Computer Networks

INTRODUCTION
The greatest breakthrough in technology and communication over the past 20
years has been the development and advancement of the computer network.
From emailing a friend, to online bill payment, to downloading data from the
internet, to e-commerce, networking has made our world much smaller and
forever changed the way we communicate.

COMPUTER NETWORK—A BRIEF OVERVIEW

A network can consist of a computer, a fax machine, a printer, a camera, a cell

phone, etc. A collection of interconnected computers is called a Computer
Network. Two computers or devices are said to be interconnected if they are
capable of sharing and exchanging information with each other by following a
protocol (set of rules).

CTM: A computer network is a collection of interconnected computers and other devices to share
data and other resources (hardware and software resources).
 THE NETWORK DIAGRAM

ADVANTAGES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

Networks have several advantages which are described below:

(a) Resource Sharing: The primary use of a network is to share among

users programs/ applications, data and peripheral devices connected to
the network, irrespective of their physical location.

(b) Improved Communication: A computer network enables fast,

reliable and secure communication between users. It saves time and offers
easy communication methods.
 (c) Reduced Communication Cost: Sharing resources also reduces
communication cost. Using public networks, we can send a large quantity
of data at a low cost.

(d) Reliability of Data: Reliability means backing up of data, i.e., data can
be copied and stored on multiple computers. In a network system, all
computers are connected to each 8.3 Computer Networks other.

(e) Central Storage of Data: Files can be stored on a central node (the
file server) that can be shared and made available to each and every user
in an organization.

EVOLUTION OF NETWORK
The network did not evolve in a single day; rather, it took decades to become
more powerful, efficient and reliable.

• ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency Network):

ARPANET, which was jointly designed and named by the Advanced Research
Projects Agency (ARPA) and US Department of Defence (DoD), was the first
network and came into existence in 1969.

• NSFNET (National Science Federation Network): In the mid-80’s,

another federal agency, NSFNET (National Science Federation Network), created a
new network which was more capable than ARPANET. Its main aim was to use
network only for academic research and not for any private business activity.

• Internet: In the 1990’s, internet, which is a network of networks, came into

existence. The internet has evolved from ARPANET. The computers are connected
through World Wide Web that comprises a large network and shares a common
communication protocol (Transmission Control Protocol-Internet Protocol,
TCP/IP).
HOW DOES INTERNET WORK
One of the greatest things about the internet is that nobody really owns it. It is a
global collection of networks, both big and small. These networks connect
together in many different ways to form the single entity that we know as
internet. In fact, the very name comes from this idea of interconnected networks.

ELEMENTARY TERMINOLOGY OF NETWORKS

1. Nodes (Workstations): The term node refers to computers that are

attached to a networkand are seeking to share resources.

2. Server: A computer that facilitates the sharing of data, software and

hardware resources on the networks.
 3. Network Interface Unit (NIU) (MAC Address): A network
interface unit is an interpreter that helps in establishing
communication between the server and the client.

4. IP Address: Every machine on a TCP bar/IP Network has a unique

identifying number called an IP Address.

5. Domain Name: It is a way to identify and locate the computers

connected to the internet. It must be unique.

COMPONENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION

A network comprises several components along with their functionalities that
contribute to its smooth functioning.

Sender: A device or a computer that sends the data.

Receiver: A device or a computer that receives the data.

Message: Message is the information to be communicated. It may be text,

image, audio or video.

Transmission Medium: A transmission medium is a physical path through

which the data flows from sender to receiver. A cable or wire or radio waves can
be the medium.  Protocol: A set of rules that governs data transmission. It
represents the communication methods which are to be followed by the sending
and receiving devices.

Protocol: A set of rules that governs data transmission. It represents the

communication methods which are to be followed by the sending and receiving
devices.
MODES OF DATA TRANSMISSION
(a) Analog or Broadband Transmission.
(b) Digital or Baseband Transmission.
(c) Parallel Communication.
(d) Serial Communication.
(e) Synchronous or Asynchronous Transmission.

DIFFERENT WAYS OF SENDING DATA ACROSS NETWORK

There are several ways of sending data from one node to another through
network. It can be in the form of calls, messages, etc.

