SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

Working Principle of a Transformer:-

A transformer is a static machine which operates on the principle of

two or more mutually linked coils. It is used to transformed electrical
power of one circuit to another circuit of same frequency & changing
the magnitude of an alternating voltage & also used for isolating two
circuits or matching the impedance of two circuits for maximum
power transfer between them as in low power- low current electronic
& control circuits

It consists of two inductive coils with high mutual inductance which are
electrically separated but magnetically coupled as show in fig. If one coil is
connected to an alternating voltage, an alternating flux is set up in the
laminated core. This flux is linked with the other coil & produces a mutually
induced e.m.f. If the 2nd. Coil is closed, a current flows in it & so electric energy is
transferred entirely magnetically from 1st. coil to the 2nd. Coil. The 1st. coil which
is fed from the a.c supply is called primary winding & the 2nd. Coil from which
energy is drawn out is called secondary winding.
CONSTRUCTION:-

The main parts of a transformer are:-

(a) A laminated steel core & two coils having mutual inductance.

(b) Tank→ Container for assembled core & winding

( c ) Oil→ insulating medium for the core & its winding from container
+ cooling by circulation.

(d) Conservator & Breather.

Core:-

The cores are constructed of high grade silicon steel, the silicon
content reducing losses & preventing ageing, in laminations about
0.014 inch. thick, cut in rectangular strips, punched & then annealed
to recondition the material. Each lamination is coated with a tough
flash enamel insulation resistant to hot transformer oil. Laminations
are assembled in the required shape, the corners being inter leaved to
add to rigidity and to reduce the reluctance of the magnetic circuit.
Since core flux is alternating, it is essential that the core be laminated
to reduce eddy current losses or CRGO ( Cold Rolled Grain Oriented)
laminations improve the working flux density & reduce the
transformer size considerably & lower iron losses at higher operating
flux densities & lower cost.
From the constructional point of view a transformer can be classified
according to the type of core used.

(A) Core Type:-

In the core type magnetic core is built of laminations to form a

rectangular frame and the windings are arranged concentrically with
each other on cylinders around the side members known as the legs
or limbs of the core. The top & bottom members are known as yokes.
In small size transformer rectangular core is used with cylindrical coils
on limbs. In larger size transformer cruciform core is used circular
cylindrical coils on limbs. L.V (Low Voltage) windings are close to the
core as its insulation problem is less. Cruciform core is used to avoid
the wastage of space. Core type is more commonly used.
[Note:- Half coil of low voltage winding is on one limb & half coil is in
other limb. Similarly for H.V (High Voltage) winding. This is done to
reduce leakage flux.]

(B) Shell Type:-

In shell type, the windings are flat circular or rectangular coils

interleaved with each other. The core is usually divided & built around
the coils on either side. The core has three limbs. The central limb
carries the whole flux where as side limbs carry half of the flux.
Therefore width of central limb is about double to that of the outer
limbs. The windings are placed on the central limb side by side or
concentrically.

Tank:-

The assembled core & winding are placed in a tank which contains oil.
Radiator or tubes are provided on the sides of the tank if smooth tank
surface is not sufficient to radiate the heat produced.
Transformer Oil:-

It serves the dual purpose of insulation & cooling. All oils are good insulators but
animal & vegetable oils are not suitable for use in transformer because these
tend to form destructive fatty acids which attacks fibrous materials used as
winding insulation. The oil used in transformer is called transformer oil & is a
mineral oil obtained from fractional distillation of crude petroleum. The
breakdown strength of transformer oil is reduced in presence of moisture.
Transformer oil has a disadvantage of its sludging. Sometimes to prevent
sludging certain chemicals called inhibitors are added to transformer oil. To
prevent the risk of fire & explosion synthetic transformer oil are developed.
Chlorinated diphenyl normally called ASKAREL is a synthetic oil suitable for use
but under the influence of power arcs this gets decomposed & form hydrochloric
acid which is a corrosive & toxic substance.

[Note:- The permittivity of transformer oil is 2.5. As per Indian Standard

Specification, the breakdown strength of new transformer oil when treated
must be at least 50 KV rms when measured with the help of two spherical
electrodes of 12.5 m.m diameter & with a gap spacing of 2.5 m.m. However
breakdown strength is greatly reduced due to the presence of impurities like
moisture, gas bubbles, solid particles etc. The dielectric strength of synthetic oil
is greater than mineral oil & its permittivity is 4.5 which is nearly equal to those
of solid insulating materials but under the influence of power arc it gets
decomposed to form corrosive & toxic substance.]

