
depends on the inclination of the hole. In vertical sections the effect of cuttings settling out of
the mud is minimal. However, as the angle increases, so does the tendency of cuttings to settle
on the low side of the wellbore. See Figure 18.

20 4/8/2002
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

Figure 18 Affect of Cuttings Settling and Pipe Rotation on EMW

As the cuttings accumulate on the low side of the well, they form into small dunes under the
force of the circulation. Unstable hole conditions, such as cave-in and washout, increase this
tendency in two ways. They provide places for the cuttings to accumulate, and they reduce the
velocity of the fluid in the area of the enlarged hole allowing more cuttings to settle.
This produces an uneven EMW as the piles build and are washed away. As the size of these
piles increase, they increase the difficulty sliding the pipe and keeping the weight on the bit. If
they are not removed before the pipe is pulled up, they can cause stuck pipe.

Effect of Rotation on Settled Cuttings


When rotation begins, the settled cuttings and cavings are picked up by the increased
turbulence and mixing (see Figure 18). The initial jump in EMW at 20:20 is caused by the
rotation effect on the well hydraulics. The more gradual increase between 20:20 and 21:00 is
caused by the resuspended solids reaching the vertical section of the well. The Pressure sensor
does not see this increased cuttings load until the it reaches the vertical section and the
increased weight of the mud affects the hydrostatic pressure. When operating close to the
fracture gradient, the combined affect of the cuttings load and rotation can exceed the fracture
gradient and damage the formation. As the extra cuttings are removed from the well the EMW
drops to a steady level.

Packoff Pressure Spikes


Packoff occurs when enough settled cuttings are present in the well to cause a restriction
(partial or total) in the annulus. This plug restricts the circulation and causes a sudden increase
in pressure that washes away the restriction. Recorded Pressure data displays this as a spike in
the EMW. Figure 19 illustrates packoff spikes. Packoff spikes can be large enough to cause
formation damage.

4/8/2002 21
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

A packoff can result from hole collapse or from allowing cuttings to accumulate in the
annulus. Pulling up the drillstring without sufficient cleaning often causes a packoff as the
cuttings pile up around the stabilizers or bit. In severe cases, this leads to stuck pipe.
The real-time sample rate may not catch the short duration packoff spikes. The pumps-on
maximum pressure captures the highest pressure experienced during the pumps-on cycle. This
may be a packoff pressure spike, if it is higher than any gel or surge pressures generated.
Recorded data captures all packoff spikes and displays them in the log.

Figure 19 Packoff Pressure Spikes (expanded on Y axis to show detail)

Hole Condition Evaluation


Hole conditions, such as swelling, washout, or hole collapse, effect hole cleaning and
contribute to the accumulation of cuttings in the well. Figure 20 shows an uneven EMW
caused by poor hole conditions and varying restrictions to circulation.

Figure 20 Uneven EMW Due to Restricted Circulation

22 4/8/2002
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

Motor Hydraulics Evaluation


The ability to measure both annulus and internal pressure at the BHA provides an additional
tool to evaluate the pressure drops and hydraulics of the mud motor and bit. Using the internal
measured pressure from the Pressure sensor eliminates the modeling errors in the flow above
the Pressure sensor. This improves the accuracy of the modeling process.

Lost Circulation Evaluation


Pressure does not provide a direct indication of lost circulation unless the lost circulation is
severe enough to cause a loss of hydrostatic head (see Figure 16). However, the Pressure data
is often useful in determining how the lost circulation occurred and what the EMW was when
it occurred. This helps prevent it in the future. In Figure 21, the recorded data shows a large
reaming down surge in the EMW that immediately preceded a lost circulation incident.

Figure 21 EMW During a Lost Circulation Incident

The Pressure recorded pressure log can also help determine the fracture propagation pressure
more accurately. This fracture propagation pressure is a useful measure of the formation
strength, perhaps more so than the LOT, which normally includes the tensile strength of the
formation and so may be anomalously high.

The fracture propagation pressure is necessary to calculate the EMW that will prevent lost
circulation.

4/8/2002 23
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

Detecting Mud Weight Variations


Poorly conditioned mud or out of specification mud shows up as a variation from the expected
EMW. This difference from expected can be from viscosity or weight differences.
Mud that is out of specification on weight shows up in two ways.
• A consistent static EMW that is different than expected
• A drift away from expected, with no operational changes, in both static and circulating
EMW.

If the Static weight is correct but the ECD is different than expected, the viscosity may be out
of specification.

Figure 22 shows an incident of poorly controlled mud properties.

Figure 22 Poor Control of Mud Properties on the Pressure Log

Poorly Conditioned Mud


If the mud circulated in the well is not properly conditioned, it produces fluctuations in EMW.
The cycle of these changes depends on the circulation time and the nature of the lack of
conditioning. The effect is similar to circulating a pill.

24 4/8/2002
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

Detecting Loss/Gain with the Formation


The phenomenon variously called borehole ballooning, breathing, or loss/gain is the result of
slow mud losses to the formation while drilling, followed by mud returns after the pumps have
been turned off. Any flow when the pumps are off is cause for concern as it may be due to an
influx of formation water, liquid hydrocarbons, or gas. However, if the flow is due to mud
returns, well control is not an issue.
Loss/gain occurs when:
• The loss is into fractures that are contained within a limited fracture network and with
little or no fluid leak-off into porosity.
• The pumps-on EMW is above the fracture opening pressure and the pumps-off EMW is
below the fracture closing pressure.

When these conditions exist, mud flows into these fractures while the pumps are on, then flow
back into the annulus when the pumps are stopped. The returns are more noticeable than the
losses because the return occurs rapidly and during a period when no flow is expected. This is
often confused with a formation influx.
The traditional cure for formation influx is to increase mud weight to ensure an adequate
overbalance in the absence of circulation. However, if the flow is mud returns from fractures
that are closing, not an influx, increasing the mud weight will increase the problem. Mud
losses continue, and eventually the fracture propagation pressure is exceeded, resulting in total
losses.
The characteristic pressure signature for loss/gain occurs on the pump-off cycle when real-
time data cannot be transmitted. Only severe cases are detected on real-time data. The
recorded pressure data does show the characteristics of loss/gain.

Pressure Evidence for Loss/Gain


When loss/gain occurs, the recorded pressure response during the pump shut down and start-
up provides a definitive shape in the EMW trace. The normal shape of the EMW trace is a
sharp square drop to the static EMW when the pumps are turned off. The pump-on increase in
EMW is equally square.
Figure 23 shows these pressure changes with no loss/gain during a normal connection. The
mud in use was a 15.90 lb/gal synthetic oil-based. During the pumps-off interval, the pit
gained approximately 30 bbl. This is a normal flow from the lines when circulation is stopped.
When the pumps were turned off, there was a sharp pressure drop to near the static level.
When the pumps were restarted, the pressure rose just as sharply to the pumps-on level. This
“square well” profile is characteristic of a normal connection with no signs of loss/gain or
flow.

4/8/2002 25
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

Figure 23 Normal Square Pumps-On/Off Profile

Figure 24 shows the EMW for a pumps cycle at a depth of 16,679 ft. When the pumps were
turned off, the EMW fell sharply to 16.16 lb/gal and then fell more gradually over the next 20
minutes to a near static level of about 16.12 lb/gal. When the pumps were restarted, the EMW
rose quickly back to 16.47 lb/gal, essentially the level before the connection. No flow was
reported at this time, although the well was giving back 45 bbls, 10 bbls more than previously.

Figure 24 Gain/Loss Pumps-On/Off Profile

Figure 9.25 shows a connection and flow check at 17,230 ft where loss/gain was reported.
When pumps were stopped, the EMW fell rapidly from 16.42 lb/gal to 16.37 lb/gal and then
gradually to 16.12 lb/gal just before the pumps were restarted. Loss/gain was reported and
flow checks had returns of +85 bbls.
The gradual fall in pressure to the static level, shown in Figure 25, indicates returning mud
flow when the pumps stop. The return mud flow prevents the pressure from falling rapidly to
the static level as shown in Figure 23.

26 4/8/2002
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

After restarting the pumps, the EMW eventually increased to 16.40 lb/gal, or nearly the same
as before the connection, but took more than 15 minutes even with a slightly higher circulation
rate.

In addition, on the decline curve there is typically a break in the EMW slope which is
interpreted to be the fracture closure pressure similar to that interpreted in many leak-off tests
when pumping is halted.

Figure 25 Increased Evidence of Loss/Gain

4/8/2002 27
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

Formation Fluid Influx in a Weighted Mud System

When drilling with weighted mud, the formation fluid is less dense than the mud weight.
Therefore, an influx dilutes the mud and lowers the EMW. However, if the formation fluid
carries a lot of solids, the reduction in EMW may not be apparent.

A kick in a weighted mud is detected on the EMW log by a decrease in EMW that cannot be
explained by a change in operating conditions. The rate of change in EMW depends on the
amount of the influx and the relative difference in the weight of the mud and the weight of the
formation fluid. A slow flow into the annulus causes a gradual decrease as the formation fluid
rises in the annulus and dilutes more of the mud. A large flow causes a rapid decrease in
EMW. Figure 26 shows a large water kick in a weighted mud.

Figure 26 Water Influx into Weighted Mud

28 4/8/2002
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

Influx of Water During Riserless Drilling


When drilling with sea water and no riser, an influx of water into the annulus may not change
the EMW enough to register on the Pressure sensor. This problem may not be detected until
other symptoms develop.
If the fluid influx from the formation carries solids, which is normally the case in deepwater
drilling, it can be heavier than the annulus fluid and cause a detectable increase in the EMW.
Figure 27 shows the recorded data for an influx of unconsolidated sand and water into a salt
water drilling fluid.

Figure 27 Water and Sand Influx in Salt Water Fluid (Riserless Drilling)

Figure 28 Water and Sand Influx into Salt Water Mud, Time Depth Log

4/8/2002 29
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

Influx of Gas into the Annular Fluid


A gas kick always lowers the EMW. When the volume is sufficient to create gas bubbles, the
drop in EMW is rapid and easily detected on the real-time EMW log. When drilling near gas-
bearing formations, carefully monitor the Pressure data to provide early detection of a gas
kick. Figure 29 illustrates a gas kick.

