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Architecting a Modern
Data Warehouse for
Large Enterprises
Build Multi-cloud Modern Distributed Data
Warehouses with Azure and AWS
—
Anjani Kumar
Abhishek Mishra
Sanjeev Kumar
Architecting a Modern
Data Warehouse for Large
Enterprises
Build Multi-cloud Modern
Distributed Data Warehouses
with Azure and AWS
Anjani Kumar
Abhishek Mishra
Sanjeev Kumar
Architecting a Modern Data Warehouse for Large Enterprises: Build Multi-cloud
Modern Distributed Data Warehouses with Azure and AWS
Anjani Kumar Abhishek Mishra
Gurgaon, India Thane West, Maharashtra, India
Sanjeev Kumar
Gurgaon, Haryana, India
Chapter 1: Introduction�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1
Objective��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 2
Origin of Data Processing and Storage in the Computer Era�������������������������������������������������������� 2
Evolution of Databases and Codd Rules���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 3
Transitioning to the World of Data Warehouses���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 6
Data Warehouse Concepts������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 8
Data Sources (Data Format and Common Sources)�������������������������������������������������������������� 10
ETL (Extract, Transform, Load)����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 13
Data Mart������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 16
Data Modeling����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 18
Cubes and Reporting������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 27
OLAP�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 27
Metadata������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 35
Data Storage Techniques and Options���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 38
Evolution of Big Data Technologies and Data Lakes������������������������������������������������������������������� 40
Transition to the Modern Data Warehouse���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 40
Traditional Big Data Technologies������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 45
The Emergence of Data Lakes����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 46
Data Lake House and Data Mesh������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 50
Transformation and Optimization between New vs. Old (Evolution to Data Lake House)������ 50
A Wider Evolving Concept Called Data Mesh������������������������������������������������������������������������� 51
v
Table of Contents
vi
Table of Contents
vii
Table of Contents
viii
Table of Contents
ix
Table of Contents
Index��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 351
x
About the Authors
Anjani Kumar is the managing director and founder of
MultiCloud4u, a rapidly growing startup that helps clients
and partners seamlessly implement data-driven solutions
for their digital businesses. With a background in computer
science, Anjani began his career researching and developing
multi-lingual systems that were powered by distributed
processing and data synchronization across remote regions
of India. He later collaborated with companies such as
Mahindra Satyam, Microsoft, RBS, and Sapient to create data
warehouses and other data-based systems that could handle
high-volume data processing and transformation.
xi
About the Authors
xii
About the Technical Reviewer
Viachaslau Matsukevich is an industry expert with
over a decade of experience in various roles, including
DevOps, cloud, solutions architecture, tech leadership, and
infrastructure engineering.
As a cloud solutions architect, Viachaslau has delivered
20+ DevOps projects for a number of Fortune 500 and
Global 2000 enterprises. He holds certifications from
Microsoft, Google, and the Linux Foundation, including
Solutions Architect Expert, Professional Cloud Architect, and
Kubernetes Administrator.
Viachaslau authors technology articles about cloud-native technologies and
Kubernetes, for platforms such as Red Hat Enable Architect, SD Times, Hackernoon,
and Dzone.
In addition to his technical expertise, Viachaslau serves as a technical reviewer for
technology books, ensuring the quality and accuracy of the latest publications.
He has also made significant contributions as an industry expert and judge
for esteemed awards programs, including SIIA CODiE Awards and Globee Awards
(including IT World Awards, Golden Bridge Awards, Disruptor Company Awards, and
American Best in Business Awards). Viachaslau has also lent his expertise as a judge in
over 20 hackathons.
Viachaslau is also the author of online courses covering a wide array of topics related
to cloud, DevOps and Kubernetes tools.
Follow Viachaslau on LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/in/viachaslau-
matsukevich/
xiii
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Apress for giving us the opportunity to work on this book. Also,
thanks to the technical reviewer and the editor and the entire Apress team for supporting
us on this journey.
xv
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
In the early days of computing, businesses struggled to keep up with the flood of data.
