"There are times when silence

speaks so much more loudly than

words of praise to only as good
as be little a person, whose words
do not express, but only put a
veneer over true feelings, which
are of gratitude at this point of
time I would like to express my
sincere gratitude to my physics
Teacher MRS. ANJALI VERMA for
his vital support, guidance and
encouragement, without which
this project would not have come
forth. I would also like to express
my gratitude to our principal MR.
VINOD KUMAR MATHPAL who
encouraged me to be more
efficient.
 title INDEX

CERTIFICATE OF EXCELLENCE
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
AIM OF THE PROJECT
INTRODUCTION
THEORY
APPARATUS REQUIRED
PROCEDURE FOLLOWED
OBSERVATION
CONCLUSIONS
PRECAUTIONS
BIBLIOGRAPHY

page numbers
chapter title
Lead sulfide (PbS) and indium antimonide (In
Sb) LDRS are used for the mid infrared spectra
region. Ge, Cu photoconductors are among the
best far infrared detectors available, and are
used for infrare astronomy and infrared
spectroscopy.
Analog Applications
Camera Exposure ControlAuto
Slide Focus -dual cell
Photocopy Machines -density of toner
Colorimetric Test Equipment
Densitometer Electronic Scales -dual cell
Automatic Gain Control -modulated light
source
Automated Rear View Mirror
Digital Applications
Automatic Headlight Dimmer
Night Light Control
Oil Burner Flame Out
Street Light Control
Position Sensor
aim of the project
The aim of the project is to demonstrate the
underlying principle of electrical condition under
the influence of light. Various applications are
possible by employing this simple principle such
as
a)Automatic switching of street lamps
b)Automatic elevator door
c)Morning wake up alarm
1. Fire alarm
2. Intruder's alarm
3. Light Intensity meter
In this project, I have demonstrated the
"automatic light switching circuit" in a simple
manner which is easy to understand. The heart
of the project is LDR or Light Dependent
Resistor. This project could have been done
using photo-voltaic cell in place of LDR but the
circuit would have become complicated in the
case of photocell.
 INTRODUCTION
A photoresistoror light-dependent resistor
(LDR) is a lightcontrolled variable resistor. The
resistance of a photoresistor decreases with
increasing incident light intensity, in other
words, it exhibits Photoconductivity. A
photoresistor can be applied in light-sensitive
detector circuits, and light and dark activated
switching circuits.These resistors use pure
semiconductors like silicon or germanium.
When the light falls on the LDR then the
electrons get excited by the incident photons
and move from the valence band to the
conduction band and therefore the number of
share carriers increases. In other words, the
conductivity goes up. Distinction needs to be
made here between photocells and LDRs. In a
photocell, when it is excited by light (photons),
electricity is generated. Unlike photocells,
LDRs, do not generate electricity but only
change their conductivity.
 TTHEORY
HEORY
A light dependent resistor
works on the principle of
photo conductivity Photo
conductivity is an electro-
optical phenmenon in which
the material's conductivity is
increased when light is
absorbed by the material
Modern light dependent
resistors are made of
materials such as lead
sulphide, lead selenide, indium
anthoonideand most commonly
cadmium sulphide(CdS) and
cadmium selenide, cadmium
sulphide.
LDR and its characteristics
When light is incident on it, a photon is absorbed and thereby it excites an
electron from valence band into conduction band. Due to such new
electrons coming up in conduction band area, the electrical resistance of
the device decreases. Thus the LDR or photoconductive transducer has
the resistance which is the inverse function of radiation intensity.
Here we must note that any radiation with wavelength greater than the
value obtained in above equation CANNOT PRODUCE any change in the
resistance of this device.
The band gap energy of Cadmium Sulphide is 2.42eV and for Cadmium
Selenide it is 1.74eV. Due to such large energy gaps, both the materials
have extremely high resistivity at room temperature.

Luminous Flux Variation Considering the source to be a point radiating in

all rections; consider a steradian (or even a simple sphere), take a small
element A on the steradian at a distance 'r' from the source. It comprises a
small part of the energy radiated (dEr). Now, go further to a distance 'R' (R
> r) from the source,
consider the same area element dA, it comprises a much smaller part of
energy radiated (dER). [dEr> dER] It varies inversely as the square of the
distance.
When light fall, when the photons fall on the material the
electrons in the valence band of the semiconductor material
are excited to the conduction band. These photos in the
incident light should have energy greater than the band gap of
the semiconductor material to make the electrons jump from
the
valence band to the conduction hand. Hence when light having
enough energy strikes on the device, more and more electrons
are excited to the conduction band which results in large number
of charge carriers. The result of this process is more and more
current starts flowing through the device when the circumis
closed and hence it is said that the resistance of the device has
been decreased. This is the most common working principle of
LDR.