Conservator & Breather:-

The conservator is an air tight cylindrical drum supported on the

transformer lid. The tank is filled with oil when cold. The oil expands
due to heating during operation & this expansion is taken up in the
conservator. Conservator also maintains a slight head of oil in the
transformer tank under all conditions of temperature & load on
transformer. During expansion due to heating some oil comes into the
conservator from the tank & forces some air out of conservator.
However when oil contracts some oil goes back to the tank from
conservator & air enters into the conservator from atmosphere. This
may results to contamination of oil with moisture. To prevent this,
displacement of air from conservator to atmosphere & vice-versa
takes place through a breather which contains silica gel, which
extracts moisture from the air.
 Cooling

Classification of Methods of Cooling:-

Method of Type
cooling Abbreviation

Natural Air Natural Cooling AN

Cooling
Oil-immersed Natural Cooling ON

Oil-immersed forced- oil- Circulation OFN

with Natural Cooling

Artificial Oil-immersed forced- oil- Circulation OFB

Cooling (Air) with Air Blast Cooling

Oil-immersed Air Blast Cooling OB

 Air Blast Cooling AB

Artificial Oil-immersed Water Cooling OW

Cooling
Oil-immersed forced- oil- Circulation OFW
(Water)
with Water Cooling

Equation of Induced Voltage:-

The voltage induced in any winding depends only upon the number of
turns in the winding & the rate of change of the flux linking it. It
makes no difference how the change in flux is produced.

Let Øm be the maximum value of the flux linking a transformer coil &
assume this flux to vary sinusoidally with respect to time.

Ø= Øm Sin ωt

If N1 is the number of turns in the coil, the voltage rise (voltage rise is
considered as +ve & a drop in voltage is as –ve) induced in the coil at
any instant by the flux Ø is

e = - N1 (dØ/dt) = - ω N1 Øm Cos ωt = ω N1 Øm Sin (ωt-900)

Maximum voltage is em = ω N1 Øm = 2πf N1 Øm

The effective rms voltage in volts E1 = (2π/√2) f N1 Øm = 4.44f N1 Øm

If the voltage is not a sine wave then E1 = 4 x (Form factor) f N1 Øm

Voltage Transformation Ratio(K):-

From the above equation E2 /E1 = N2 /N1 = K = This constant is known

as transformation ratio.

If N2 ˃ N1 i.e K ˃ 1 then the transformer is called step up transformer.

If N2 ˂ N1 i.e K ˂ 1 then the transformer is called step down

transformer.

For an ideal transformer,

Input VA = Output VA or V1 I1 = V2 I2 or I2 / I1 = V1 / V2 = 1/K

Therefore currents are in the inverse ratio of the voltage

transformation ratio.

Vector Diagram of an Ideal Transformer:-

 Ideal transformer means it has no losses i.e no resistive loss, no
magnetic leakage & no core loss.

As primary is connected to an a.c voltage & it is purely inductive &

secondary is open then primary draws a magnetizing current say Iµ
only. Its function is to magnetize the core & small in magnitude & lags
V1 by 900. Iµ produces an alternating flux Ø which is proportional to
current & in phase with it. This changing flux is linked with the
primary & secondary. So it produces self induced emf in primary & a
mutually induced emf in secondary. This self induced emf E1 is at every
instant equal & opposite to V1. It is also called primary back emf or
counter emf. Secondary induced emf E2 is also in anti phase with V1 &
its magnitude is proportional to the rate of change of flux & secondary
turns.

Real Transformer on no load:-

 When a real transformer is on load there is iron loss in the core & cu
loss (I2R loss) in both the windings.

Consider transformer is on no load i.e primary is connected to a

constant alternating voltage source of constant frequency &
secondary is open. Thus the primary input is only to cover the I2R loss
& core loss.

Hence the no load input current I0 is not at 900 behind V1 but lags it by
an angle ˂ 900.