They had few options for storing and analyzing data, hindering their ability to make
informed decisions. As technology improved, businesses recognized the value of data
and needed a way to make sense of it. This led to the birth of data warehousing, coined
by Bill Inmon in the 1980s. Inmon’s approach was focused on structured, relational
data for reporting and analysis. Early data warehouses were basic but set the stage
for more advanced solutions as businesses gained access to more data. Today, new
technologies like Big Data and data lakes have emerged to help deal with the increasing
volume and complexity of data. The data lakehouse combines the best of data lakes and
warehouses for real-time processing of both structured and unstructured data, allowing
for advanced analytics and machine learning. While the different chapters of this book
cover all aspects of modern data warehousing, this chapter specifically focuses on the
transformation of data warehousing techniques from past to present to future, and how
it impacts building a modern data warehouse.
In this chapter we will explore the following:
1
© Anjani Kumar, Abhishek Mishra, and Sanjeev Kumar 2024
A. Kumar et al., Architecting a Modern Data Warehouse for Large Enterprises,
https://doi.org/10.1007/979-8-8688-0029-0_1
Chapter 1 Introduction
Objective
This chapter provides an overview of data warehouses and familiarizes the readers with
the terminologies and concepts of data warehouses. The chapter further focuses on the
transformation of data warehousing techniques from past to present to future, and how
it impacts building a modern data warehouse.
After studying this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
Whether you’re starting a data warehouse team or just looking to expand your
knowledge, this guide is the perfect place to start. It will provide you with a background
on the topics covered in detail in further chapters, allowing you to better understand the
nuances of data warehousing and become an expert in the field.
2
Chapter 1 Introduction
In the 1950s and ’60s, the development of smaller and faster transistors led to the
creation of smaller and more efficient computers. The introduction of magnetic tape and
magnetic disks in the late 1950s allowed for the storage of large amounts of data, which
could be accessed much more quickly than with punched cards or paper tape.
In the 1970s, the development of integrated circuits (ICs) made it possible to create
even smaller and more powerful computers. This led to the development of personal
computers in the 1980s, which were affordable and accessible to a wide range of users.
Today, data processing and storage are essential to nearly every aspect of modern
life, from scientific research to business and commerce to entertainment. The rapid
growth of the modern storage solution powered by SSD and flash memory and by
internet and cloud computing has made it possible to store and access vast amounts of
data from almost anywhere in the world.
In conclusion, the origin of data processing and storage can be traced back to the
early 20th century, but it wasn’t until the development of electronic computers in the
mid-20th century that these processes became truly revolutionary. From massive room-
sized machines to powerful personal computers, data processing and storage have come
a long way and are now essential to almost every aspect of modern life.
3
Chapter 1 Introduction
4
Chapter 1 Introduction
5
Chapter 1 Introduction
Traditional tabular systems based on Codd rules were relevant, but with the rise
of the internet and e-commerce, there was a huge increase in the volume and
variety of data being generated. To handle this data, new NoSQL databases were
developed, which are more flexible and scalable, especially for unstructured data.
In building a universally accepted data warehouse, it’s important to consider the
strengths and weaknesses of both traditional and NoSQL databases and follow
best practices, such as data quality, data modeling, data governance, and security
measures. In the upcoming section of this chapter, we will explore this transition
in a step-by-step manner while giving special attention to the areas that remain
relevant for creating a strong and widely accepted modern data warehouse.
6
Chapter 1 Introduction
Data warehouses also use specialized tools for querying and reporting, such as
online analytical processing (OLAP), which allows users to analyze data across multiple
dimensions, and data mining, which uses statistical and machine learning techniques to
identify patterns and relationships in the data.
During this pivotal transition in the world of data management, numerous scientists
and experts made significant contributions to the field. Notable among them are
Bill Inmon, revered as the originator of the data warehouse concept, which focuses
on a single source of truth for reporting and analysis; Ralph Kimball, a renowned
data warehousing expert who introduced dimensional modeling, which emphasizes
optimized data modeling for reporting, star schemas, and fact tables; and Dan Linstedt,
who invented the data vault modeling approach, which combines elements of Inmon
and Kimball’s methodologies and is tailored for handling substantial data volumes
and historical reporting. In addition, Claudia Imhoff, a business intelligence and data
warehousing expert, founded the Boulder BI Brain Trust, offering thought leadership;
Barry Devlin pioneered the business data warehouse concept, which highlights business
metadata’s importance and aligns data warehousing with business objectives; and, lastly,
Jim Gray, a computer scientist and database researcher, who contributed significantly by
introducing the data cube, a multidimensional database structure for enhanced analysis
and reporting. In conclusion, these luminaries represent just a fraction of the visionary
minds that shaped modern data warehousing, empowering businesses to harness data
for informed decision-making in a dynamic market landscape.