Figure 29 Gas Influx into the Annulus, Real-Time Data

30 4/8/2002
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

Reference Table - Pressure Application


Table 1 Real-Time Pressure Applications

Applications Pressure Response Comments


Formation Integrity Test The lack of pressure bleed off after The data from the test is
shutting in the well indicates the transmitted to the surface when
formation will withstand the tested the pumps come on.
pressure
Leak Off Test The pressure at which there is a break The data from the test is
in the slope of the LOT pressure transmitted to the surface when
curve indicates the fracture pressure the pumps come on.
of the formation
Measuring Pumps-off The pumps-off maximum pressure The pumps off minimum
Swab and Surge pressures captures the largest surge or gel captures the lowest swab
and Gel strength of the pressure experienced during a pumps pressure
Mud off cycle.
Monitoring Hole A gradual decrease in EMW while This results from cuttings
Cleaning steering indicates poor hole cleaning settling out in high angle
wellbores
A steady increase in EMW while This results from settled cuttings
rotating indicates poor hole cleaning being lift back into suspension
Short term variations in EMW can This results from restrictions in
indicates poor hole cleaning the wellbore while circulating
A decrease of EMW to the input mud EMW is the same as calculated
weight while circulating indicates the ECD
hole is clean
Detecting Packoff The appearance of a series of positive This results in a pressure spike
spikes in the EMW indicates packoff only when the packoff is above
the pressure sensor
Measures Pressures from EMW shifts with a change in rotary
Rotation or Flow speed or flow
Detecting Formation A decrease in EMW that does not The size of the decrease is
Fuild Influx when correlate to rig operations relative to the Mud densities and
Drilling with Mud the volume of influx
Detecting Gas Influx A sudden large decrease in EMW that This is usually a dramatic
does not correlate to rig operations change and not seen at the
surface for several minutes
Mud Weight A stable EMW between the fracture
Optimization pressure and pore pressure
Detecting Hole Instability Hole collapse causes a sudden Often correlates with high rotary
increase in EMW as solids load up in torque
the annulus
Washout, swelling or small collapse
causes small short-term changes in
EMW

4/8/2002 31
Downhole Pressure Theory & Equivalent Mud Weight

Table 2 Real-Time Pressure Data Diagnostics

Drilling Problem Possible Cause Pressure Response


Lost Circulation Surge pressures from drillstring Data shows sharp spikes in
movement EMW during pipe movement
Pumps-on surge pressure from high Data shows sharp spikes in
gel strength mud EMW as pumps turn on
Packoff pressure spikes due to Data shows sharp spikes in the
accumulated cuttings EMW while pumps are on
Restricted circulation due to rotation Higher than expected EMW
and well geometry when circulation starts
Unable to Move or Rotate Packoff during reaming or pipe Data shows sharp spikes in the
Pipe movement EMW that correlates with
hookload
Accumulation of cuttings in the A gradual decrease in EMW
wellbore while steering followed by a
packoff spike
Hole Collapse Sudden increase in EMW under
stable drilling conditions
Swelling or unstable hole Short term variations in the
EMW under steady drilling
conditions
Formation Fluid Influx Low hydrostatic pressure due to low EMW dropped below pore
into the Annulus mud weight pressure
Swab pressures drop below the pore Check pumps off minimum
pressure pressure
Unconsolidated formation is fracture, EMW drops below pore pressure
loss of hydrostatic pressure while in a different formation
pumps are off

32 4/8/2002
LOG PRESENTATIONS & FORMATS

Log Heading

• The log heading


gives the log analyst
a quick capsule of
the well information
• The heading is
attached 90° to the
rest of the log to give
it a book appearance

#001 AES

1
Log Heading

• The log heading contains the following data:


• Operator,Well, Field, Rig, State data
• Log Format and Vertical Scale
• Location and Depth Datum
• Well API #
• Latitude, Longitude, Magnetic Correction Data
• Borehole Record
• Casing Record
• Mud Record
• Service Company Equipment and Software Used

Bit Run Summary

• Run Specific Data


• Mud Data
• Environmental Data
• Sensor Specific Data

2
Run Specific Data

Mud Data

3
Environmental Data

Sensor Specific Data

4
Disclaimer and Remarks

• The disclaimer
basically absolves
the service
company of any
guilt for any losses
the operator may
incur in using the
information
contained in the log
data

Disclaimer and Remarks

• The remarks
section contains a
detailed description
of specific log
events
• They are placed
here because they
would obscure the
log traces if they
are placed directly
on the log

5
Bottomhole Assembly Diagrams

• These diagrams show the


configuration of the
BHA from the bit
through the logging
sensors for each run
• Useful for tracking the
lengths and measure
points for each of the
logging sensors for each
run

Main Log

• The main log section


contains the actual
sensor data, commonly
referred to as the
“squiggly lines”
• The data can be
presented in many
different formats
depending on the
customer’s
requirements

6
Vertical Scale - Time Based

• The vertical scale divisions are in minutes


per inch rather than feet per hour
• Time scaling is usually reserved for drilling
mechanics data (pressure, vibration)

Vertical Scale – Depth Based

• All formation evaluation sensor data is presented


on a depth based vertical scale
• Typical scaling is feet or meters per hour

7
Vertical Scaling – Measured Depth vs. True Vertical Depth

• Measured Depth is the


Measured
actual length of hole drilled
Depth
• True Vertical Depth is the
projection of the Measured
Depth into the Vertical
plane
• TVD is calculated using the
measured depth and
TVD inclination data
• Logs can be compared on a
foot by foot basis when
presented in TVD format
(comparing “apples to
apples”)

Vertical Scale Settings

• The vertical scale is adjustable through software


settings
• In English depth units the scale is a ratio of inches of
log paper to inches of log data
• For example, a scale of “1:240” means that 240” (20’)
of data will be compressed into 1” on the log plot
• In Metric depth units the scale is a ratio of centimeters
of log paper to centimeters of log data
• For example, a scale of “1:1000” means that 1000 cm
(10 m) of data will be compressed into 1 cm on the log
plot

8
Vertical Scale – Correlation Log

• A correlation log is used by the geologist to


find particular formation events that can be
used to compare to nearby well data
• The most useful scaling for this type of log in
English units is “1:1200” (1” per 100’)
• The most useful scaling for this type of log in
Metric units is “1:1000” (1 m per 100 m)

Vertical Scale – Detail Log

• A detail log is used by the petrophysicist to


find particular sensor data values that can be
used to calculate formation parameters such as
porosity, water saturation, etc.
• The most useful scaling for this type of log in
English units is “1:240” (5” per 100’)
• The most useful scaling for this type of log in
Metric units is “1:200” (5 m per 100 m)

9
Log Tracks
• General log
convention
defines 6 tracks
or areas that data
will appear
• Most log formats
will only utilize
tracks 1, 2, 3, and
5 (depth)

Track Formats – Horizontal Scaling


• Tracks will be horizontally
scaled in either LINEAR
or LOGARITHMIC
format
• Linear format has 10
equal divisions across the
track
• For example, gamma ray
data would be scaled from
10 to 110 units, left to right
LINEAR

10
Track Formats – Horizontal Scaling

• Logarithmic format
typically has 2-cycle
logarithmic scaling
across the track (track
4 is 4-cycle)
• For example,
resistivity data would
be scaled from 0.2 to
20 units, left to right LOGARITHMIC

Lithology Data – Track 1

• Track 1 contains sensor data that indicates


lithology such as Gamma Ray, Rate of
Penetration, Caliper, & Spontaneous
Potential
• Track 1 scaling is LINEAR in both
correlation and detail formats

11
Resistivity Data – Track 2 Scales

• Track 2 contains Resistivity data only


• Track 2 scaling is LINEAR in correlation
format and LOGARITHMIC in detail
format

Porosity Data – Track 3 Scales

• Track 3 contains sensor data that


indicates porosity such as Neutron
Porosity, Formation Density, and
Acoustic
• Track 3 scaling is LINEAR in both
correlation and detail formats

12
Track 4 Scales

• Track 4 is a combination of tracks 2


and 3 and is only used for special
presentations
• Generally will contain 4-cycle
logarithmic scaling for resistivity data
and linear scaling for porosity data
• Track 4 is typically used for detail
formats only

Track 5

• Track 5 contains depth labels at each


of the major gridlines
• Major gridline spacing is dictated by
the vertical scaling

13
Linear-Linear-Linear Scaling

Linear – 2 cycle Logarithmic - Linear

14
Linear – 4 cycle Logarithmic

Log Annotations

• Annotations provide
critical information to
the log analyst during
evaluation
• They help explain what
was happening at the
rigsite when the data
was being obtained
• Annotations should be
used to refer the
analyst to any remarks
made on log header

15
Typical Presentations - Standard

• Standard presentations
typically include only basic
sensor data such as
gamma ray, resistivity,
and rate of penetration
data

Typical Presentations - Triple Combo

• “Triple Combo”
means that the log
contains lithology,
resistivity, and
porosity data

16
Repeat Sections

• Occasionally the geologist will request that a


particular section of hole be relogged – a
repeat section
• All repeat sections should be well annotated
and placed after the main log section
• Some customers may want tie-in sections
between bit runs to be provided as repeat
sections

Calibration Data

• Calibration/Verification data must accompany


any log to validate the response of the sensors
• Pre and Post run verifications are done to
prove that the sensors were responding within
tolerances during the bit run

17
Survey Reports and Plots

• Survey Reports and Plots are typically


provided on TVD plots only
• The plots should include both Vertical and
Horizontal views and should contain both
planned and actual data

Log Presentations and Formats

• Questions?

• Take a 10-minute break

• OPEN DISCUSSION

18
DAY 5
This page intentionally left blank.
Downhole Hydraulics &
System Pressure Loss

Role of Drilling Fluids


• Hole cleaning – transport of cuttings
• Solids suspension
• Bit hydraulics – aid the bit in rock failure and
chip removal.
• Lubricity – reduce torque and drag
• Control formation damage
• Hole stability
• Cooling the BHA

1
Hole Cleaning
• More difficult to achieve as inclination
increases
– <30° - rheology
– 30° - 60° - transition
– >60° - turbulent flow – high Q

Solids Suspension
• Cuttings
– High initial gels to keep cutting suspended
when pumps are turned off
• Weight material
– Suspend barite – maintain uniform mud
weight

2
Gel Strength
• Is a function of a mud’s interparticle forces
• Gives an indication of the amount of gelation that will
occur after circulation ceases and the fluid remains static
for some time
• Should be adequate to suspend cuttings when drilling
operations have been suspended for relatively long
periods of time
• Optimum gel strength varies with the weight and
viscosity of the mud and with the size of the cuttings in
the drilling fluid

Plastic Viscosity
• Is a function of the mechanical friction between
the suspended particles and by the viscosity of
the continuous liquid phase
• It is a function of the mud’s resistance to flow
• Determined with a rheometer by subtracting the
300 RPM reading from the 600 RPM reading

3
Yield Point
• Measures the interparticle (attractive) forces
within the mud
• It is also a function of the mud’s resistance to
flow
• Determined with a rheometer by subtracting the
Plastic Viscosity from the 300 RPM reading
• Yield Point is usually maintained equal to or
greater than the Plastic Viscosity

Bit Hydraulics
• Removal of cuttings from below bit
• Help to fail rock
• Traditional approach
– Maximize Hydraulic Impact
• 48% of pressure available is at nozzles
– Maximize Hydraulic Horsepower
• 65% of pressure available is at nozzles
• RARELY can we optimize bit hydraulics using
traditional methods when using a motor!

