Electronic Circuits:

Devices and Analysis

Engr. MFRM
Lesson 2: Diodes
and Applications
The Diode
• A diode is made from a small piece of
semiconductor material, usually silicon, in
which half is doped as a p region and half is
doped as an n region with a pn junction and
depletion region in between.

• A diode is a two-terminal electronic

component that conducts electricity
primarily in one direction.

• The p region is called the anode and is

connected to a conductive terminal.

• The n region is called the cathode and is

connected to a second conductive terminal.
Structure of a Diode

• When a p-type material and n-type material are brought together,

they form a so-called PN Junction
What is an N-Type Material
and P-Type Material?
• A semiconductor material that has been subjected to the
doping process is called an extrinsic material. When an
intrinsic material is doped (the addition of impurities) it will
become extrinsic.

• An intrinsic semiconductor contains only pure

semiconductor material with no added impurities.
What is an N-Type Material
and P-Type Material?
N Type Material
An extrinsic semiconductor material
formed by adding donor impurities
such as pentavalent (with five valence
electrons). Common pentavalent
elements are Antimony (Sb), Arsenic (As)
and phosphorus (P). If only few
impurities are added it is called lightly
doped.
What is an N-Type Material
and P-Type Material?
N Type Material
NOTE!:

For N type materials, the majority

carriers are electrons and the minority
carriers are the holes(absence of
electrons)
What is a N-Type Material and
P-Type Material?
P Type Material
Ideally, p-type materials have positive
carriers only, but practically there are
numbers of negative carriers. The majority
carriers for a p-type material are holes
(positive), minority carriers are electrons
(negative).
FORWARD BIAS, REVERSE BIAS & NO
BIAS
• No Bias
Under no-bias (no applied voltage)
conditions, any minority carriers (holes) in
the n-type material that find themselves
within the depletion region will pass directly
into the p-type material. The closer the
minority carrier is to the junction, the greater
the attraction for the layer of negative ions
and the less the opposition of the positive
ions in the depletion region of the ntype
material. In the absence of an applied bias
voltage, the net flow of charge in any one
direction for a semiconductor diode is zero.
FORWARD BIAS, REVERSE BIAS & NO
BIAS
• Forward Bias
The junction narrows, when the p-type is more
positive than the n-type. The p-type material is
connected to the positive terminal of the source
and the n-type material is connected to the
negative terminal of the source. When forward
biased, holes (majority carriers) at the p-type are
repelled by the positive supply and flow towards
the n-type crossing the narrowed junction, and
then are attracted to the negative supply. Electrons
at the n-type are repelled by the negative supply
and flow towards the p-type also crossing the
narrowed junction, and then are attracted to the
positive supply.
FORWARD BIAS, REVERSE BIAS & NO
BIAS
• Reverse Bias
The junction widens when the p-type material is
more negative than the n-type material. Hence,
the p-type material is connected to the negative
terminal of the source and the n-type material is
connected to the positive terminal of the source.
When reverse biased, holes at the p-type are
attracted to the negative supply and at the same
time, electrons at the n-type are attracted to the
positive supply. With these actions, the junction or
the depleted region is widen. The minority carriers
at p-type are electrons, and are repelled by the
negative supply towards the n-type. Minority
carriers at the n-type are holes, and are repelled
by the positive supply towards the p-type. Both
motions of minority carriers are called minority
currents or leakage current.
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF A DIODE

• Forward Bias
If you plot the results of the type of
measurements shown in Figure 2–9 on
a graph, you get the V-I characteristic
curve for a forward-biased diode, as
shown in Figure 2–10(a). The diode
forward voltage (VF) increases to the
right along the horizontal axis, and the
forward current (IF) increases upward
along the vertical axis.
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF A DIODE

• Reverse Bias
If you plot the results of reverse-bias
measurements on a graph, you get the
V-I characteristic curve for a reverse-
biased diode. A typical curve is shown
in Figure 2–11. The diode reverse
voltage (VR) increases to the left along
the horizontal axis, and the reverse
current (IR) increases downward along
the vertical axis.
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF A DIODE

• Complete V-I Characteristic Curve

Combine the curves for both forward bias

and reverse bias, and you have the
complete V-I characteristic curve for a
diode, as shown in Figure 2–12.
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF A DIODE

• What is the Zener Region?

There is a point where the application of

too negative a voltage will result in sharp
change in the characteristic as shown in
figure. The reverse bias potential that
results in this dramatic change in
characteristic is called the Zener Potential
denoted by Vz.
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF A DIODE

• What is the Zener Region?