7
Chapter 1 Introduction
8
Chapter 1 Introduction
There are several common concepts in data warehouses that are essential to
understanding their architecture. Here are some of the most important concepts:
• Data Modeling: In the field of data warehousing, there are two main
approaches to modeling data: tabular modeling and dimensional
modeling. Tabular modeling is a relational approach to data
modeling, which means it organizes data into tables with rows and
columns. Dimensional modeling involves organizing data around
dimensions (such as time, product, or location) and measures (such
as sales revenue or customer count) and using a star or snowflake
schema to represent the data.
9
Chapter 1 Introduction
There are various types and formats of data sources that can be used in a data
warehouse. Here are some examples:
10
Chapter 1 Introduction
• Flat files: Data can also be sourced from flat files, such as CSV files,
Parquet, Excel, or any other formatted text files. These files typically
have a delimited format with columns and rows.
• APIs: APIs can also be used as a data source, providing access to data
from third-party applications or web services.
Format of the data coming from multiple sources can also vary depending on the type
of data. For example, data can be structured or unstructured, semi-structured, such as
JSON or XML. The data format needs to be considered when designing the data warehouse
schema and the ETL processes. It is important to ensure that the data is properly
transformed and loaded into the data warehouse in a format that is usable for analysis.
Data can flow to the data warehouse through different systems, some of the most
used of which include the following:
11
Chapter 1 Introduction
One effective approach for documenting data-related artifacts, such as data sources
and data flows, is using data dictionaries and data catalogs. These tools can capture
relevant information about data elements, including their structure and meaning, as well
as provide more comprehensive details about data sources, flows, lineage, and ownership.
By leveraging these tools, implementation teams and data operations teams can gain a
better understanding of this information, leading to improved data quality, consistency,
and collaboration across various teams and departments within an organization.
12
Chapter 1 Introduction
• Extract: The first step in the ETL process is to extract the data from
the source systems. This can be done using various methods, such as
APIs, file transfers, or direct database connections.
• Load: After the data has been transformed, it is loaded into the target
system, such as a data warehouse. This can be done using various
methods, such as bulk inserts, incremental updates, or real-time
streaming.
The ETL process can be complex and time-consuming, particularly for large datasets
or complex data models. However, modern ETL tools and technologies, such as cloud-
based data integration platforms, have made the process more efficient and scalable.
13
Chapter 1 Introduction
There are many ETL (extract, transform, load) software tools available, both
commercial and open source. Here are some examples:
14
Chapter 1 Introduction
These are just a few examples of the many ETL tools available for data integration and
transformation. The choice of ETL tool depends on the specific needs and requirements of
the organization, as well as the available resources and budget.
• In ELT, data is first extracted from source systems and loaded into
the target system, and then transformed within the target system.
This means that the transformation step takes place within the target
system, using its processing power and capabilities to transform
the data.
15
Chapter 1 Introduction
Data Mart
A data mart is a subset of a larger data warehouse and is designed to serve the needs of a
particular business unit or department. Data marts are used to provide targeted, specific
information to end users, allowing them to make better, data-driven decisions.
A data mart is typically designed to store data that is relevant to a specific business
area or function, such as sales, marketing, or finance. Data marts can be created using
data from the larger data warehouse, or they can be created as standalone systems that
are populated with data from various sources.
• Data sources: The data sources for a data mart can come from
various systems and applications, such as transactional systems,
operational databases, or other data warehouses.
• ETL process: The ETL process is used to extract data from the source
systems, transform it to meet the needs of the data mart, and load it
into the data mart.