4
Lubricity
• Reduce torque and drag
• Varies with fluid used
• OBM lowest Friction Factor
• WBM – some fluids are very slick

Formation Damage
• Use a drilling fluid that is compatible with
Reservoir fluids
• Minimize fines

10

5
Hole Stability
• Chemical inhibition
– Shales can become unstable when exposed to water
– Solutions:
• Use OBM
• Potassium Sulphate mud
• Tectonic Stresses – mountain building
– Increase mud weight with increasing inclination

11

Cooling the BHA


• Some wells can only be drilled by cooling
the MWD & motor by circulating on trips

12

6
Optimum Hydraulics
• Know equipment limitations
– Q – pumps / motor / MWD
– P – pumps / motor / MWD
• Design to meet AV criteria
• Sacrifice Pbit to optimize Pmotor
– The motor is doing the work.
– Ensure min Pbit is provided

13

Hydraulic Relationships
Higher circulation pressure is required as:

• Flow Rate increases


• Flow Area decreases
• Flow Length increases
• Mud Density increases
• Mud Viscosity increases

14

7
Frictional Pressure Losses
• Total pressure available is based on available
standpipe pressure
• Pressure loss through all drillstring components
and borehole annulus will equal the standpipe
pressure
• Must have appropriate pressure loss below our
tools to maximize pulse size (3500 kPa min (500
psi), 13,700 kPa max, (2000 psi))

15

Pressure Balance Equation


• PSP = ∆PDP + ∆PDC + ∆PMWD + ∆PCHOKE SUB
+ ∆PMOTOR + ∆PBIT + ∆PANNULUS + ∆PSURFACE
EQUIPMENT

• Surface equipment losses are typically 5 to 10%


(we will assume 100% volumetric efficiency
however)
• Annulus losses typically less than 700 kPa (100
psi)

16

8
“Commander” Motor Pressure Drops
• Motor Size ∆Pmotor
• 4 ¾” 2000 kPa (290 psi)
• 6 ¼” 1500 kPa (215 psi)
• 6 ½” 1200 kPa (175 psi)
• 6 ¾” & up 1000 kPa (145 psi)
• 1 psi = 6.895 kPa

17

Slide Rule Example


Drillpipe: 900 m of 88.9 mm O.D., 19.8 kg/m, I.F. connection drillpipe
Drill Collars: 300 m of 57 mm I.D. drill collars
Hole Diameter: 152 mm
Mud Pumps : Triplex, 230 mm stroke, 152 mm liner, pump speed = 60 spm
Mud Weight: 1300 kg/m3
Plastic Viscosity: 20 cp
∆PMOTOR: 3000 kPa
∆PMWD: 700 kPa
∆PANNULUS: 500 kPa
∆PSTANDPIPE MAX: 15,000 kPa
Assume: No choke sub, 100% volumetric efficiency in surface equipment

Question:
What 3-nozzle configuration will utilize the available pressure loss at the bit
if the standpipe is run at maximum?

18

9
Slide Rule Example
Drillpipe: 3000’ of 3.5” O.D., 13.3 #/ft, I.F. connection drillpipe
Drill Collars: 900’ of 2.25 “I.D. drill collars
Hole Diameter: 6”
Mud Pumps : Triplex, 9” stroke, 6” liner, pump speed = 60 spm
Mud Weight: 13 ppg
Plastic Viscosity: 20 cp
∆PMOTOR: 435 psi
∆PMWD: 100 psi
∆PANNULUS: 75 psi
∆PSTANDPIPE MAX: 2200 psi
Assume: No choke sub, 100% volumetric efficiency in surface equipment

Question:
What 3-nozzle configuration will utilize the available pressure loss at the bit
if the standpipe is run at maximum?

19

Slide Rule Example Answer


Index Number = 123 (117 I)
Drillpipe Loss = 690 kPa/300 m
2070 kPa
Drill Collar Loss = 1875 kPa/300 m
1875 kPa
Available at Bit = 6855 kPa
TFA = 127 mm (2 x 7.1 & 1 x 7.9)

20

10
Slide Rule Example Answer
Index Number = 117
Drillpipe Loss = 116 psi/1000’
348 psi
Drill Collar Loss = 311 psi/1000’
280 psi
Available at Bit = 962 psi
TFA = 0.22 in2 (3 x 10’s)

21

Slide Rule Example (con’t)


What is the annular velocity around the
drillpipe in the open-hole section?

Open-hole diameter = 152 mm


Drillpipe O.D. = 88.9 mm
Flow Rate = 0.75 m3/min

22

11
Slide Rule Example Answer
Hole I.D. plus Drillpipe O.D.= 241 mm
Hole I.D. minus Drillpipe O.D.= 63 mm

At 0.75 m3/m flow rate,

Annular Velocity = 62.5 m/min

23

12
Factors Affecting Mud Pulse
Amplitude

• Measured Depth
• Pressure Loss
• Mud Properties

Measured Depth
• Every 1500 m of travel through the
drillstring the pulse loses approximately
HALF of its amplitude
• Major cause of amplitude loss

1
Pressure Loss
• Negative Pulse – maximize pressure loss
below the valve to generate the largest
amplitude pulse
• Positive Pulse - maximize pressure loss
above the valve to generate the largest
amplitude pulse

Positive Pulse System


• The positive pulse system
uses a downhole device to
restrict the flow of mud
through the drillstring
• This causes an increase in
the standpipe pressure
• To transmit data to the
surface, this device creates
a series of pulses that are
detected by the surface
transducer and decoded by
the surface computer.
4

2
Factors Affecting Pressure Loss
• Flow Rate
• Bit and Choke Sub nozzle flow area
• Available Standpipe Pressure
• Washout in BHA
• Plugged Drillpipe Screen
• Mud Motor Stalling
• Valve Oriented Lowside
7

Mud Properties
• Mud Weight - as mud weight increases,
pulse amplitude increases
• Mud Viscosity – as mud viscosity increases,
pulse amplitude decreases
• Lost Circulation Material (LCM) – as LCM
content increases, pulse amplitude decreases
(same concept as viscosity increase)

4
Factors Affecting Mud Pulse
Detection
• Loss of pulse amplitude (as previously
discussed)
• Pressure Transducer – placement, failure,
plugged
• Poor Signal to Noise Ratio

Pressure Transducer Placement


• Put transducer where it can detect the pulse
as soon as possible (top of standpipe)
• Make sure it is along the flow path of the
pulse
• Sometimes placing the transducer at the
pumps produces better detection on some
rigs

10

5
Failed Pressure Transducer
• Check voltages at unit to verify transducer
operating properly
• Rig up back-up transducer in case of
primary transducer failure
• Symptom is “flatline” response from
transducer output

11

Plugged Pressure Transducer


• Decrease or loss of pulse amplitude
• More possible after long periods of non-
flow or extremely cold temperatures

12

6
Poor Signal to Noise Ratio
• Surface Noise Events
• Downhole Noise Events
• Improper Detection Parameter Settings

13

Surface Noise Events


• Mud Pumps
• Insufficient Pulsation Dampener Pre-Charge
• Partially Open/Closed Valves
• Pipe I.D. Changes
• Flowline Material Changes (metal to rubber)
• Tees, Elbows, Dead-Ends
• Drillcrew noise (air hammers, sand blasters, etc.)

14

7
Downhole Noise Events
• Drillstring Vibration – Bit Bounce,
Stabilizer Rubbing, Stick-Slip
• Formation Changes
• Mud Motor Bearing Failure

15

Improper Detection Parameter


Settings
• Detection Threshold set too low (decreases
signal to noise ratio)
• Detection Threshold set too high (pulse
never crosses threshold)

16

8
Signal to Noise Ratio (at surface)
• Less than 1.0 0 – 10% detection
• 1.0 to 2.0 80 – 90% detection
• Greater than 2.0 90 – 100% detection

17

Detection Troubleshooting
• The drilling fluid system introduces noise during
pump operation which can make MWD surface
equipment struggle to decode the tool signal from
downhole
• The mud column is the mud pulse MWD tool
communication line to the surface. Keeping this
system clean, uniform and as free as possible of
induced noise can greatly improve the quality of
the MWD job.
18

9
Detection Troubleshooting
• Make sure the pump liners are in good
condition
• Damaged liners cause so much noise they
may even have an identifiable signature on
the surface pressure record

19

Detection Troubleshooting
• Keep the pulsation dampeners charged to
approximately 40% of standpipe
pressure
• The ideal mud flow would be at constant
pressure, the only changes in system
pressure being those of the MWD pulser.
Properly charged dampeners go a long way
towards this ideal condition.
20

10
Detection Troubleshooting
• Maintain as constant weight on bit as
possible, particularly when drilling with
mud motors
• Changes in motor torque will themselves
cause changes in standpipe pressure. By
keeping these to a minimum, reliability of
signal decoding will be improved.

21

Detection Troubleshooting
• Mud additives should be mixed as
uniformly as possible
• Changes in viscosity and suspended solids
concentration can attenuate the MWD
signal more than usual
• Slugged additives can also clog the tools.

22

11
Detection Troubleshooting
• Avoid duplex mud pumps if possible
• Duplex pumps generate noise events at both even
and odd harmonics of the primary frequency
• For example, a 0.5 hertz primary pump frequency
(30 spm) will generate noise events at 0.5 hz, 1.0
hz, 1.5 hz …..and so on
• Fortunately, each successive harmonic is of lower
amplitude than the previous
• Triplex pumps generate noise events at odd
harmonics only
23

12
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HOW TO DETERMINE

MUD PULSE & EM

TOOLFACE OFFSETS

1
NEGATIVE PULSE OFFSET TOOL FACE
OFFSET TOOL FACE (OTF) SHEET

This sheet is possibly the most important form that must be filled
out correctly. All other work and activity performed by the MWD Operator
means naught if the well must be plugged back with cement because of
an incorrect OTF calculation (or the correct OTF not being entered into the
TLW 2.12 software). Ensure that the OTF calculation is correct,
entered into TLW 2.12 correctly and verified by the Directional Driller.

The procedure for measuring the OTF is as follows:

1. Measure in a clockwise direction the distance from the MWD high side
scribe to the motor high side scribe. Record this length into the OTF work
sheet as the OTF distance. In the following example, this value is 351
mm.

2. Measure the circumference of the tubular at the same location where


the OTF distance is being measured. Record this length into the OTF
work sheet as the Circumference of Collar.

3. Calculate the OTF angle using the following formula:

OTF Angle= OTF Distance x 360


Collar Cirumference

From the above example, if the collar circumference is 500 mm,

OTF Angle= (351/500) x 360


= 0.702 x 360
= 252.72o

A sample form is as follows:

2
NEGATIVE PULSE OFFSET TOOL FACE
(O.T.F. MEASUREMENT)

Well Name: Enter in the Well Name here Date: Enter in date OTF taken

LSD: Enter in the LSD here Time: Enter in time OTF taken

Job #: Enter in the MWD job number here Run #: Enter in the run number

TOP VIEW OF MWD

MWD SCRIBE

PROPER
DIRECTION
OF OTF
MEASUREMENT

MOTOR SCRIBE (HIGH SIDE)

O.T.F. Distance (Anchor Bolts to Collar Scribe): 351 mm

Circumference of Collar: 500 mm

O.T.F. Angle (Distance / Circumference) x 360: 252.72 degrees

O.T.F Angle entered into Computer as: 252.72 degrees

O.T.F. Distance measured by: Both MWD Operator Names

O.T.F. Calculated by: Both MWD Operator Names

O.T.F Entered into computer by: Both MWD Operator Names

O.T.F. Measurement and calculation Witnessed by: Directional Driller(s)


Name(s)

3
NEGATIVE PULSE OFFSET TOOL FACE

252.72

4
POSITIVE PULSE Toolface Offset

INTERNAL TOOL FACE OFFSET (TFO) SHEET

Note: For the positive pulse MWD, the OTF is zero. Ensure that a zero OTF has
been entered into TLW 2.12. The positive Tool Face Offset (TFO) sheet entries
are as follows:

1. Positive Pulse Pulser Set to High Side / Directional Driller: Enter the names
of the MWD Operator and Directional Driller respectively.