NOTE!
• The Zener region of the semiconductor
diode described must be avoided if the
response of the system is not
completely altered by the sharp change
in characteristics in this reverse voltage
region.

• The maximum reverse bias potential

that can be applied before entering the
Zener region is called the Peak Inverse
Voltage or Peak Reverse Voltage.
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF A DIODE

• Temperature Effects on Diode

NOTE!
• In the forward-bias region the
characteristics of a silicon diode shift
to the left at a rate of 2.5 mV per
centigrade degree increase in
temperature.
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF A DIODE

• Temperature Effects on Diode

NOTE!
• In the reverse bias region the
reverse saturation current of a
Silicon diode doubles for every 10
degrees centigrade rise in
temperature.
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF A DIODE

• Temperature Effects on Diode

NOTE!
• The reverse breakdown voltage of
a semiconductor diode will increase
or decrease with temperature
depending on the Zener Potential.
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF DIODE

• Temperature Effects on Diode

It can be demonstrated through the use of solid-state Physics that the general
characteristics of a semiconductor diode can be defined by the following equation
using Shockley’s Equation.
CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF A DIODE

• Temperature Effects on Diode

EXAMPLE: At a temperature of 27 degrees centigrade, determine the voltage V T.
 DIODE APPLICATIONS

You have learned that a diode is a pn junction device. In this section, you will learn the
electrical symbol for a diode and how a diode can be modeled for circuit analysis using
any one of three levels of complexity. Also, diode packaging and terminal identification
are introduced.

DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

1. IDEAL DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
2. SIMPLIFIED EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
3. PIECEWISE LINEAR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
DIODE APPLICATIONS

1. IDEAL DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

In this model, the diode is assumed to have a zero-threshold voltage, VTH=0, and has
no resistance when forward biased. When reverse biased, it is assumed to be open-
circuited.
DIODE APPLICATIONS

1. IDEAL DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

The ideal model of a diode is the least
accurate approximation and can be
represented by a simple switch.
When the diode is forward-biased,
it ideally acts like a closed (on)
switch, as shown in Figure 2–15(a).
When the diode is reverse-biased,
it like an open switch
DIODE APPLICATIONS

2. SIMPLIFIED EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT/PRACTICAL DIODE MODEL

In this model, the diode is assumed to have a threshold voltage, VTH but has no
resistance when forward biased. When reverse biased, it is open-circuited
DIODE APPLICATIONS

2. PRACTICAL DIODE MODEL

The practical model includes the barrier
potential. When the diode is forward-
biased, it is equivalent to a closed switch
in series with a small equivalent voltage
source (VF) equal to the barrier potential
(0.7 V) with the positive side toward the
anode, as indicated in Figure 2–16(a).
This equivalent voltage source
represents the barrier potential that
must be exceeded by the bias voltage
before the diode will conduct and is not
an active source of voltage. When
conducting, a voltage drop of 0.7 V
appears across the diode.
DIODE APPLICATIONS

3. PIECEWISE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT/COMPLETE DIODE MODEL

In this model, the diode’s threshold voltage, VTH and forward resistance
are considered. When reverse biased, it is open-circuited.
DIODE APPLICATIONS

3. COMPLETE DIODE MODEL

The complete model of a diode is the most
accurate approximation and includes the
barrier potential, the small forward dynamic
resistance Rd and the large internal reverse
resistance rk. The reverse resistance is taken
into account because it provides a path for the
reverse current, which is included in this diode
model. When the diode is forward-biased, it
acts as a closed switch in series with the
equivalent barrier potential voltage (VB) and
the small forward dynamic resistance rd as
indicated in Figure 2–17(a). When the diode is
reverse-biased, it acts as an open switch in
parallel with the large internal reverse
resistance rR as shown in Figure 2–17(b). The
barrier potential does not affect reverse bias,
so it is not a factor.
DIODE APPLICATION
EXAMPLE:
(a.) Determine the forward voltage and forward current for the diode in Figure 2–18(a)
for each of the diode models. Also find the voltage across the limiting resistor in each
case. Assume r’d=10 ohms at the determined value of forward current.

(b.) Determine the reverse voltage and reverse current for the diode in Figure 2–18(b)
for each of the diode models. Also find the voltage across the limiting resistor in
each case. Assume IR = 1 micro amps.
DIODE APPLICATION
SOLUTION:
DIODE APPLICATION
SOLUTION: