UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE, ABEOKUTA,DEPARTMENT OF

MATHEMATICS

MTS 101-20011/2012 First Semester Lecture note;

COURSE TITLE:Algebra

TOPIC:COMPLEX ANALYSIS

Complex Numbers

In order to solve equations such as

x2 + 1 = 0

or
x2 + 2x + 8 = 0

which have no root within the system of real numbers,the number system
was extended further to the larger system of complex numbers.

By definition, a complex number is any number x that can be expressed in

the form x = a + ib where a and b are real and i2 = −1.The symbol C is used

to denote the system of complex numbers. a is referred to as the real part

and b the imaginary part of a + ib. Note that the complex numbers include

all real numbers. The real numbers can be regarded as complex numbers for

which b is zero.

In C, the solution of the equation

x2 + 1 = 0
 √
is then x = ± −1 i.e x = ±i

Algebra of complex Numbers

Let x = a + ib and y = c + id be two complex numbers:

Equality of complex numbers: x and y are equal if their real and imagi-

nary parts are equal i.e a = c and b = d

Addition and subtraction of two complex numbers:

The sum of x and y is defined as a complex number z = x+y = a+ib+c+id =

a + c + i(b + d)
Also,

w = x − y = a + ib − (c + id) = a − c + i(b − d)
Multiplication:

x × y = (a + ib) × (c + id) = ac + i2 bd + ibc + iad

= ac − db + i(bc + ad)
Division:
x a+ib (a+ib)(c−id)
y
= c+id
= c+id)(c−id)

(ac + bd) + (bc − ad)i

=
c2 + d2
ac + bd bc − ad
= + 2 i
c2 + d2 c + d2
Conjugate complex number:

x = a − ib is called the conjugate of x.

we have

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 x + x = 2a

x − x = 2ib

xx = a2 + b2

Example: Express in the form a + ib

1. (2 + 4i) + (5 − 2i) = 7 + 2i

2. (1 − 8i) − (7 + 2i) = (1 − 7) + (−8 − 2)i = −6 − 10i

2+3i 2+3i 3−2i

3. 3+2i
= 3+2i
× 3−2i

6+6 9−4
= + i
9+4 9+4
12 5
+ i
13 13
1 1 1−3i 1 3
4. (1 + 3i)−1 = 1+3i
= 1+3i
× 1−3i
= 10
− 10
i

5. ( 5(1+i)
1+3i
)2 = ( 5+5i )( 5+5i ) = 3 − 4i
1+3i 1+3i

2+3i 2 2i−3+2(4i+5)
6. i(4−5i
+ i
= −4+5i
22 75
= 41
− 41
i

Note:

i4 = i × i2 = −i

3
 i4 = 1

i5 = i, i6 = −1, i7 = −i

and so on.

Example:
Find the solutions of the equation 4x2 + 5x + 2 = 0 in the form α + iβ.

Solution:
√
−5± −7
x= 8

√
5 7
=− +i
8 8
or
√
5 7
− −i
8 8
Example:

Factorize a2 + 3b2 as a product of two complex numbers.

Solution:
√
a2 + 3b2 = a2 + (b 3)2
√ √
= (a + ib 3)(a − ib 3)

The Argand Diagram

A complex number of the form z = x+iy is specified by the two real numbers

x and y.The complex number z may then be made to correspond to a point

P with ordered pair of values (x, y) as the co-ordinates of the point P on the

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plane.
r is known as modulus of the complex number z and is written as |z| or modz
√
r = |z| = |x + iy| = x2 + y 2

zz = (x + iy)(x − iy) = x2 + y 2 = |z|2

The diagram which represents complex numbers is known as Argand diagram

or Argand plane or complex plane.

The angle α between the line OP from the origin to the number and the
x-axis is called the argument or amplitudes of the number z.

From the diagram,

x = rcosα, y = rsinα
y
x2 + y 2 = r 2 ,
= tanα
x
y
α = argz = tan−1
x
Since on the circle, α + 2Π for any integer n,represent the same angle, it
follows that the argument of a complex number is not unique such that

−Π < Arg(z) ≤ Π.

The complex number z can therefore be written as z = x + iy = rcosα +

irsinα = r(cosα + isinα), −Π < α < Π.

which is called the modulus-argument form or polar form or trigom=nometric

form of the complex number z.