2.Positive Pulse T.F.O. from PROGTM: Enter the T.F.O. value reported from the
high side tool face calibration from TLW 2.12.

TFO internal toolface offset

5
POSITIVE PULSE T.F.O. MEASUREMENT

Well Name: Enter in the Well Name here Date: Enter in date OTF taken

LSD: Enter in the LSD here Time: Enter in time OTF


taken

Job #: Enter in the MWD job number here Run #: Enter in the run
number

ROTATE PULSER TO HIGH SIDE

PULSER KEY WAY

PROPER
DIRECTION
OF TFO
MEASUREMENT

DAS HIGH SIDE TAB

Positive Pulse Pulser Set to High Side: Name of MWD hand Witness

Directional Driller: Name of Directional hand Witness

Positive Pulse T.F.O. from PROGTM: 163.25 degrees

Gravity Tool Face (gtface) Should Equal Zero: 0.00 degrees

Motor Adjustment: 2.12 / G degrees/setting

Alignment of Mule Shoe Sleeve Key to Motor Scribe: Name of 2nd MWD hand Witness

O.T.F.=0, Entered into Computer by: Name of MWD hand

All Calculations Witnessed by: Signature of Directional


Driller

6
MWD - Positive Pulse

OTF – External Drill Collar Offset

Magnetic Declination

Toolface switch over

7
EM MWD Toolface Offset

Magnetic Declination

The “Bearing Display” GEOGRAPHIC radio button must be selected for the Declination
value to be applied (by the surface software) to the transmitted magnetic hole direction.

8
Toolface Offset

Zero tool face offset G4 – this is the internal offset for the CDS probe; this value must
always be entered as a NEGATIVE number from 0 to –360; this value is applied by the
surface software.

Tool face offset DC – this is the external (drill collar) offset; must be measured
clockwise (looking toward bit) from the muleshoe boltholes to the mud motor scribeline
(if using a stinger). For slimhole, measure from the CSGx locking bolts to the mud motor
scribeline. When using a bipod measure from the tool carrier scribeline to the mud motor
scribeline.

9
The main page software display can be checked to verify that the appropriate declination
and toolface offset are being applied to the transmitted data.

10
Toolface Offset Summary

Mud Pulse
Negative Pulse Positive Pulse
System

None Directional Probe (DAS)


Internal Offset DAS highside is mechanically Determine offset as per procedure
oriented to align with pulser and PROGTM into the DAS
anchor bolts

Surface Software Surface Software


Measure clockwise from anchor Typical: Muleshoe sleeve is
bolts to motor aligned with motor scribeline,
therefore offset = 0°
External Offset 0° to +360° values permitted
Optional: If muleshoe sleeve is
not aligned with motor scribeline,
calculate offset as per procedure

0° to +360° values permitted

11
EM System
Electromagnetic Telemetry

Surface Software
Determine offset as per procedure and always enter value as a
Internal Offset
NEGATIVE number. (Zero toolface offset G4, “Job Data” screen)

0° to -360° values permitted

Surface Software
Bipod: Measure clockwise from the tool carrier key to the mud motor
External Offset scribeline. 0° to +360° values permitted.

Stinger: Measure clockwise from the stamp/pressure port/bolt combo


to mud motor scibeline. 0° to +360° values permitted.

12
Section 1
RIG UP

CONFIDENTIAL
For Internal Use Only 1 COMPUTALOG Drilling Services
1.1 Logging Unit Rig-Up:
Unit placement at the rig site must be agreed upon with the rig’s
Toolpusher and the company man. It is recommended that someone have
phoned or faxed the rig to communicate all the dimensions, weight, and
requirements (power etc.) of the Logging Unit prior to leaving the base. Make
sure that the crane can lift the unit and situate it in an appropriate place. Many
rigs offshore have heavy lift cranes that can only site loads in limited areas of the
rig. Deck loading is very important for offshore rigs (Remember, the Logging Unit
weighs 16 tons). This will help to avoid surprises and give the rig adequate time
to prepare.

When spotting a Logging Unit at the rig site try to avoid hazardous zones.
Every rig will be divided into areas of relative hazard from gaseous mixtures.
The zone classification will vary from country to country. A typical classification
for rig floor proximity is as follows:

RIG
25’ FLOOR

Zone 1

Zone 2

Zone 0 – Explosive gas-air mixture is continuously present.


Zone 1 – Explosive gas-air mixture is likely to occur.
Zone 2 – Explosive gas-air mixture is not likely to occur but if it does it will
only exist for a short time.

Depending on the zone, different safety regulations apply as to the


equipment able to be used in that area. Intrinsically Safe devices (IS) require a
small amount of power. Their design includes the use of certified manufacturing,
correct cabling and safety barriers which limits the voltage, current and power
and ensures the amount of energy in normal use and in every possible fault
condition is too low to ignite a gas air mixture. These devices can be rigged up,
with only a few precautions, in hazardous areas. This makes for a relatively
cheap and flexible system. Explosion proof devices require or contain higher
power. These devices can contain an explosion within them and any flames

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have to travel through long, narrow flanges to the outside. This means the
device will not break or eject a flame if an internal explosion occurs and thus
prevents any gaseous mixture surrounding the device from igniting. Purged
devices are typically larger and require higher power. This device must be made
from substantial material but also has a continuous stream of clean air passed
throughout the device. The stream of air maintains a positive pressure inside the
device, preventing gaseous mixtures from entering. Also, contained within the
device is a pressure and flow monitor that will shut the device down if the air
supply fails or the exhaust is blocked.

Close to the rotary table, near the shale shakers and machinery exhausts,
or where the flow line meets the header tank will always be the most dangerous.
The pipe deck is less likely to be hazardous however, it may be depending on
operations and wind direction. Also, try to avoid areas of high traffic and activity.
If working offshore, consider the overhead crane. If possible, do not place the
Logging Unit such that you will have to enter and exit under suspended loads. It
is good to have the door facing away from sources of potential explosions such
as the BOPs. Consider the prevailing wind, when the wind is blowing at 60 knots
it becomes very difficult to close or open the door if the unit has been sited
incorrectly. Also consider noise, such as the generator room and welders area.

Before power is distributed to the transformer and then on to the electrical


outlets in the Logging Unit, the unit must be safe from gas. If the Logging Unit
has been placed in a hazardous location it must be purged as described above.
This is done by pressurizing the unit with a blower fan, sucking in air from a safe
zone on the rig. The extra pressure is very low but it is enough to allow a
positive flow of air through the Logging Unit flushing any hazardous gas out
before allowing power to be switched on.

1.2 To purge a unit:

Step 1 – Run the inlet (suction) hose to a safe zone. Beware of exhausts,
shakers, and work/high traffic areas.

Step 2 – Open the Logging Unit vent.

Step 3 – Turn the pressurization fans on (usually on the roof of the Logging Unit).

Step 4 – Inside the Logging Unit, turn “On” the primary fan (light will turn green).

Step 5 – Set the secondary fan to “Auto”.

Step 6 - Turn the Alarm System Bypass “Off”.

Step 7 – Outside the Logging Unit, cycle the power through the breaker.

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The Logging Unit should now be purged. With the Alarm System
operational, if the differential pressure inside the Unit is lost an alarm will sound.
After 20 seconds of continuous differential pressure loss, the breaker will trip and
the Unit will lose power.

1.3 Safety Barriers:


Safety barriers are the last interface of our cabling system from a safe,
non-hazardous zone (purged logging unit) to the potential hazards outside. The
safety barrier is primarily there to limit the potential voltage and current leaving
the safe area into the hazardous area and if necessary “fuse” to limit power
permanently. Safety barriers can be AC, DC, polarized, and non-polarized.

The safety barrier consist of three main parts which ensure intrinsic safety
is achieved. A fuse limits the maximum current flowing through the diodes.
Resistance limits current entering hazardous areas. A Zener diode limits the
voltage between the ground and the signal lines.

A zener barrier is not sufficient to make something intrinsically safe. An


intrinsically safe sensor involves all of the components in the hazardous area
(sensor, cable, junction box). In all cases the intrinsically safe barriers and
equipment must be wired per an approved drawing. Capacitance and inductance
of the wiring and capes must be included in the loop evaluation. All cables have
a self-capacitance and inductance and are therefore likely to store energy.
However, certified cables which do not store energy and then release it as a
burst must be used for intrinsically safe systems.

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1.4 Sensor Cabling:
The Universal Cable System (UCS) conforms to all the necessary intrinsic
safety requirements.

Operation of the UCS is very simple. The Sensor Pigtails are connected
directly into the various Surface Sensors. They mate to either the 25’, the 75’, or
the 150’ Sensor Cables which in turn connects to the 8-Sensor Junction Boxes.
Typical locations of the Junction Boxes are one on the rig floor and one near the
mud pumps. One UCS is sufficient to support an MWD/LWD job utilizing
Hookload, Depth, Heave, up to 4 Pump Pressures, and up to 4 Pump Stroke
Counters.

Sensor cables should be run along the rig cable trays and securely tie-
wrapped with metal ties (this is in case of fire as the plastic tie-wrap will melt and
the cable may fall and could impede exit). Avoid running the cables right next to
large rig power cables or even your own Logging Unit power cables due to
electromagnetic interference.

To enter a pressurized room or pass through a bulkhead a cable needs to


pass through a MCT (multi-core transit) frame. This MCT frame is a series of fire
resistant rubber blocks that come in various sizes and are clamped around the
cables. The rubber frames or blocks are then compressed resulting in a gas tight
seal.

1.5 Surface Sensors:


Surface sensors can be separated into four different categories: Analog Voltage,
Analog Current Loop, Digital, or Quadrature Encoder.

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Single-Ended (Analog) denotes a signal applied on
a single wire, with the return being a common
ground.
ex: Pump Stroke Counter

Differential (Analog) denotes a signal applied on a


pair of wires, with the voltage difference between
the two wires measured independently of ground.
This method provides better noise immunity.

Analog Current Loop denotes a signal applied on a


single wire, with no common ground return. This
type of sensor has a low signal return and is
adversely affected by moisture in the cable, but it
requires only two wires.
ex: Pump Pressure Transducer, Hookload
Tranducer & Clamp Line Tensionmeter

Pulse (Digital) denotes a signal applied with a series


of fixed voltage level changes.

Contact Closure (Digital) denotes a signal supplied


with a series of switch closings.