16
Chapter 1 Introduction
17
Chapter 1 Introduction
Data Modeling
In the field of data warehousing, there are two main approaches to modeling data:
tabular modeling and dimensional modeling. Both approaches have their strengths
and weaknesses, and choosing the right one for your specific needs is crucial to building
an effective data warehouse.
Tabular Modeling
Tabular modeling is a relational approach to data modeling, which means it organizes
data into tables with rows and columns. This approach is well suited to handling large
volumes of transactional data and is often used in OLTP (online transaction processing)
systems. In a tabular model, data is organized into a normalized schema, where each
fact is stored in a separate table, and the relationships between the tables are established
through primary and foreign keys.
The advantages of tabular modeling include its simplicity, ease of use, and flexibility.
Because data is organized into a normalized schema, it is easier to add or modify data
fields, and it supports complex queries and reporting. However, tabular models can
become more complex to query and maintain as the number of tables and relationships
increases, and it can be slower to process queries on large datasets.
Dimensional Modeling
Dimensional modeling is a more specialized approach that is optimized for OLAP (online
analytical processing) systems. Dimensional models organize data into a star or snowflake
schema, with a fact table at the center and several dimension tables surrounding it.
18
Chapter 1 Introduction
The fact table contains the measures (i.e., numerical data) that are being analyzed, while
the dimension tables provide the context (i.e., descriptive data) for the measures.
Also, dimensional modeling is optimized for query performance, making it well
suited for OLAP and especially reporting systems. Because data is organized into a star
or snowflake schema, it is easier to perform aggregations and analyses, and it is faster to
query large datasets. Dimensional models are also easier to understand and maintain,
making them more accessible to business users. However, dimensional models can
be less flexible and more complex to set up, and they may not perform as well with
transactional data.
In conclusion, both tabular and dimensional modeling have their places in data
warehousing, and the choice between them depends on the specific needs of your
organization. Tabular modeling is more suited to handling large volumes of transactional
data, while dimensional modeling is optimized for OLAP systems and faster query
performance.
In modern warehousing with data and delta lakes, tabular models structured
in facts and dimensions are still effective. There are multiple tools available to
balance between extreme normalization and extreme classification. While tabular
models provide a simpler structure and facilitate querying of data, dimensional
models make it more ready for analytics and reporting needs.
Dimensions
19
Chapter 1 Introduction
20
Chapter 1 Introduction
Junk dimensions are used when you have many low-cardinality flags
that are not related to any specific dimension, and it’s not worthwhile
to create a separate dimension for each flag.
The name junk comes from the fact that the dimension contains
seemingly unrelated attributes that don’t fit neatly into any other
dimension. Examples of attributes that can be included in a junk
dimension are as follows:
22
Chapter 1 Introduction
might add a new row with a new product version number and
a new price whenever the price changes. This way, you can
keep track of the historical prices of each product.
23
Chapter 1 Introduction
Facts
A fact is a value that describes a specific event or activity. Facts are typically numeric and
can be aggregated to provide insight into a dataset. For example, a sales dataset might
include facts such as the total sales revenue, the number of units sold, or the average
sales price.
24
Chapter 1 Introduction
Facts are associated with dimensions through the fact table, which contains the
measurements (Measures) for each event or activity. The fact table typically contains
foreign keys to link the fact table to the dimension tables.
Facts are the numerical data that we want to analyze. They are the values that we
measure and aggregate in order to gain insights into our data. In a sales data warehouse,
the facts could include sales revenue, quantity sold, and profit.
Each fact has a corresponding measure that defines the unit of measurement for
the fact. For example, revenue could be measured in dollars, while quantity sold
could be measured in units.
The fact table contains the numerical values, and it is linked to the dimension tables
through foreign key relationships. The fact table is typically wide and has fewer rows
than the dimension table.
Best practices for designing facts include the following:
• Normalize the data: Normalizing the data in the fact table can help
to reduce redundancy and improve performance.
Measures
Measures are the values that we use to aggregate and analyze the facts. Measures are the
result of applying mathematical functions to the numerical data in the fact table.
For example, measures could include average sales, total sales, and maximum sales.
Measures can be simple or complex, and they can be derived from one or more facts.
Measures can be pre-calculated and stored in the fact table, or they can be calculated on
the fly when the user queries the data warehouse.