NETWORK SWITCHING
A network is made up of several interconnected nodes. There can be a point-to-
point connection or star topology between pairs of devices, but both are not
relevant for a large network.

SWITCHING TECHNIQUES
The main goal of networking is the reliable exchange of data or information
among several interconnected nodes.

1. Circuit Switching
2. Packet Switching
3. Message Switching

CIRCUIT SWITCHING
Circuit switching provides end-to-end connection between two computers. It is
established usually in a telephone network where one person is making a call and
another is receiving a call.

PACKET SWITCHING
In packet switching technique, the entire data is divided into small fragments
called packets. Each packet is of a fixed size, usually 128 bytes or 512 bytes.
Packet switching is similar to post office operation.
MESSAGE SWITCHING
In message switching, the sender sends the data to a switching office first, which
is then stored in its buffer. It then checks the available link and, if it is free, the
data is relayed to another switching office. This process goes on until the data is
sent to the destination (receiver).

DATA COMMUNICATION TERMINOLOGIES

1. Data Transfer Rate: It is the amount of data transferred in one direction

over a link divided by the time taken to transfer it in bits per second (bps).
2. Bandwidth: The amount of data that can be passed along a communication
channel in a given period of time (1 second) is termed as bandwidth.

NETWORK DEVICES

1. Modem: A MODEM (Modulator DEModulator) is an electronic device that

enables a computer to transmit data over telephone lines.
2. RJ-45 Connector: RJ-45 is a standard type of connector for network
cables. The RJ-45 (Registered Jack) connectors are the plug-in devices used in
networking and telecommunications applications.
3. Ethernet Card: It is a hardware device that helps in the connection of
nodes within a network. Ethernet card is also known as a network card, network
adapter or NIC (network interface card).
4. Hub: It is multi-port and unintelligent network device which simply transfers
data fromone port of the network to another.
5. Switch: A switch (switching hub) is a network device which is used to
interconnect computers or devices on a network. It filters and forwards data
packets across a network.
6. Bridge: A bridge is a device that works on the physical layer as well as on
data link layer. Anetwork bridge connects multiple network segments at the data
link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model.
7. Gateway: A gateway is a device that connects dissimilar networks. In
internet, several networks are communicating with each other and each network
has a different configuration.
8. Router: A router is a networking device that forwards data packets from the
source machine to the destination machine by using the shortest path. Routers
are used at the network layer, which is the third layer of the OSI model.
10. Wi-Fi Card: A Wi-Fi card is either an internal or external Local Area
Network adapter with a built-in wireless radio and antenna. A Wi-Fi card is used in
a desktop computer that enables a user to establish an internet connection.

TYPES OF NETWORKS
On the basis of geographical spread, networks may be classified as:
1. PAN
2. LAN
3. MAN
4. WAN

Personal Area Network (PAN)

PANs are small networks used to establish communication between a computer
and otherhandheld devices in the proximity of up to 10 metres using wired USB
connectivity or wireless systems like Bluetooth or Infrared.

Local Area Network (LAN)

LAN is a privately owned computer network covering a small geographical area
(small physical area), like a home, office or a building such as a school. It can cover
an area spread over a few metres to a radius of a few kilometres.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

MAN is larger than a LAN and can cover a city and its surrounding areas. A MAN
usually interconnects a number of LANs and individual computers. It also shares
the computing resources among users.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
A WAN is a telecommunication network. This type of network spreads over a
large geographical area across countries and continents. WANs are generally used
to interconnect several other types of networks such as LANs, MANs, etc.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Topology is a way of connecting devices with each other either physically or
logically. Two or more devices make a link and two or more links form a topology.
It is basically a geometrical representation of how a network is laid out.

1.Bus Topology
Bus topology is a multipoint configuration, i.e., several devices are connected to a
main long cable which acts as a backbone. Nodes are connected by drop lines and
taps.