Quadrature Encoder denotes a signal supplied


with two voltage level pulse trains with a 90 deg
phase relationship to indicate direction.
ex: Draw works Depth Encoder

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1.5.1 Pump Pressure Sensor:

Measurement:
A pump pressure sensor is designed to pick up the pressure fluctuations
in the line pressure caused by the MWD pulser and the static (pump) and
absolute pressure on the standpipe. Pump pressure is important for both drilling
efficiency and safety. For drilling efficiency the hydraulics are optimized when a
certain pressure is exerted across the bit. It is important to monitor the
circulating pressure at all times to maintain the optimum performance. From a
safety viewpoint, it is important that the pump pressure does not exceed the
pressure ratings of the surface equipment. Also, high pump pressure might lead
to other problems such as erosion of the bit or formation breakdown. Another
surface pressure measurement, casing pressure, utilizes a similar device.
Casing pressure sensors are mounted on the choke manifold and are used to
monitor the annular pressure for well control.

Operation:
The pump pressure sensor is the transducer which detects mud pressure
pulses on the standpipe manifold or other lines in the rig’s circulating system.
The sensor requires 10 to 36 VDC (operated at 24 VDC) and delivers 0 to 6 VDC
signal directly proportional to the pressure.

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Specification:
Voltage Supplied to the Sensor 10 - 36 VDC
Signal Returned from the Sensor to the Barrier Box +/- 6 VDC
Signal Output from the Barrier Box +/- 6 VDC

Installation:
A pump pressure sensor can be installed using a hydraulic quick-connect
(snap-tight fitting) or a threaded union. The threads must be wrapped with Teflon
(PTFE) tape before installing. The ¼” thread which mates to the pump pressure
sensor is torqued to 50 ft-lbs. The areas of the pump pressure sensor to be
gripped for torque are the two flats on either side of the sensors body. Be sure to
fill the sensor with hydraulic oil and grease pack all of the bull plugs or unions
before installing sensors. Install the threaded end down to avoid settling solids
build up.

Consult with the rig crew prior to installing a pump pressure sensor.
Before installing, beware of trapped pressure. A pressure head consists of a
thick rubber diaphragm in a housing (bull plug) separating mud from hydraulic
fluid. The surface system pressure is transmitted through the diaphragm to the
hydraulic fluid. A quick-fit connection allows easy attachment and removal of the
transducer to and from the bull plug. Changes in standpipe pressure are
transferred to the transducer which converts the pressure changes to an
electrical signal. When using hydraulic quick-connects (snap tight fightings) to fit
your pump pressure sensor to a pressure head, only attempt to connect the
sensor when the pumps are off.

When using threaded unions, check the valve and make certain the
standpipe has been drained before removing the bullplug (I.e. the hydrostatic
head of the mud column). The bull plug is attached or removed from the
manifold with the cooperation of the Driller or Toolpusher. If at all possible, use
an existing bull plug on the rig. If one is not available, verify the threads of the
unions are the correct type (example: Wedco 1502) an it is rated to the
maximum pressure. Whenever possible, place the sensor behind a valve on the
standpipe manifold. As always, keep the sensor away from tongs and traffic.

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1.5.2 Hookload Clamp Line Tensionmeter:

T (Single Line Tension)

Wire Rope

Load Cell

Wrap Angle
W

F = 2T * Sin (W/2)

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Measurement:
On the rig, the tension on the drill line is directly proportional to the load on
the traveling block. When the block is holding the Kelly, drill pipe and BHA the
tension or load equals the weight of all those items (less the borehole friction and
mud buoyancy). With this sensor it is possible to measure the surface drillstring
weight independent of the rig deadline load cell. Then, when the total hookload
is known, changes in the string weight can be used to calculate the WOB for
drilling optimization. Also, drillstring weight can be used for the “in/out of” slips
logic applied to the AESIDev depth tracking system. Additionally, hookload can
be used to measure swab/surge while tripping and the over-pull for
“sticking/stuck” pipe situations.

Operation:
The Clamp Line Tensionmeter clamps directly onto the deadline. The
signal is linearly proportional to single-line tension.

Specification:
Voltage Supplied to the Sensor +24 VDC
Signal Returned from the Sensor to the Barrier Box 4-20 mA
Signal Output from the Barrier Box 2-10 VDC

Installation:
The Clamp Line Tensionmeter is placed on the deadline, it should be
located in a place which is easily accessible as it needs to be removed when the
rig “slips and cuts” the drilling line. The clamp should be tightened until the rope
touches the body of the sensor. Whenever it is removed then replaced a
calibration must be performed.

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1.5.3 Hookload Transducer:

Measurement:
Another type of hookload sensor commonly used is the hookload transducer.

Operation:
This transducer is identical to the pump pressure transducer w/ one exception.
The hookload transducer requires 12 to 80 VDC (operated at 24 VDC) and
delivers 0-6 VDC signal directly proportional to the hookload.

Specification:
See Pump Pressure Transducer.

Installation:
The hookload transducer is installed using a quick-fit connection on the deadline.
A quick-fit connection allows easy attachment and removal of the transducer.
Changes in hookload are transferred to the transducer which then converts the
changes to an electrical signal. When using hydraulic quick-connects to fit your
hookload sensor to the deadline, only attempt to connect the sensor when there
is no weight in the blocks or the rig is in-slips.

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1.5.4 Pump Stroke Counter:

Measurement:
If the pump output per stroke is known (discharge) and the strokes per
minute can be measured, the volumetric output in gallons per minute (gpm) can
be calculated.

Volumetric Output per Minute = Strokes per Minute * Pump Output per Stroke

The pumps output per stroke is a function of the liner size and the number of
pistons acting (duplex or triplex).

Also for pump harmonic cancellation, the frequency of the pump noise and
its harmonics are calculated using the stroke rate as follows:

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Frequency = SPAN / 60.

Where: Frequency = frequency of “N”th noise harmonic.


S = number of strokes on single pump.
P = number of pistons on pump.
A = Action (Triplex =1, Duplex=2)
N = Wave Harmonic

Additionally, pump stroke counters enable us to calculate circulating and


bit hydraulic efficiency in realtime. Washout detection is also possible when used
in conjunction with turbine RPM and surface pump pressure.

Operation:
The pump stroke counter consists of a mechanically actuated microswitch
housed in a steel box mounted on a 5-inch “C” clamp. This is then connected to
a long aluminum rod outside the housing by a series of plungers. The
microswitch assembly can be set up to allow the plunger to depress in only one
direction of travel of the switch arm or in both directions. Make sure you are
familiar with the method to change back and forth.

Specification:
Voltage Supplied to the Sensor +12 VDC
Signal Returned from the Sensor to the Barrier Box 0-12 VDC
Signal Output from the Barrier Box 0-6 VDC

Installation:
The pump stroke counters (you will need to rig up as many as there are rig
pumps to monitor) are fitted to the frame of the pump with a “C” clamp and
positioned so that the pump piston will operate the pump stroke arm once per
cycle. You should avoid close proximity to other pump stroke counters as the
arms may hinder each other. The cables from the stroke counters should be
installed out of walkways and allow for access to the pumps as repairs to pumps
often require movement of heavy components.

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1.5.5 Draw works Depth Encoder:

Measurement:
The rotation of the draw works can be related to the height of the traveling
block then coupled with “in/out of slips” logic to determine and track the bit depth.

Operation:
The Draw works Depth Encoder connects directly into the shaft of the
draw works and measured the movement (rotation) of the shaft. Two square
wave signals are generated 90 degrees out of phase. This relationship
determines the direction of travel.

Specification:
Voltage Supplied to the Sensor +12 VDC
Signal Returned from the Sensor to the Barrier Box Signal 1 0-6 VDC
Signal 2 0-6 VDC
Signal Output from the Barrier Box Signal 1 0-6 VDC
Signal 2 0-6 VDC

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Installation:
The Depth Encoder is installed in-line with the end of the draw works.
Select an encoder shaft that is the right size for the air line and the rotary seal on
the rig. Once installed, the body of the Depth Encoder must be secured with tie-
wraps such that it can not slip or turn.

Prior to starting installation, make sure the Driller knows you need to
remove the air line. Depending on the rig’s policies, the rig mechanic may also
be required to assist in the installation.

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1.6 Check Lists:

1.6.1 Shop Check List:

• Phone or fax the rig to communicate all the dimensions, weight, and
requirements (power etc.) of the Logging Unit:
It is important to find out what power and outlet type is available and
inform the electrician/Toolpusher of your requirements, at the same time
find out the rig voltage. Rig voltages typically vary from 415-480 VDC.
The unit transformer outputs 220 and 110 VDC single phase. The outlet
type is particularly important for land rigs. You need to have the correct
plug prior to arriving on location. When offshore, the electrician will hard-
wire the power line.
• Verify that you have enough grounding supplies:
Check your inventory of Grounding wire, Grounding clamps, Grounding
Rods or other supplies needed to properly ground everything.
• Verify that you have enough cable termination/routing supplies:
Check your supply of Cable Ties and tapes that you typically use to route
cables safely. If you use a “Contact Spray” when terminating the
connectors be sure to verify that it is Non-Conducting. To verify that a
“Contact Spray” is Non-Conducting, spray some on a clean piece of
plastic into a small puddle and measure the resistance with a “Megger”.
The “Megger” must show a reading of greater than 100 Meg-Ohms @ 500
V when both probes are in the liquid. Also be sure that the “Contact
Spray” will not harm the Silicone seal located in the Male connector.
• Verity all surface sensors to be fully functional:
Start AESIRunUI and test each sensor through the barrier box.

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1.6.2 Unit Rig-Up Check List:

• Situate the Logging Unit on location.


You will need to collaborate with the Company Man and the Toolpusher
prior to spotting the unit. Try to situate the Logging Unit based on
proximity to a rig power outlet, cabling considerations, traffic, and tool
access. Find out what lock out – tag out procedures need to be followed
and if any hot work permits need to be acquired.
• Ground the Logging Unit to a proper Ground.
Proper Grounding is VERY important from a HSE standpoint as well as a
signal noise standpoint. The unit should have a proper ground which type
or location will change from Rig to Rig. Rigs may use something as
simple as a grounding bar, to a having a specific “Earth” point to run your
ground (consult the rig electrician or toolpusher). Make sure that you use
the proper wire gage and type for that location, and run your ground using
the shortest length of wire to do the job correctly. Weld the unit down for
ground on an offshore installation, this will provide additional protection
against movement in severe weather or if it is hit by a swinging load.
• Verify that all switches are off in the breaker box located on the interior
wall of the logging unit.
• Verify that the voltage transformer is set to the appropriate source output
available. (480 VAC or 240 VAC)
• Turn off the intrinsically safe breaker switch located on the exterior wall of
the Logging Unit.
• Ground (or bolt) the Barrier Box.
• Verify the rig power outlet:
Before plugging into the outlet, use a multi-meter and verify the voltage
output (respectively 480 VAC or 240 VAC, single phase). Shut off the
breaker switch to stop voltage to the outlet and insert the plug into the
outlet. NEVER PLUG INTO A LIVE OUTLET!!!! Once the plug is secured
in the outlet, turn the breaker switch back on.
• Verify the rig power which is supplied to the Logging Unit:
Using the stem of a long screwdriver, unscrew the top cap of the
intrinsically safe breaker switch located on the exterior wall of the unit.
Use a multi-meter to verify that the voltages coming into the unit are right.
If the voltages are wrong, the wiring may be different and you may need to
reconfigure your plug’s wiring.
• Screw back on the top cap of the intrinsically safe breaker switch.
• Verify that the transformer’s voltage switch in the Logging Unit is equal to
the output voltage from the rig’s power outlet.
• Turn on the intrinsically safe breaker switch.
• Power up the Logging Unit.