25
Chapter 1 Introduction
26
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with . As will be seen, the latter condition will be satisfied for all
the electrons in the atoms of elements of low atomic weight and for a
greater part of the electrons contained in the atoms of the other
elements.
If the velocity of the electrons is not small compared with the
velocity of light, the constancy of the angular momentum no longer
involves a constant ratio between the energy and the frequency of
revolution. Without introducing new assumptions, we cannot therefore
in this case determine the configuration of the systems on the basis
of the considerations in Part I. Considerations given later suggest,
however, that the constancy of the angular momentum is the principal
condition. Applying this condition for velocities not small compared
with the velocity of light, we get the same expression for as that
given by (1), while the quantity in the expressions for and is
replaced by and in the expression for by
We see that the total energy of the new configuration is greater than
in the original. According to the condition of stability in §1 the system
is consequently stable for the displacement considered. In this
connexion, it may be remarked that in Part I. we have assumed that
the frequency of radiation emitted or absorbed by the systems cannot
be determined from the frequencies of vibration of the electrons, in
the plane of the orbits, calculated by help of the ordinary mechanics.
We have, on the contrary, assumed that the frequency of the radiation
is determined by the condition , where is the frequency,
Planck’s constant, and the difference in energy corresponding to
two different “stationary” states of the system.
In considering the stability of a ring of electrons rotating round a
nucleus for displacements of the electrons perpendicular to the plane
of the ring, imagine a configuration of the system in which the
electrons are displaced by , ,.... , respectively, and
suppose that the electrons, under influence of extraneous forces,
rotate in circular orbits parallel to the original plane with the same
radii and the same angular momentum round the axis of the system
as before. The kinetic energy is unaltered by the displacement, and
neglecting powers of the quantities , .... , higher than the
second, the increase of the potential energy of the system is given by
where is the radius of the ring, the charge on the nucleus, and
the number of electrons. According to the condition of stability in §1
the system is stable for the displacements considered, if the above
expression is positive for arbitrary values of ,.... . By a simple
calculation it can be shown that the latter condition is equivalent to
the condition
has its smallest value. This condition is identical with the condition of
stability for displacements of the electrons perpendicular to the plane
of the ring, deduced by help of ordinary mechanical
considerations[28].
A suggestive illustration is obtained by imagining that the
displacements considered are produced by the effect of extraneous
forces acting on the electrons in a direction parallel to the axis of the
ring. If the displacements are produced infinitely slowly the motion of
the electrons will at any moment be parallel to the original plane of
the ring, and the angular momentum of each of the electrons round
the centre of its orbit will obviously be equal to its original value; the
increase in the potential energy of the system will be equal to the
work done by the extraneous forces during the displacements. From
such considerations we are led to assume that the ordinary
mechanics can be used in calculating the vibrations of the electrons
perpendicular to the plane of the ring—contrary to the case of
vibrations in the plane of the ring. This assumption is supported by
the apparent agreement with observations obtained by Nicholson in
his theory of the origin of lines in the spectra of the solar corona and
stellar nebulæ (see Part I. pp. 6 & 23). In addition it will be shown
later that the assumption seems to be in agreement with experiments
on dispersion.
The following table gives the values of and from
to .
, , ; , ,
1 0 0 9 3.328 13.14
2 0.25 0.25 10 3.863 18.13
3 0.577 0.58 11 4.416 23.60
4 0.957 1.41 12 4.984 30.82
5 1.377 2.43 13 5.565 38.57
6 1.828 4.25 14 6.159 48.38
7 2.305 6.35 15 6.764 58.83
8 2.805 9.56 16 7.379 71.85
We see from the table that the number of electrons which can
rotate in a single ring round a nucleus of charge increases only
very slowly for increasing ; for the maximum value is
; for , ; for , . We see, further,
that a ring of electrons cannot rotate in a single ring round a
nucleus of charge ne unless .
In the above we have supposed that the electrons move under the
influence of a stationary radial force and that their orbits are exactly
circular. The first condition will not be satisfied if we consider a
system containing several rings of electrons which rotate with
different frequencies. If, however, the distance between the rings is
not small in comparison with their radii, and if the ratio between their
frequencies is not near to unity, the deviation from circular orbits may
be very small and the motion of the electrons to a close
approximation may be identical with that obtained on the assumption
that the charge on the electrons is uniformly distributed along the
circumference of the rings. If the ratio between the radii of the rings is
not near to unity, the conditions of stability obtained on this
assumption may also be considered as sufficient.