No load input power W0 = V1 I0 Cos Ø0

I0 has two components -

1) In phase with V1 & termed as Iw , this is known as active or working

or iron loss component because it mainly supplies the iron loss +
small quantity of primary cu-loss.
 Iw = I0 Cos Ø0

2) Other component is perpendicular to V1 & termed as Iµ , this is

known as magnetizing component. Its function is to sustain the
alternating flux in core. It is watt less.

Iµ = I0 Sin Ø0

Therefore I0 = √( Iµ2 + Iw2 )

[ Note:-

1) No load current for a normal power transformer is generally about

5% of its full load current.

2) On no load the I2 R loss is only due to the resistance of primary & is

often neglected. The input power on no load is approximately equal
to the total iron loss.

3) Core loss which is responsible for shift in current vector, angle Ø0 is

known as hysteresis angle of advance.]

Transformer on load:-
When secondary is loaded secondary current I2 flows and its
magnitude & phase with respect to secondary terminal voltage V2
depends upon the type of load. Due to the secondary amp-turns N2I2 a
flux Ø2 is set up in the core which acts in opposition to the main flux
Ø. This secondary amp-turns N2I2 is known as demagnetizing
amp-turns. The flux Ø2 weakens the main flux Ø momentarily & hence
primary back emf E1 tends to reduce. So for a moment V1 gains upper
hand over E1 & causes more current to flow in primary.

Let this additional primary current be I2′ & this is known as load
component of primary current. This current flowing in primary due to
the application of load in secondary & is anti phase with I2 . The
additional primary amp-turns N1 I2′ sets up its own flux Ø2′ which acts
in opposition of Ø2 but in same direction of Ø & equal in magnitude of
Ø2. So the two cancels each other out & the magnetic effects of I2 are
immediately neutralized by additional primary current I2′.
Hence under any load conditions the net flux passing through the core
is same at no load. As the core flux is constant under any load
condition, the core loss is also same under all load condition.

As Ø2 = Ø2′ so N2I2 = N1 I2′ or I2′ = (N2 / N1) I2 = K I2

So on loaded condition the primary winding has two currents, one is I0

& other is I2′ but I2′ is anti phase with I2 & K times in magnitude. The
total primary current is the vector sum of I0 & I2′.

Assuming K=1 & for lagging load the vector diagram is shown below.

If we neglect I0 as compared to I2′ then I2′ = I1 & we can write

N1 I2′ = N1 I1 = N2 I2 or I2′/ I2 = I1 / I2 = N2 / N1 =K

So at full load ratio of primary current & secondary is constant &

based on this principle C.T (Current Transformer) is built.

Transformer with winding resistance only:-

In secondary the voltage equation is as follows-

V2 = E2 – I2 R2 (vector difference)

Where V2 = secondary terminal voltage

E2 = secondary induced emf

R2 = secondary winding resistance.

But in primary when an alternating potential is impressed on an

inductive circuit the current increases until the total voltage drop
around the circuit is zero. Under this condition the total voltage drop
due to induction plus (vectorially) the resistance drop in the circuit is
equal to the impressed voltage.

By convention

Rise in voltage is considered as +ve

Drop in voltage is considered as –ve &
Impressed voltage is considered as +ve.
So we can write,
 E1 (rise in voltage) – I1 R1 (drop in resistance) + V1 =0

Or, V1 = - E1 + I1 R1

So the vector diagram considering only winding resistance is as

follows-

Equivalent Resistance:-

The resistances of two windings can be transferred to any one of the

two windings. The main advantage of this is to make calculation very
simple & one can work in one winding i.e in one voltage level.
It can be shown that secondary resistance R2 is equivalent to R2/K2 in
primary. R2/K2 is denoted by R2′ & termed as equivalent secondary
resistance as referred to primary.

Cu-loss in secondary = I22 R2 . If R2′ is equivalent of R2 in primary then

cu-loss occurred in R2′ = I12 R2′. Hence to make R2′ is equivalent of R2 in
primary, this two loss must be equal.

So we can write,

I12 R2′ = I22 R2 or R2′ = (I2 / I1)2 R2 = R2 / K2

(if we neglect no load current I0 then I2 / I1 = 1/K , actually

I2 / I2′ = 1/K not I2 / I1 if we neglect I0 then I2′ = I1)

Similarly equivalent primary resistance referred to secondary is

R1′ = K2 R1

Therefore, R1 + R2′ = R1 + (R2 /K2) = Equivalent resistance of the

transformer as referred to primary is denoted by R01 or Req .