This can be clearly seen from the graph. The

resistance of the LDR falls rapidly as increasing
intensity of incident light.
The converse is also true when intensity is reduced
or cut off
 ectral Response
Sp
Like the human eye the relative sensitivity
of a photoconductive cell is dependent on
the wavelength of the incident light each
photoconductor material type has its own
unique spectral response curve or plot of
the relative response of the photocell
versus wavelength of light.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
PHOTOCONDUCTIVE CELLS
Now when the device is kept in darkness, its resistance is called as dark
resistance. This resistance is typically of the
order of 1013 ohms. When light falls on it, its resistance decreases up to
several kilo ohms or even hundreds of ohms, depending on the intensity of
light, falling on it.
The spectral response characteristics of two commercial cells were compared
in our laboratory. And we found that there is almost no response to the
radiation of a wavelength which was shorter than 300nm. It was very
interesting to note that the Cadmium Sulphide cell has a peak response nearer or within the
green color of the spectrum within a range of 520nm. Thus it can be usednearer to the infra-red
region up to 750nm. It was found that the maximum response of Cadmium Sulphoselenide is in
the yellow-orange range at 615nm and also it can be used in the infrared region up to about
970nm.

SENSITIVITY
The sensitivity of a photo detector is the relationship
between the light falling on the device and the resulting
output signal. In the case of a photocell, one is dealing
with the relationship between the incident light and the
corresponding resistance of the cell.
The project consists of the following apparatus:
1.Light source (white, ultra-violet and laser)
2. LDR
3.Switching circuit
1. Relay
2. Buzzer
3. Batteries
4. Housing for the above

When the light beam falls on the LDR, it lowers the

resistance of the same and this activates the switching
transistor circuit. The transistor circuit (described later) is
connected to a relay which is in turn connected to an
external LED.
The relay is a special type of switch which is driven by its
magnetic coll. The relay has two positions. In de-energized
condition, position-1 will be active and in energized
condition, position-2 will be active.
When the circuit is powered, the relay goes to position-1
to which the LED is connected. Thus, the LED will start
glowing But when the light source is switched on, the
resistance of LDR falls and this drives the transistor
switching circuit and the relay gets energized. This puts the
relay switch in position-2, which cuts off the LED. In this
condition, whenever the light beam is intercepted by an
opaque object, the LDR stops receiving the incident light
and its resistance becomes high This de energizes the relay
and puts it to position-1 and the LED starts glowing.
 procedure
An empty cardboard box was used to mimic a house. An opening was
cut on the box to present a door. Behind the door, a light source is
placed and in the line of vision of the light source, an LDR is also placed
A circuit is connected to the LDR which switches on a relay when the
light beam is intercepted. A schematic diagram of the set-up is shown
below.

As seen in the above diagram, a light source is

positioned behind the door on the right-hand side
and an LDR is placed in the same line of vision at the
opposite end of the door.
observation
IN THE SET UP DESCRIBED, THE FOLLOWING
OBSERVATIONS WERE MADE BYVARYING THE
NATURE OF LIGHT SOURCE VARYING THE
TRANSLUCENCY OF THE INTERCEPTOR OBJECT
THUS, TO SUMMARIZE, WE CAN SAY THAT THE AS
LONG AS THE LIGHT SOURCE IS ON AND THE LDR IS
ILLUMINATED, THE LED WILL NOT LIGHT UP. BUT
THE MOMENT, THE LIGHT SOURCE IS INTERRUPTED,
THE LED WILL START GLOWING.
WE CAN IMAGINE THE INTERRUPTION OF THE LIGHT
BEAM TO BE CAUSED BY AN INTRUDER AND HENCE
THIS ARRANGEMENT CAN AUTOMATICALLY DETECT
ANY INTRUDER BY TURNING ON THE LED.
THE LED IS JUST ONE OF THE DEVICES WE HAVE
CONNECTED TO THE RELAY. AS SUCH WE CAN
CONNECT MANY DEVICES TO THE RELAY SUCH AS
SIRENS, FLASHING LIGHTS, BUZZER OR EVEN AN
AUTOMATIC DIALER TO THE NEAREST POLICE
STATION. THIS INTRUDER ALARM CAN BE EASILY SET
UP IN HOUSES, BANKS, SCHOOLS ETC.
THE SAME CIRCUIT CAN BE REWIRED TO REVERSE
THE EFFECT OF LIGHT, VIZ.
WE CAN MAKE THE LED GLOW WHENEVER, LIGHT IS
PRESENT AND INTERESTINGLY THIS SET UP CAN BE
USED IN OTHER PLACES AS REQUIRED.
 Conclusion
Based on the observation
above, it can be concluded
that the LDR based
electronic switch can be
successfully deployed for
the following
applications:
1.Intruder detection/
burglar's alarm for home
uses1.1. Anti-theft alarm for
Banks and offices.
2.
2. People Counter at
Auditoriums
3. Vehicle counter at traffic
3.
check posts.
4. Automatic Street Lights
4.
5. Day & night sensor
5.
Precaution’s
The project uses certain devices that can be harmful
to humans and animals if proper caution and care
are not observed:

1. Laser diode: Although a low-intensity laser

was used, it can be harmful if aimed
accidentally at the eyes or if the reflected
beam is seen directly.

1. Ultraviolet LED: Prolonged

exposure to UV light should be
avoided as it can damage skin
and eyes.

1. Buzzer: Emits high-frequency sounds

that can damage ears if heard for
prolonged periods.

1. LDR: Should be disposed of properly if the

project is dismantled, as it contains
harmful chemicals.
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