Let z1 = r1 (cosθ1 + isinθ1 ) and Z2 = r2 (cosθ2 + isinθ2 ) be two complex

numbers. Then,

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z1 z2 = r1 r2 (cosθ1 + isinθ1 )(cosθ2 + isinθ2 )

= r1 r2 [(cosθ1 cosθ2 − sinθ1 sinθ2 ) + i(sinθ1 cosθ2 + cosθ1 sinθ2 )]

= r1 r2 [cos(θ1 + θ2 ) + isin(θ1 + θ2 )] (∗)

Therefore

|z1 z2 | = r1 r2 = |z1 ||z2 |

and

arg(z1 z2 ) = θ1 θ2 = argz1 + argz2

Thus when complex numbers are multiplied,their moduli are multiplied and
their arguments are added.Also,

z1 r1 (cosθ1 + isinθ1
=
z2 r2 (cosθ2 + isinθ2 )
r1
[cos(θ1 − θ2 ) + isin(θ1 − θ2 )]
r2
z1 r1 |z1 |
| |= =
z2 r2 |z2 |
z1
arg( ) = θ1 − θ2 = argz1 − argz2
z2
Example: Find the moduli and the arguments of the following complex
numbers.

1. 7i − 2

Solution:

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 √ √
|7i − 2| = 7 2 + 22 = 53 = 7.28
7
arg(7i − 2) = tan−1 ( −2 ) = 105.9o

2. (7i − 2)(3 + 4i)

Solution:

|(7i − 2)(3 + 4i)| = |13i − 34|

√ √
= 342 + 132 = 1325 = 36.40

arg((7i − 2)(3 + 4i) = arg(13i − 34) = tan−1 ( −13

34
) = 159.1o

7i−2
3. 3+4i

Answer: 1.456, 52.8o

4. ( 7i−2
3+4i
)2

Answer: 2, 12, 105.6o

Example: Describe the locus of a complex number z which satisfies |z −2| =

3|z + 2i|.
Solution:

Put z = x + iy. Then

|z − 2|2 = 9|z + 2i|2

|(x − 2) + iy|2 = 9|x + i(y + 2)|2

(x − 2)2 + y 2 = 9[x2 + (y + 2)2 ]

8x2 + 8y 2 + 4x + 36y + 32 = 0
x2 + y 2 + 12 x + 29 y + 4 = 0

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 2
(x + 14 )2 + (y + 94 )2 = 4 + ( 14 ) + ( 49 )2 = 18
16
√
Locus is a circle,with center (− 41 , − 94 ) and radius 3
4
2

De Moivre’s Theorem

In general, if there are n complex numbers z1 , z2 , ..., zn with moduli r1 , r2 , ...rn

and arguments θ1 , θ2 , ..., θn respectively, repeated application of equation (*)

yields

z1 .z2 ...zn = r1 ...rn [cos(θ1 + θ2 + ... + θn ) + isin(θ1 + θ2 + ... + θn )]

In particular if
z1 = z2 = ... = zn = z (say)

r1 = r2 = ... = rn = r (say)

and
θ1 = θ2 = ... = θn = θ (say)

then we have
z n = rn (cosnθ + isinnθ)

i.e

z n = [r(cosθ + isinθ)]n

= rn (cosnθ + isinnθ)

|z n | = |z|n , arg(z n ) = narg(z)

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In particular,if r = 1 we get Demoivre’s theorem

(cosθ + isinθ)n = cosnθ + isinθ

for any positive integer n.

This result is also valid when n is any negative integer.Suppose n is a negative

integer, say −m where m is a positive integer.Then

1 1
(cosθ + isinθ)−m = ( )m =
cosθ + isinθ (cosθ + isinθ)m

(cosmθ + isinmθ)−1 = cosmθ − isinmθ

= cos(−m)θ + isin(−m)θ

which shows that Demoivre’s theorem is valid when n is any negative integer.
Example: Express cos3θ and sin3θ in terms of powers of cosθ and sinθ

respectively.

Solution:
By Demoivre’s theorem we have

cos3θ + isin3θ = (cosθ + isinθ)3

= cos3 θ + 3cos2 θ(isinθ) + 3cosθ(isinθ)2 + (isinθ)3

= cos3 θ − 3sin2 θcosθ + i(3cos2 θsinθ − sin3 θ)

The real part of this expression then gives

cos3θ = cos3 θ − 3cosθsin2 θ

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But
sin2 θ = 1 − cos2 θ

Therefore

cos3θ = cos3 θ − 3cosθ(1 − cos2 θ)

= cos3 θ − 3cosθ + 3cos3 θ

4cos3 θ − 3cosθ

and the imaginary part gives

sin3θ = 3cos62θsinθ − sin3 θ

= 3sinθ(1 − sin2 θ) − sin3 θ

= 3sinθ − 3sin3 θ − sin3 θ

= 3sinθ − 4sin3 θ

Example: Show that if z = cosθ + isinθ and m is a positive integer then

1
zm + zm
= 2cosmθ
Solution:

z = cosθ + isinθ

z m = (cosθ + isinθ)m = cosmθ + isinmθ (Demoivre0 stheorem)

z −m = cosmθ − isinmθ

z m + z −m = 2cosmθ

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Example:

1 1 1 1 1 1
(z + )5 = z 5 + 5z 4 . + 10z 3 . 2 + 10z 2 . 3 + 5z. 4 + 5
z z z z z z
10 5 1
= z 5 + 5z 3 + 10z + + 3+ 5
z z z
1 1 1
= (z + 5 ) + 5(z 3 + 3 ) + 10(z + )
z z z
= 2cos5θ + 2 × 5cos3θ + 2 × 10cosθ

= 2cos5θ + 10cos3θ + 20cosθ

√
Example: Evaluate z 8 where z = 1 + i 3
Solution:
√
Writing z in the modulus-argument form we have r = |z| = 4 = 2 and
√
argz = tan−1 3 = Π3
That is
Π Π
z = 2(cos + isin )
3 3
Therefore
Π Π
z 8 = 28 (cos + isin )8
3 3
By De Moivre’s Theorem this becomes

8Π 8Π
z 8 = 28 (cos + isin )
3 3

= 256(−0.5 + 0.866i)

= −128 + 221.703i

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Example: Factorize into linear factors 4z 2 + 4(1 + i)z + 1 + 2i
Solution:

1
4z 2 + 4(1 + i)z + 1 + 2i = 4(z 2 + (1 + i)z + (1 + 2i))
4
First solve
1
z 2 + (1 + i)z + (1 + 2i) = 0
4
1
a = 1, b = 1 + i, c = (1 + 2i)
4
q
−1 − i ± (1 + i)2 − (1 + 2i)
z=
2
√
−1 − i ± −1 1
= (−1, −i ± i)
2 2
1
=−
2
or
1
− −i
2
1 1
=⇒ 4z 2 + (4(1 + i)z + 1 + 2i = 4(z + )(z + + i)
2 2

Roots of Complex Numbers

Let z n = α, n a positive integer and α a complex number (**)

Theorem: (Fundamental theorem of algebra)

Every polynomial of degree at least one with arbitrary numerical coefficients

has at least one root which in the general sense is complex.

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Consider (**), we have

z n = α = r(cosθ + isinθ)

so that
z = ro (cosθo + isinθo ) provided α 6= 0

Then by De Moivre’s theorem

ron (cosnθo + isinnθo ) = r(cosθ + isinθ)

That is
√
z= n
α, ron = r, nθo = θ + 2kΠ

θ±2kΠ
Thus ro is the positive nth root of r and θo = n
has n values for k =

0, 1, ..., n − 1 all distinct,since increasing k by unity implies increasing the

2Π
argument by n
.

The n distinct solutions of (**) are given by

1 1 θ + 2kΠ θ + 2kΠ
(α) n = z = r n (cos + isin ) k = 0, 1, ..., n − 1 (∗ ∗ ∗)
n n
1
which are n distinct values of (α) n

Roots of Unity

A particular example of (**) is when α = 1, that is if z n = 1, n is a positive

integer. The roots of the equation are called nth roots of unity.Since

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1 = cos0 + isin0
then by (***),the nth roots of unity are given by

1 2kΠ 2kΠ
1 n = (cos + isin ), k = 0, 1, ..., n − 1
n n

Taking k = 1,the root of unity being a complex number and denoted by w

is given by
2Π 2Π
w = cos + isin
n n
Example: Find all the cube roots of −8

Solution:

√ q
3
−8 = 3
8(cosΠ + isinΠ)
√
3 Π + 2kΠ Π + 2kΠ
= 8(cos + isin
3 3
Therefore for
Π Π √
k = 0, z0 = 2(cos + isin ) = 1 + i 3
3 3
k = 1, z1 = 2(cosΠ + isinΠ) = −2
5Π 5Π √
k = 2, z2 = 2(cos + isin ) = 1 − i 3
3 3
√
Example: Solve z 4 + 4 3 = 4i

Solution:

√ √
z 4 + 4 3 = 4i =⇒ z 4 = 4i − 4 3
5Π 5π
=⇒ z 4 = 8(cos + isin )
6 6

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Hence using De Moivre’s theorem
5Π 5Π
1
6
+ 2kΠ + 2kπ
z = 8 4 {cos + isin 6 } k = 0, 1, 2, 3
4 4

The four roots are

1 5Π 5Π
k = 0 : z0 = 8 4 (cos + isin )
24 24
1 17Π 17Π
k = 1 : z1 = 8 4 (cos + isin
24 24
1 29Π 29Π
k = 2 : z2 = 8 4 (cos + isin ) = z0
24 24
1 41Π 41Π
k = 3 : z3 = 8 4 (cos + isin = z1
24 24

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