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Turn on all the switches in the breaker box located in the interior of the
Logging Unit. Turn on the lights. Turn on the UPS. If applicable,
PURGE!!!
• Using a multi-meter, verify that the voltages from the interior electrical
outlets are 120 VAC.
• Start up computers.

1.6.3 Sensor Rig-Up Checklist:

• Determine where and how many sensors need to be rigged up.


The minimum requirement to complete an LWD job is one pump pressure
sensor, depth encoder, hookload sensor, and stoke counters.
• Rig up the pump pressure sensor(s).
This is the most important sensor to have rigged up during a rush. You
MUST have a pump pressure sensor installed prior to shallow pulse
testing. Everything else can be rigged up while tripping in.
• Rig up the depth encoder.
• Rig up the hookload sensor.
Depending on the type of sensor used, this will either be connected to the
deadline or to a quick-connect.
• Rig up the pump stroke counter(s).

1.6.4 Cabling Rig-Up Checklist:

• Determine which cables are needed (Pre-plan the cable run).


• Situate a junction box out of harms way near the rig floor.
• Cable routing, when possible select a low electrical noise path when
running cables.
When running cables be cautious to avoid routing cables near motors and
high power wires. Our UCS cables transmit low power signals and must
be protected from noise. If you must run signals near electrically noisy
areas/cables it is best to cross them if you can rather than run the wires
next to (In parallel to) these cables.
• Cable routing, select cable path as to protect them from impacts and
fatique wear.
Run your cables in protected areas when possible such as cable trays, or
use what is available to protect your cables.
• Strain Relief connections, route and terminate cables as to remove stress
on the sensors and electrical connections.
When running cables keep the stress off of the connection points. Use
cable ties or other products to secure the cables and remove stress off of
the connectors and points where the cable might need to “Flex”. Adding
slack and stress loops will avoid long term problems.

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• Connect the UCS cables connectors, be sure they are kept dry before
connection and are fully mated.
To keep the connectors dry while running cables leave the dust caps on
the connectors, try not to let them drop into water while running, and
shield them from water when removing the dust caps and mating. On a
properly mated connector, the locking ring of the female connector should
cover the red strip on the outer cylinder of the male connector. At this
point the connectors are fully sealed and should withstand normal rig
activities.
• Connect the USC cable dust caps at each mating point, this will keep
them dry for Rig-down.
One the connectors are properly connected, mate the male dust cap with
the female dust cap. This will keep them clean and dry for rig-down, and
also keep them out of the way during other activities.
• Rig-up the driller’s rig floor display.
Collaborate with the driller on placement of the rig floor display. Try to
keep the screen out of harms way and easily accessible.
• Run a communications cable from the unit to the rig floor display.
The communications cable can either be fiber-optic or copper. The fiber-
optic cable offers a higher transmission rate but be careful in the handling
as it is rather fragile.
• Run a power cable to the rig floor display.
Typically, the power will be supplied from the Logging Unit. However,
some land rigs or purged driller’s shacks will allow you to power the rig
floor display from an outlet on the rig floor (make sure the voltage source
is 120 VAC). If this is the case, you may need to rig up an additional wire
which grounds the display to whatever it is suspended from.

1.6.5 Tool Preparation Checklist:

• Take inventory of LWD tools, lift subs and tubulars on location.


Make sure to observe that the LWD tools are handled carefully on
location. Any impact to the side wall of the LWD tool can lead to a failure.
Ovoid rolling a tool on or off a fork lift. Prior to moving a tool, try to secure
lift straps or chains on the tool and connect it to the fork lift. Always use a
tag line when using a crane to move tools and equipment.
• Gather all tool paperwork (build sheets, battery usuage logs, pulser logs,
ect.)
• Strap all LWD tools and tubulars which may be used downhole.
Measure the tool lengths, ODs, IDs, fishing necks, and sensor offsets.
• Determine which tools you will be using for the next run.
This will depend on orifice size, battery life, mud weight, flow rate, mud
type.
• Determine if the orifice in the tool will be adequate for drilling operations.
If unsure, call the LWD coordinator to verify.

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• Calculate the amount of Teflon spacers required to run the LWD tools
under 1/16” compression.
Measure the distance from the top of the LWD box to the top of the flow
ring. Measure the length of pin of the connections which will be situated
directly above the LWD. Subtract the length of the pin from the length of
the box then add 1/16” for spacer requirements.
• Establish communication with ALL tools on location.
Once the surface equipment has been rigged up, both the primary and the
secondary LWD/MWD tools must be tested and programmed prior to
running in the hole. If something doesn’t check out, call the LWD
coordinator IMMEDIATELY.
• Discuss the non-magnetic spacing requirements for the next run with the
directional driller.

1.7 Troubleshooting:

A multi-meter is critical for troubleshooting. The sensor calibration screen


in AESRunUI can also be a powerful tool. It displays voltages and is a good first
indicator of a problem. Check items inside the Logging Unit first and then make
your way out to the sensor. Remember the sensors are installed and it would be
a waste of effort to rig down an awkwardly positioned sensor only to find that
there was no power being supplied to it or that the sensor cable was connected
to the wrong position of the junction box.

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1.7.1 Testing the Barrier Box:

Potential Measurement Points

There are a number of easily accessible points on the barrier box where
voltage can be checked. First is the hazardous side of the zener barriers, this
allows you to test power to the sensor and the barrier at the same time and
should be your first test. The safe side of the barriers is also a check point. The
bottom of the sensor boards can be tested for voltage going to the zeners and it
is possible to check the top of the sensor boards for voltage going to the
computers as all analog sensors are sent to acquisition as voltages.

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Section TBA
Client Deliverables
Version 1

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For Internal Use Only 1 COMPUTALOG Drilling Services
Defined Client Deliverables:
i. Paper Log Copies and Acrobat Files (.pdf)
ii. ASCII Data (client defined, usually log curves)
iii. Survey ASCII File
iv. Back-up CD (to AES Houston Base)

Initial “Field Prints” of the logs shall be presented at the wellsite (minimum required – 5 inch detail
log from each LWD tool). The approved Final logs and data are to be in the AES Houston Base
within 4 days of the last bit-run for the section reaching the rotary table. The logs and data must
meet Computalog’s quality standard prior to submission to the client. It is EXTREMELY important
that all the components and fields be correct. It is recommended that you cross check your well
information with other sources on the rig. The ASCII Data and logs must all agree. Logs and
data will only be submitted as Final if the Senior Engineer, Field Coordinator, and/or Data Quality
Manager and the Client are satisfied that all data is accurate.

1.0 Log Components


The following log components are required. Note: This is the basic log presentation, clients may
request separate logs for 1 inch, 2 inch, 5 inch and image logs.

Header
Disclaimer
Run Summary
Equipment Summary
Mud Summary (if applicable)
Run Remarks
Spacer
1 inch or 2 inch Log (client defined) – curve labels only
Spacer
5 inch Log – fully annotated
Image Logs w/ Spacer (if applicable)
Repeat Sections w/ Spacer (if applicable)
Calibration Summary
Survey Report (Final Surveys include projection to TD)
Tail

During logging operations, it is recommended that a TVD log from an offset well and the current
Real-Time TVD log be hung side by side in the logging unit. This will help trouble-shoot log
anomalies and raise the level of understanding and communication between the client and the
field engineers.

A preliminary recorded log must be compared against real time data before proceeding with final
log presentations and data delivery. This is the best way to trouble-shoot depth-time problems
and confirm that the recorded data image import is accurate. A summary of the logs to be
submitted to the Client is presented in Appendix B.

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2.0 Log Quality Issues
All logs submitted to the client must conform to Computalog Drilling Services quality standards.
The logs must contain the following components in the order listed. Examples of each follow.
This is not an all-inclusive list, but can be used as a basic guideline.

2.1 Header
All information regarding the log should be entered into the header. A log by itself should contain
all data required for interpretation.

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For Internal Use Only 3 COMPUTALOG Drilling Services
Service(s) Provided
The LWD service(s) provided is presented adjacent to the company logo in the upper right hand
corner of the header. Only use the standard service mnemonics – ex. 4 ¾ in. S-Series MWD w/
Gamma Ray, 4 ¾ in. Multi-Frequency Resistivity, presented on the log in this area. Any other
services that were provided should appear in the “Other Services” box. For a listing of
Computalog standard LWD Mnemonics see Appendix A. Additionally, state whether the log is
Measured Depth or True Vertical Depth. If multiple runs are presented, state “Composite
Measured Depth” or “Composite True Vertical Depth”. Some international clients will request a
final log distribution for each hole section as opposed to composite logs for the entire well, when
such is the case state the hole section followed by “Final Measured Depth” ect.

Customer/Well Information
Verify all of the customer and well information with the client prior to leaving the well site and/or
submitting logs. Well names and numbers often change once a well has been spudded or
sidetracked. Where no field names are available, enter exploration or appraisal. If the field is
offshore, enter OFFSHORE. Enter the name of the Drilling Rig, the State and Country
information as required. American Petroleum Institute (API) numbers are used to reference all
wells drilled in the United States. These numbers are determined before any drilling can
commence. API numbers from the Gulf of Mexico can be verified in the MMS Master API List at:
http://www.gomr.mms.gov/homepg/fastfacts/api/master.asp
The numbers, letters (upper or lower case), and the spaces need to be correct/approved or else
the logs may end up being returned for re-plotting.

Location
Both the longitude and the latitude should always be included under the well’s surface location
coordinates. The corresponding grid coordinates are listed to the right of the longitude and
latitude. The final field should contain the local Magnetic Dip and Magnetic Declination. All of
these parameters can be found on the well plots and with the company representative or
geologist.

Other Services
This space is available for listing other services provided during the job such as Directional
Surveys or Bore and Annulus Pressure.

Drilling Information
The permanent datum will be listed as Mean Sea Level, Lowest Astronomical Tide, or Ground
Level. The log is measured from the Rotary Kelly Bushing unless a Top Drive is used, then the
log is measured from the Drill Floor. This should be followed by the elevation above the
permanent datum. This value should match the values in the “Elevation” area. The depth
reference is “Driller’s Depth” and the total depth should be the last drilled depth. All numbers that
represent depths should be rounded to the nearest foot and followed by abbreviated units (ie.
9000 ft).

Elevation
The K.B. elevation is the elevation of the Kelly Bushing above the permanent datum. The K.B.
elevation is always listed as one foot higher than D.F. elevation. If a Top Drive is used, enter
“Top Drive”. The G.L. elevation is the ground level elevation above Mean Sea Level at the rig site.
The D.F. elevation is the elevation of the Drill Floor above the permanent datum. The W.D.
elevation is the water depth. If offshore, this will be displayed as a negative number.