Advantages of Bus Topology

(a) Nodes can be connected or removed easily from bus network.
(b) It requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

(a) If there is a fault or break in the main cable, the entire network shuts down.
(b) Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
2.Star Topology
In star topology, each communicating device is connected to a central controller
called hub. (A hub is a hardware device used to connect several computers
together.) Unlike mesh topology, the devices in star topology send and receive
data indirectly; the data passes to and from the hub.

Advantages of Star Topology

(a) Fewer wires are required as compared to mesh topology which, thus, reduces
the number of input/output ports.
(b) Installation and maintenance of network is easy and takes less time.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

(a) Extra hardware is required for installation of central controller known as hub.
(b) All nodes of star topology are dependent on central hub and, therefore, any
problem in the hub makes the entire network shut down.

3.Tree Topology
In tree topology, all or some of the devices are connected to the central hub,
called an active hub, and some of the devices are connected to the secondary
hub, which may be an active hub or passive hub.

Advantages of Tree Topology

(a) The tree topology is useful in cases where a star or bus cannot be
implemented individually.
(e) Fault identification is easy.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

(a) As multiple segments are connected to a central bus, the network depends
heavily on the bus. Its failure affects the entire network.
(b) Owing to its size and complexity, maintenance is not easy and costs are high.
Also, configuration is difficult in comparison to other topologies.

COMMUNICATION MEDIA
Communication media is also known as transmission media through which data or
signal istransferred between two communicating devices, i.e., from one system to
another system,through wires or without wires. If the data is sent across network
through wires, it is called guided media and if the data is sent without wires, it is
called unguided media.

1. Twisted Pair Cable

A twisted pair cable is the oldest, simplest and the most common type of
conducted media. It is made of two plastic insulated copper wires which are
twisted together to form a single wire.

2. Coaxial Cable
A coaxial cable is generally called a coax wire. It consists of insulated copper wires
surrounded by a braided metal shield and covered in a plastic jacket.

3. Fibre Optic Cable

Fibre optic transmits light signals rather than electrical signals. It is the newest
form of guided media. Several glass fibres are bundled together and are encased
in an insulated covering.

UNGUIDED MEDIA OR WIRELESS NETWORKING TECHNOLOGIES

1. Microwave
Microwave signals are used to transmit data without the use of cable. It is a line-
of-sight transmission as signal travels in a straight line.

2. Radio Waves
Radio waves use radio frequencies which are allocated to private businesses for
direct voice communication.

4. Infrared
The type of transmission that uses infrared light to send data is known as infrared
transmission.The data is transmitted through air and can propagate in the open
space; however, it cannot penetrate the walls of the room.
NETWORK PROTOCOL
There are multiple protocols defined for computer networks, which are as
follows:
(a) TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
(b) IP (Internet Protocol)
(c) FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
(d) PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol)
(e) SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
(f) POP3 (Post Office Protocol)
(g) TELNET (Remote Login)

INTRODUCTION TO WEB SERVICES

Internet offers several important and extensively used features or services which
are described as follows:

# WWW (World Wide Web)

WWW is an information service that can be used for sending and receiving
information over the internet through interlinked hypertext documents.

# Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML)

HTML is a language that is used to create web pages which are then displayed by
web browsers.This language tells the browser how to display text, pictures and
links on the screen.

# Extensible Markup Language (XML)

Extensible Markup Language is a text-based Markup Language that allows the
user to create their own tags to store data in a structured format.

# Domain Names
To communicate over the internet, we can use IP addresses. But it is not possible
to remember the IP address of a particular website or computer every time.

# URL
URL stands for uniform resource locator that helps in locating a particular website
or a web page, for example, http://www.cbse.nic.in/academics.html is a URL for a
specific website.

#Website
A website is a collection of various web pages, images, videos, audios or other
kinds of digital assets that are hosted on one or several web servers.

# Web Browser
It is a software that helps in accessing web pages and, thus, is also called web
client. It helps the user to navigate through the World Wide Web and display web
pages.

# Web Server
A web server is a server that stores web pages and when a web client sends any
request to a server, the server responds to the request and displays the requested
web pages.

# Web Hosting
Web hosting is a service which is provided by companies to its clients to allow
them to construct their own websites which are accessible to the internet users
via World Wide Web.