Similarly R02 (or Req′) = R2 + R1′ = R2 + K2 R1

Magnetic Leakage:-
All flux linked with primary does not linked with the secondary. A part
of its say ØL1 completes its magnetic circuit by passing through air. This
flux is due to primary amp-turns & is proportional to primary
amp-turns & in phase with I1 . It induces an emf say eL1 in primary.
Similarly is for the secondary.

So it can be regarded as if a small inductive coil is connected in series

with the winding where the voltage drop (say eL1) is occurring. So we
can say a transformer with magnetic leakage is equivalent to an ideal
transformer with inductive coils connected in both primary &
secondary circuit such that voltage drop in the coils is equal to eL1 & eL2
i.e corresponding to the leakage flux in actual transformer.

So primary leakage reactance= X1 = eL1 /I1 & secondary leakage

reactance= X2 = eL2 /I2

Now the voltage equation considering both resistance & leakage

reactance are-
For primary V1 = - E1 + I1 R1 + I1 X1 &

For secondary V2 = E2 – I2 R2 - I2 X2

So the vector diagram for lagging load of a transformer considering all

the parameters is as follows-

[Note:- To reduce leakage primary & secondary winding are

interleaved.]

Equivalent Leakage Reactance & Impedance:-

Leakage reactance can also be transferred from one side to other side
in the same way as resistance.

X2′ = X2 / K2 & X1′ = K2 X1

X01 = Xeq = X1 + X2′ = X1 + (X2 /K2)

X02 =Xeq′ = X2 + X1′ = X2 + K2 X1

Z01 = Zeq = √ ( R012 + X012 ) = Total impedance referred to primary

Z02 = Zeq′ = √ ( R022 + X022 ) = Total impedance referred to secondary

Equivalent Circuit:-

A transformer can be represented into an equivalent circuit by taking

out the resistance & reactance to the external circuit.

X0 = E1 / Iµ & R0 = E1 / Iw

E2 /E1 = N2 /N1 = K

Secondary induced emf referred to primary E2′ = E2 /K = E1

Secondary terminal voltage referred to primary V2′ = V2 /K and

I2′ = K I2 , R2′ = R2 /K2 , X2′ = X2 /K2 , ZL′ = ZL /K2

So the Secondary circuit referred to primary is as follows-

So the Exact Equivalent Circuit is as follows-

If we neglect I0 then the circuit will be as follows-

Determination of Parameters of the equivalent circuit:-

From the following tests we can determine the equivalent circuit

parameters & losses of a transformer.

(i) Open Circuit Test (O.C. Test)-

Rated sinusoidal voltage at rated frequency is applied to L.V (Low

Voltage) winding with H.V (High Voltage) side open circuited. The
current, power & the voltage across the H.V are measured.
Let the applied voltage be V1 , I0 & P0 be the no load current & power
respectively & V2 the H.V winding open circuit voltage. We neglect
drops in resistance & leakage reactance of L.V winding.

We have, P0 = V1 I0 Cos Ø0 or Cos Ø0 = P0 / V1 I0

Iµ = I0 Sin Ø0 , Iw = I0 Cos Ø0

Therefore X0 (at rated frequency) = V1 / Iµ & R0 = V1 / Iw

[Note:-

1) R0 & X0 obtained above are referred to L.V

2) O.C. test can also be done by supplying H.V winding keeping L.V
side open. But this needs a high voltage source & for a transformer
of voltage rating say 132KV / 6.6KV this is hazardous.

3) As I2 R loss at no load is negligible & so P0 = the total iron loss at

rated voltage & frequency.

4) Turns ratio from O.C. test is given by

Rated applied voltage/ V2 = NL.V / NH.V ]

 (ii) Short Circuit Test (S.C. Test)-

L.V winding is short circuited & the H.V winding is supplied from a
sinusoidal voltage of low value at rated frequency. The value of
applied voltage is adjusted to have rated current Irated flowing in H.V
winding. The readings of ammeter, voltmeter & wattmeter are noted
as Irated , Es , Ps respectively.

For normal power transformer Es is between 2 to 10% of rated voltage

of H.V winding as such the core flux under the test condition is far
below that under the rated condition. The core losses under this
conditions is thus small and can be neglected in comparison to the
total I2 R loss in the winding which is due to rated current.