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The elevation information MUST be accurate. It is used to compensate for differences in depths
between various log types (open-hole wireline, LWD, cased-hole wireline). This is particularly
important when wells are logged on rigs with different air gaps and water depths. Knowing the
elevation of the Kelly Bushing and the correct water depth allows logs to be referenced to a single
datum (normally TVD Sub Sea).

Log Start/Stop Data


The depth logged should contain the start and stop service depth for the formation evaluation
sensor nearest the bit. The date logged should contain the corresponding dates for the start and
stop service depth. All dates should be expressed as DD-MMM-YY. Runs is the number of runs
contained in the logged interval. The spud date can be obtained from the client and is the actual
spud date of the well.

Borehole Record / Casing Record / Borehole Deviation Record / Mud Record


The data contained in these sections should be centered with one space between the value and
the unit. All sizes should be decimal format expressed in inches (ie. 9.625 in.) and all depths
rounded to the nearest whole number. When depths are in the tens of thousands, include a
comma. The Borehole Deviation Record should contain a maximum inclination and minimum
inclination for each hole size included in the Borehole Record. Some mud types will be too long
to include in the Mud Record’s allotted space and will need to be abbreviated (ie. Lingo instead of
Lignosulfonate). Always include as much information as possible. Often it will be difficult to
locate original borehole records on sidetracks but more often than not, this information can be
found with the company representative.

2.2 Disclaimer
The Disclaimer should be attached immediately following the Header on all logs submitted to the
Client.

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2.3 Run Summary

All data should be centered. Express bit diameter using conventional standards. Log times
should be entered as hh:mm based on a 24 hour scale. Dates should be entered as MM-DD-YY.
Log intervals are referenced to the formation evaluation sensor nearest the bit. All other
parameters are referenced to the specific run data as shown in the example.

As in the header, mud type needs to be abbreviated. The depth of the mud check also needs to
be entered. If no data is available enter N/A. All of the mud properties can be found on the mud
engineers daily report. The resistivity of the mud, mud cake, and mud filtrate needs to be
measured and recorded for each run which contained a resistivity logging tool (non-oil based
mud). If oil based mud is used, enter OBM. The mud resistivity at various temperatures can be
calculated as:
 T + 6.77   T + 21.5 
Rm 2 = Rm1  1  ° F = Rm1  1 °C
 T2 + 6.77   T2 + 21.5 

List the company representative and the lead LWD engineer who was on location during the
course of the particular run.

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2.4 Equipment Summary

Use appropriate tool names and serial numbers. If a neutron/density tool is present, include
source serial numbers, stabilizer OD and serial number in the summary. Sensor offset is the
distance of the sensor to the bit. Also place the recorded memory acquisition rates for each
measurement here. If recorded data is not available (DIR), enter RT for the acquisition rate as
shown above. For stabilizer locations enter the distance from the mid-point of the stabilizer blade
to the bit. All stabilizer locations in the BHA should be included as standoff will affect some of our
sensor measurements.

2.5 Mud Summary

The resistivity of the mud, mud cake, and mud filtrate should be recorded at least twice a day or
anytime the mud weight, potassium content, or chloride content of the mud system has changed
significantly. Their environmental effects on our resistivity measurements can be significant when
drilling into salt or changing the mud type. Mud, mud cake, and filtrate resistivities should always
be measured with a resistivity meter and recorded with the accompanying sample temperature. It
is recommended that you allow the samples to cool to room temperature prior to measuring the
their resistance with a meter. Do not attempt to calculate these properties using mud chlorides as
this may result in inconsistencies.

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It is important that all the measurements be taken from mud that has been collected from the
same location. By convention, mud samples are usually collected from the flowline. However,
your mud samples should be consistent with where the mud engineer (who is providing you with
filtrate and mud cake samples) collects his/her samples. Once you have established a sample
location, maintain that same location for the duration of the job.

2.6 Run Remarks

The Run Remarks section provides a general overview of the client’s run objectives,
Computalog‘s services provided to meet those objectives, and any events or corrections that
have been applied which might affect the measurement of our sensors. List only remarks that are
relevant to the specific run or log section and leave a space in between each segment for easy
reading.

The Run Remarks section can also be used to explain reasons for missing log data such as a
Directional Only run which was not logged or possible tool failure. Include both measured depth
and TVD depths when referencing specific intervals. List measured depths first followed by TVD
depths in parentheses. For example, 5000 ft to 5500 ft MD (4950 ft to 5380 ft TVD). Your
documentation should be written for the geologist or petrophysicist who will be analyzing the data

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months after drilling and may not be familiar with the drilling operations that took place on the rig.
Consider this, be concise and avoid using rig slang.

Borehole and Environmental Correction Applied:


Include the comment “Depth is referenced to Driller’s depth.” Corrections commonly applied to
each sensor during processing are listed below:
Gamma Ray : Environmentally Corrected for Mud Weight, Hole Size, and Potassium
content.
Resistivity : Resistivity is Borehole Compensated and Environmentally Corrected for
Mud Resistivity, Temperature, Dielectric Effect, and Hole Size.
Density : Calculated using Sandstone or Limestone Matrix.
Neutron Porosity : Porosity is Corrected for Hole Size, Mud Weight, Temperature, and
Mud Hydrogen Index.

LWD Operation / Reason for POOH / Comments:


Items that should be included in this segment are:
a. Sections of hole that were logged behind casing.
b. Sections of hole not logged due to sensor offset.
c. Sections of hole that were reamed/wiped.
d. Real-time log data verses Recorded log data.
e. Reasons for reduced data density or gaps.
f. Surface equipment or decoding problems.
g. Any anomalies or unexplained measurements.
h. Lost circulation.
i. Tool failures and the depths at which they occurred.

2.7 Spacer

Spacers serve as scale and type identifiers for specific log sections and should be named
according.

2.8 Log Body

1 inch Log Presentation - BASICS


a. No tick marks on this presentation.
b. Annotate curves roughly every 5000 ft.
c. Make certain the curve labels do not mask data.
d. Curve labels should be curve-colored.
e. Reference Appendix E for log formats.
f. Adjust ROP scales to minimize the conflict with Gamma Ray.

2 inch Log Presentation - BASICS – Refer to 1 inch Log Guide

5 inch Log Presentation - BASICS

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a. Tick marks for each tool should be presented and labeled in the depth track. Ticks
are curve colored. When multiple measurements are being taken from the same
sensor (ie. Resistivity) present the ticks from the sensor with the deepest depth of
investigation.
b. Casing Shoe, Total Depth, and Last Readings labeled. Splice points are correct (on
depth) and visible.
c. LWD run number and tool serial numbers are annotated (Multiple LWD tools only).
d. FET (formation exposure time) curves presented (one per tool). FET curves off scale
a lot. Could re-scale to 0-24 hours.
e. FET incorrect at splice points. Annotation required that the overlapped region
(sensor offset) was logged “X” hours after the bit.
f. Annotations and curve labels do not mask log data. Curve labels are curve colored.
g. Adjust ROP scales to minimize the conflict with Gamma Ray.
h. Reference Appendix E for log formats.

2.9 Images or Repeat Section Logs - BASICS


a. Image Presentation or a repeat section log.
b. Repeat section logs only required when an anomaly is logged and confirmation of
response is required (client will typically make this call).

2.10 Tool Calibration Summary

a. Ensure that calibrations are presented for all tools utilized in the hole section.
b. Calibration dates should be included on each summary.
c. Tool type and serial number presented on each summary.
d. Source serial numbers are required for neutron/density tools.
e. Calibrations must be within tool tolerances. Any calibration which is outside of
specifications must be fully annotated and approved.

2.11 Survey Page

a. All survey header information should match with that presented on the Final Header.
b. Surveys are final accepted surveys including a Projected survey to TD.

2.12 Tail

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The information required in the tail should match exactly with that on the header.

3.0 ASCII/LAS FILE COMPOSITION

Whenever logs are turned in, you must also turn in ASCII or LAS file(s) of the data presented.
Always create the ASCII/LAS files after all FINAL depth corrections and recorded images have
been imported. Verify that the digital data matches the log data and use the options to set the
null output to -999.25. Using notebook, you can complete any missing static well data.

4.0 Survey ASCII File

Ensure the header information is complete and correct. Surveys to surface (Gyro surveys if
applicable) and a projection to TD should be included as the survey file is the final approved
survey listing.

5.0 Back-up CD

Data should be backed up on CDs and stored inside the training archives room in the metal filing
cabinet labeled, "S-Tool Field Records", designated as the new well site record storage area.
This CD must include the following folders and files:

Backup of the SQL Database


Final Composite Logs
Composite Real Time Log
Survey ASCII File
Final ASCII/LAS Log Data
Daily Reports
Bit Run Summaries
End of Well Reports
Incident Reports

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Appendix A – Computalog Standard LWD Service Mnemonics

Service
Service (Tool) Name
Mnemonic
GEN General Parameters
DIR Direction and Inclination
RTEM Rapid Annular Temperature
HAGR High Temperature Azimuthal Gamma Ray
SAGR Spectral Azimuthal Gamma Ray
MFR* Multi-Frequency Resistivity
CLD Compensated Litho-Density
TENP Thermal/Epithermal Neutron Porosity
BAP Bore and Annulus Pressure
DVS Downhole Vibration Sensor
ESM Environmental Severity Measurement
EST Elemental Spectroscopy Tool

* Denotes a Mark of Computalog

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Appendix B – Data/Log Submission

Real time LWD Log As requested by the client


As requested by the sales office

Recorded Mode LWD Log As requested by the client


As requested by the sales office

Drilling Mechanics As requested by the client


As requested by the sales office

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Appendix C – Annotation Labels

All curves must be labeled at the top and bottom of all logs plus:
roughly 1000 foot intervals on the 5 inch log.
roughly 2500 foot intervals on the 2 inch log.
roughly 5000 foot intervals on the 1 inch log..

Always position annotations such that they do not mask curves or flow into the depth column.

Appendix D lists the standard curve labels to use, the curve name, and the
curve description.