We have assumed in §1 that the electrons in the atoms rotate in
coaxial rings. The calculation indicates that only in the case of
systems containing a great number of electrons will the planes of the
rings separate; in the case of systems containing a moderate number
of electrons, all the rings will be situated in a single plane through the
nucleus. For the sake of brevity, we shall therefore here only consider
the latter case.
Let us consider an electric charge uniformly distributed along
the circumference of a circle of radius .
At a point distant from the plane of the ring, and at a distance
from the axis of the ring, the electrostatic potential is given by
where
The corresponding force perpendicular to the plane of the ring at a
distance from the centre of the ring and at a small distance from
its plane is given by
where
the summation is to be taken over all the rings except the one
considered.
If we know the distribution of the electrons in the different rings,
from the relation (1) on p. 28, we can, by help of the above,
determine , , .... The calculation can be made by successive
approximations, starting from a set of values for the ’s, and from
them calculating the ’s, and then redetermining the ’s by the
relation (1) which gives , and so on.
If all the electrons in one of the rings are displaced in the same
direction by help of extraneous forces, the displacement will produce
corresponding displacements of the electrons in the other rings; and
this interaction will be of influence on the stability. For example,
consider a system of concentric rings rotating in a plane round a
nucleus of charge , and let us assume that the electrons in the
different rings are displaced perpendicular to the plane by , ,....
respectively. With the above notation the increase in the
potential energy of the system is given by
The condition of stability is that this expression is positive for arbitrary
values of ,.... . This condition can be worked out simply in the
usual way. It is not of sensible influence compared with the condition
of stability for the displacements considered above, except in cases
where the system contains several rings of few electrons.
The following Table, containing the values of and for
every fifth degree from to , gives an estimate of
the order of magnitude of these functions:—
N=1. Hydrogen.
In Part I. we have considered the binding of an electron by a
positive nucleus of charge , and have shown that it is possible to
account for the Balmer spectrum of hydrogen on the assumption of
the existence of a series of stationary states in which the angular
momentum of the electron round the nucleus is equal to entire
multiples of the value , where is Planck’s constant. The formula
found for the frequencies of the spectrum was
N=2. Helium.
As shown in Part I., using the same assumptions as for hydrogen,
we must expect that during the binding of an electron by a nucleus of
charge a spectrum is emitted, expressed by
This spectrum includes the spectrum observed by Pickering in the
star Puppis and the spectra recently observed by Fowler in
experiments with vacuum tubes filled with a mixture of hydrogen and
helium. These spectra are generally ascribed to hydrogen.
For the permanent state of a positively charged helium atom, we
get
Since
we see that both electrons in a neutral helium atom are more firmly
bound than the electron in a hydrogen atom. Using the values on p.
38, we get
these values are of the same order of magnitude as the value
observed for the ionization potential in helium, assume[31],
and the value for the frequency of the ultra-violet absorption in helium
determined by experiments on dispersion [32].
N=3. Lithium.
In analogy with the cases of hydrogen and helium we must expect
that during the binding of an electron by a nucleus of charge ,a
spectrum is emitted, given by
N=4. Beryllium.
For reasons analogous to those considered for helium and lithium
we may for the formation of a neutral beryllium atom assume the
following stages:
although the configurations:
correspond to less values for the total energy than the configurations
and .
From analogy we get further for the configuration of a possible
negatively charged atom,
Comparing the outer ring of the atom considered with the ring of a
helium atom, we see that the presence of the inner ring of two
electrons in the beryllium atom markedly changes the properties of
the outer ring; partly because the outer electrons in the configuration
adopted for a neutral beryllium atom are more lightly bound than the
electrons in a helium atom, and partly because the quantity , which
for helium is equal to , for the outer ring in the configuration is
only equal to .
Since , the beryllium atom will
further have a definite, although very small affinity for free electrons.
§4. Atoms containing greater numbers of electrons.
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