Thus Ps = the total I2 R loss in the windings under rated condition.

Neglecting the small magnetizing current in comparison to the rated

current in the windings we can write,
Zeq = Es / Irated , Req = Ps /(Irated)2 & Xeq = √[ (Zeq)2 - (Req)2 ]

[Note:- (1) Zeq obtained here is referred to H.V

(2) Req = RH.V + RL.V′ , RH.V can be measured by d.c volt-amp

method & RL.V′ can thus be calculated.

Again Xeq = XH.V + XL.V′ , separation of XH.V & XL.V′ is however

difficult.

(3) As a small supply voltage is required for this test & since a

small variation from this value will result in a large variation

of current under short circuit condition, it is generally

preferable to short circuit the L.V winding & supply the H.V ]

Why Transformer Rating in kVA not in KW:-

The cu-loss of a transformer depends on current & iron loss on

voltage. Hence total transformer loss depends on VA & not on the
phase angle between voltage & current i.e it is independent of load
power factor. That is why transformer rating is in kVA not in KW.

[ A typical rating of a transformer is 10kVA, 440/220V, 1-ph, 50Hz]

[Note that kVA rating of transformer is same for both primary &
secondary]
Regulation:-

The regulation of a transformer at any load & power factor is defined

as the percent change in the secondary terminal voltage due to steady
application or removal of the load with primary supplied with rated
voltage at rated frequency.

If the secondary voltage on open circuit is V02 with rated primary

voltage & that on load is V2 then we have

% regulation (Є) = [(V02 - V2)/ V02 ] x 100 % → regulation down

= [(V02 - V2)/ V2 ] x 100 % → regulation up

By regulation we mean regulation down

Percentage Impedance:-

The impedance of a transformer is often specified as ‘% impedance’

defined as the voltage drop on full load expressed as a percentage of
rated voltage.

% Impedance ЄZ = (Ifl Zeq / Vrated ) x 100 % where fl indicates full load.

% Resistance ЄR = (Ifl Req / Vrated ) x 100 %

% Reactance ЄX = (Ifl Xeq / Vrated ) x 100 %

 Losses & Efficiency

The major losses in a transformer are-

(i) I2 R losses in primary & secondary winding. These losses

vary with the load on the transformer. The total I2 R losses
can be written as

Pcu = I12 R1 + I22 R2 = I12 [R1 + (I2 /I1)2 R2 ]

We know, I2′ N1 = I2 N2

If we neglect I0 then I1 = I2′

Therefore I1 N1 = I2 N2 or I2 /I1 = N1 /N2

Therefore Pcu = I12 [R1 + (N1 /N2)2 R2 ] = I12 [R1 + (R2 /K2 )] as K= N2 /N1

= I12 [R1 + R2′] = I12 Req

Here I1 & Req are in primary terms.

So in secondary terms Pcu = I22 Req′

(ii) Core losses are divided into two (a) hysteresis loss & (b)
eddy current loss.

Hysteresis loss is given by Ph = P x Bmax1.6 x f where P=constant

Eddy current loss is given by Pe = Q x Bmax2 x f2 where Q=constant

For a given volume of material,

Pe is proportional to t2,

proportional to Bmax2,

proportional to f2 & also

inversely proportional to ρ.

Where, Bmax = Maximum flux density

f = frequency

t= thickness of lamination &

ρ = resistivity of the material

These losses vary with flux density in the core & frequency. Under
normal operating conditions the core flux in a transformer remains
approximately constant. That is the core losses can be considered
unaffected by load current.

The total core loss Pi = Hysteresis loss Ph + Eddy current loss Pe

[ Note:- Increasing the silicon content of steel laminations reduces the

hysteresis loss & also increasing the electrical resistivity which in turn
reduces the eddy current loss]
 (iii) Apart from the above, there are losses such as stray loss
due to the voltage induced by stray fields in adjacent
conductor & dielectric loss in the insulation. These losses
can be considered independent of load current & are thus
included in the no load losses. However for simplicity
these losses are often neglected.

Efficiency:-

The volt-amp rating of a transformer is its output quantity & thus the
efficiency is determined in terms of output power.