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Appendix D – Standard Curves

Service Curve
Trace Label Curve Description Units Curve
Mnemonic Mnemonic
GEN DEPTH Measured Depth DEPT FT or M
GEN TVD True Vertical Depth TVD FT or M
True Stratagraphic
GEN TST
Thickness
TST FT or M
GEN TVT True Vertical Thickness TVT FT or M
GEN Departure Lateral Departure LDEP FT or M
GEN Formation Dip Formation Dip FDIP DEG
S/FT or Curve
GEN Data Density Data Density DD Colored Tick
S/M
Drilling Rate of F/HR or ------
GEN ROP ROP
Penetration M/HR
Wiping Rate of F/HR or ------
GEN RATE WROP
Penetration M/HR
GEN Slide Sliding Flag SLID 1 or 0
DIR Azimuth
Long Collar Corrected
LAZI DEG ------
Azimuth
DIR Azimuth
Short Collar Corrected
SAZI DEG ------
Azimuth
DIR Inclination Inclination INC DEG ______
DIR Toolface Toolface TF DEG
DEGF or
RTEM Borehole Temperature Borehole Temperature BTEM
DEGC
DEGF or
DTEM Differential Temperature Differential Temperature DTEM
DEGC
HAGR Gamma Ray Total Gamma Ray Total HGRT API ______
Azimuthal Gamma Ray
HAGR Gamma Ray Highside
Highside
HGRH API
Azimuthal Gamma Ray
HAGR Gamma Ray Lowside
Lowside
HGRL API
Azimuthal Gamma Ray Azimuthal Gamma Ray
HAGR Binned Binned
HGRB API
Gamma Ray Tool Gamma Ray Tool DEGF or
HAGR HGTM
Temperature Temperature DEGC
S/FT or
HADR Gamma Ray Data Density Gamma Ray Data Density HGDD
S/M
Gamma Ray Exposure
HADR Gamma Ray Exposure Time
Time
HGXT HRS
SAGR Gamma Ray Total Gamma Ray Total SGRT API
Azimuthal Gamma Ray
SAGR Gamma Ray Highside
Highside
SGRH API
Azimuthal Gamma Ray
SAGR Gamma Ray Lowside
Lowside
SGHL API
Azimuthal Gamma Ray Azimuthal Gamma Ray
SAGR Binned Binned
SGRB API
SAGR Gamma Ray 1 Total Gamma Ray 1 Total SGR1 API
SAGR Gamma Ray 2 Total Gamma Ray 2 Total SGR2 API

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Service Curve
Trace Label Curve Description Units Curve
Mnemonic Mnemonic
SAGR Gamma Ray 3 Total Gamma Ray 3 Total SGR3 API
SAGR K Total GR Potassium Total SGPT %
SAGR Th Total GR Thorium Total SGTT PPM
SAGR U Total GR Uranium Total SGUT PPM
SAGR K1 GR Potassium Detector 1 SGP1 %

SAGR Th 1 GR Thorium Detector 1 SGT1 PPM

SAGR U1 GR Uranium Detector 1 SGU1 PPM


SAGR K2 GR Potassium Detector 2 SGP2 %
SAGR Th 2 GR Thorium Detector 2 SGT2 PPM
SAGR U2 GR Uranium Detector 2 SGU2 PPM
SAGR K3 GR Potassium Detector 3 SGP3 %
SAGR Th 3 GR Thorium Detector 3 SGT3 PPM
SAGR U3 GR Uranium Detector 3 SGU3 PPM
S/FT or
SAGR Gamma Ray Data Density Gamma Ray Data Density SGDD
S/M
Gamma Ray Exposure
SAGR Gamma Ray Exposure Time
Time
SGXT HRS
EST Ca Ca Total ESCA %
EST Si Si Total ESSI %
EST Cl Cl Total ESCL %
EST H H Total ESH %
MFR 2 MHz Shallow Phase 2 MHz Shallow Phase RPS2 OHM-M
MFR 2 MHz Medium Phase 2 MHz Medium Phase RPM2 OHM-M
MFR 2 MHz Deep Phase 2 MHz Deep Phase RPD2 OHM-M
2 MHz Shallow
MFR 2 MHz Shallow Attenuation
Attenuation
RAS2 OHM-M
2 MHz Medium
MFR 2 MHz Medium Attenuation
Attenuation
RAM2 OHM-M
MFR 2 MHz Deep Attenuation 2 MHz Deep Attenuation RAD2 OHM-M
MFR 400 kHz Shallow Phase 400 kHz Shallow Phase RPS4 OHM-M
MFR 400 kHz Medium Phase 400 kHz Medium Phase RPM4 OHM-M
MFR 400 kHz Deep Phase 400 kHz Deep Phase RPD4 OHM-M
400 kHz Ultra Deep
MFR 400 kHz Ultra Deep Phase
Phase
RPU4 OHM-M
400 kHz Shallow 400 kHz Shallow
MFR Attenuation Attenuation
RAS4 OHM-M
400 kHz Medium 400 kHz Medium
MFR Attenuation Attenuation
RAM4 OHM-M
MFR 400 kHz Deep Attenuation 400 kHz Deep Attenuation RAD4 OHM-M
400 kHz Ultra Deep 400 kHz Ultra Deep
MFR RAU4 OHM-M
Attenuation Attenuation
100 kHz Ultra Deep 400 kHz Ultra Deep
MFR RPU1 OHM-M
Phase Phase
100 kHz Ultra Deep 100 kHz Ultra Deep
MFR Attenuation Attenuation
RAU1 OHM-M

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Service Curve
Trace Label Curve Description Units
Mnemonic Mnemonic
Resistivity Tool Resistivity Tool DEGF or
MFR RTEM
Temperature Temperature DEGC
S/FT or
MFR Resistivity Data Density Resistivity Data Density RDD
S/M
MFR Resistivity Exposure Time Resistivity Exposure Time RXT HRS
CLD Bulk Density Bulk Density RHOB G/CC
CLD Delta Rhob Delta Rhob DRHO G/CC
Rotational Averaged
CLD Rotational Averaged Density
Density
RABD G/CC
Delta Rhob Rotational Ave. Delta Rhob Rotational
CLD Den. Ave. Den.
DRAD G/CC
CLD Rapid Sample Density Rapid Sample Density RSBD G/CC

CLD Self-Binning Density Self-Binning Density SBBD G/CC


G/CC
CLD Azimuthal Density Azimuthal Density RHOA
(Array)
CLD Standoff Caliper Standoff Caliper DCAL IN or MM
CLD Acoustic Caliper Acoustic Caliper ACAL IN or MM
IN or MM
CLD Acoustic Standoff Acoustic Standoff ASO
(Array)
CLD Photoelectric Factor Photoelectric Factor PEF B/E
CLD Bulk Density Highside Bulk Density Highside RHBH G/CC
CLD Delta Rhob Highside Delta Rhob Highside DRHH G/CC
Photoelectric Factor Photoelectric Factor
CLD Highside Highside
PEFH B/E
CLD Bulk Density Lowside Bulk Density Lowside RHBL G/CC
CLD Delta Rhob Lowside Delta Rhob Lowside DRHL G/CC
Photoelectric Factor Photoelectric Factor
CLD Lowside Lowside
PEFL B/E
CLD Bulk Density Binned Bulk Density Binned RHBB G/CC
CLD Delta Rhob Binned Delta Rhob Binned DRHB G/CC
Photoelectric Factor
CLD Photoelectric Factor Binned
Binned
PEFB B/E
CLD Near Bulk Density Near Bulk Density RHBN G/CC
CLD Far Bulk Density Far Bulk Density RHBF G/CC
S/FT or
CLD Rhob Data Density Rhob Data Density DDD
S/M
CLD Rhob Exposure Time Rhob Exposure Time DXT HRS
TNP Neutron Porosity SS Neutron Porosity SS NPSS PU
TNP Neutron Porosity LS Neutron Porosity LS NPLS PU
TNP Neutron Porosity DO Neutron Porosity DO NPDO %
TNP Neutron Near Counts Neutron Near Counts NNCT CPS
TNP Neutron Far Counts Neutron Far Counts NFCT CPS
TNP N/F Ratio Near Far Ratio NFRT NONE
S/FT or
TNP Neutron Data Density Neutron Data Density NDD
S/M

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For Internal Use Only 17 COMPUTALOG Drilling Services
Service Curve
Trace Label Curve Description Units
Mnemonic Mnemonic
TNP Neutron Exposure Time Neutron Exposure Time NXT HRS
PSI or
BAP Annulus Pressure Raw Annulus Pressure AP
BAR
PSI or
BAP Bore Pressure Raw Bore Pressure BP
BAR
LB/GAL
BAP EMW Equivalent Mud Weight EMW or SG or
G/CC
Annulus Minus Bore
BAP Differential Pressure
Pressure
DP PSI
S/FT or
BAP Pressure Data Density Pressure Data Density PDD
S/M
Pumps-off Maximum PSI or
BAP Pumps-off Max PMX
Pressure BAR
Pumps-off Minimum PSI or
BAP Pumps-off Min PMI
Pressure BAR
PSI or
BAP Pumps-off Static Pumps-off Static Pressure POS
BAR
ESM X Shocks X-Axis Shocks SXD CTS
ESM Y Shocks Driver Controller Y-Axis Shocks SYD CTS
Lateral Shock Driver
ESM Controller
Vector Lateral Shock SVD CTS
ESM X Shocks Resistivity X-Axis Shock Resistivity SXR CTS
ESM Y Shocks Resistivity Y-Axis Shock Resistivity SYR CTS
Vector Lateral Shock
EMS Lateral Shock Resistivity
Resistivity
SVR CTS
X-Axis Shock
EMS X Shocks Neutron/Density
Density/Neutron
SXD CTS
Y-Axis Shock
EMS Y Shock Neutron/Density
Density/Neutron
SYD CTS
Lateral Shock Vector Lateral Shock
EMS Density/Neutron Desity/Neutron
SVD CTS
DVS Peak X Vibration Peak X Acceleration PVX G
DVS Peak Y Vibration Peak Y Acceleration PVY G
DVS Peak Z Vibration Peak Z Acceleration PVZ G
DVS Average X Vibration Average X Acceleration AVX G
DVS Average Y Vibration Average Y Acceleration AVY G
DVS Average Z Vibration Average Z Acceleration AVZ G
Downhole Rotary Speed
DVS RPM Average
Average
RAV RPM
Downhole Rotary Speed
DVS RPM Maximum
Maximum
RMX RPM
Downhole Rotary Speed
DVS RPM Miminum
Minimum
RMI RPM
Dominant X-Axis Vibration
DVS Dominant X Frequency
Frequency
FVX Hz
Dominant Y-Axis Vibration
DVS Dominant Y Frequency
Frequency
FVY Hz
Dominant Z-Axis Vibration
DVS Dominant Z Frequency
Frequency
FVZ Hz
DVS Vibration Data Density Vibration Data Density VDD S/FT

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For Internal Use Only 18 COMPUTALOG Drilling Services
Appendix E – Default Log Formats

On the following pages are some default log formats. They do not cover absolutely every possible
combination of tools and their measurements. The user will need to follow inferred guidelines of
curve colors and codes when adding features for unspecified combinations.

1 inch MWD w/ Gamma Presentation

2 inch MWD w/ Gamma Presentation

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For Internal Use Only 19 COMPUTALOG Drilling Services
5 inch MWD w/ Gamma Presentation

CONFIDENTIAL
For Internal Use Only 20 COMPUTALOG Drilling Services
1 inch MFR 2 MHz Presentation

2 inch MFR 2 MHz Presentation

CONFIDENTIAL
For Internal Use Only 21 COMPUTALOG Drilling Services
5 inch MFR 2 MHz Presentation

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For Internal Use Only 22 COMPUTALOG Drilling Services
5 in MFR 2 MHz Attenuation Presentation

CONFIDENTIAL
For Internal Use Only 23 COMPUTALOG Drilling Services
5 in ESM Presentation

CONFIDENTIAL
For Internal Use Only 24 COMPUTALOG Drilling Services

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