At any p.f the magnitude of the power output at the secondary

terminal is V2 I2 Cos Ø2 that is power input to primary terminals

= V2 I2 Cos Ø2 + Pcu + Pi

Efficiency (ɳ) = output/input

ɳ = (V2 I2 Cos Ø2) / (V2 I2 Cos Ø2 + Pcu + Pi )

= (V2 I2 Cos Ø2) / (V2 I2 Cos Ø2 + Pi + I22 Req′)

To determine the load current I2 at a given p.f at which the ɳ is

maximum is d ɳ /d I2 = 0

Note that Pi is independent of I2 .

(V2 I2 Cos Ø2 + Pi + I22 Req′) x V2 Cos Ø2

- V2 I2 Cos Ø2 (V2 Cos Ø2 + 2 I2 Req′)=0

Or, Pi x V2 Cos Ø2 + V2 Cos Ø2 I22 Req′ - V2 I2 Cos Ø2 x 2 I2 Req′= 0

Or, Pi + I22 Req′ - 2 x I22 Req′ = 0

Or, Pi = I22 Req′

Thus maximum efficiency at a given p.f is obtained at a load at which

the total I2 R loss equals the total iron loss.

[Note:- Efficiency at x fraction of full load is given by

ɳx = (x. kVA . 103 . Cos Ø) / (x. kVA . 103 . Cos Ø + x2 Pcu + Pi ) ]

All-day Efficiency:-

The efficiency as discussed above are power efficiency i.e they are the
ratio of the power output to the power input under definite load
condition. Most transformers do not operate under constant load. As
a rule all except those in central station or in substations are
permanently connected to the power lines on their H.V side &
consume power during 24 hr of each day corresponding to their core
losses whether or not the transformer are loaded. For transformers
which operate on definite load cycles, it is the energy efficiency that is
important. Energy efficiency is the ratio of total KWh output to total
KWh input during the load cycle, which is usually a period of 24 hr.
This efficiency is called All-day efficiency.

Problem-1-

A 220/400V, 10kVA, 50Hz, 1-ph transformer has at full load cu-loss of

120W. If it has an efficiency of 98% at full load, unity p.f. , determine
iron loss. What would be the efficiency of the transformer at ½ full
load at 0.8 p.f lagging. [Ans: 84.08W, 97.23%]

Hints:- Use this formula

ɳx = (x. kVA . 103 . Cos Ø) / (x. kVA . 103 . Cos Ø + x2 Pcu + Pi ) ]

where x=1, kVA=10, Cos Ø=1, Pcu = 120W find Pi = 84.08W

Again at ½ load use the above same formula

Where x=0.5, kVA=10, Cos Ø=0.8, Pcu = 120W & Pi = 84.08W
Convert the result in percent by multiplying by 100.
Problem-2-

A 250/500 V transformer give the following test results-

S.C test with L.V shorted: 20V, 12A, 100W

O.C test on L.V side: 250V, 1A, 80W

Determine the efficiency of the transformer when output is 10A, 500V

at 0.8 p.f lagging.

[Ans: 96.39%]

Hints:

From S.C test, ES= 20V, PS= 100W, , Irated= 12A

Cu loss at 12A = 100W or (Irated)2 Req =100→ Req =0.694 ohm

Then compute Cu loss at 10A = 102 x 0.694 = 69.4W

From O.C test → Pi =80W

Efficiency = [(500 x 10 x 0.8)/( 500 x 10 x 0.8 + 69.4 + 80)] x 100

= 96.39%
Problem-3-

A 10kVA, 200/400V, 50Hz, 1-ph transformer give the following test

data-

O.C test on L.V side: 200V, 1.25A, 120W

S.C test on H.V side: 20V, 25A, 200W

(i) Calculate the magnetizing current at normal voltage & frequency.

(ii) Obtain the efficiency when transformer is supplying rated load at

0.8 p.f lagging.

[Ans: (i) 1.096A, (ii) 96.15%]

Hints:

From O.C test, V1 I0 Cos Ø0 =P0

Where V1 =200 V , I0 = 1.25A , P0 =120

Find Cos Ø0 & Sin Ø0 then find Iµ = I0 Sin Ø0

Rated amp on H.V side = 10 x 100/400 =25A

Cu loss at 25A =200W & Pi =120W, p.f & kVA given find efficiency.