HYDRAULICS MODULE 15/06/2015 E.

Chapter One:

Flow-through orifice and Mouthpieces

1. Introduction
An orifice is a small opening of any Cross section (Such as Circular, Triangular, rectangular etc.)
on the side or at bottom of a tank, through which a fluid is flowing. The top edge of the orifice is
always below the free surface (If the free surface is below the top edge of the orifice, becomes a
weir). A mouthpiece is an attachment in the form of a small tube or pipe fixed to the orifice (the
short length of pipe extension is usually 2 to 3 times the orifice diameter) and is used to increase
the amount of discharge.
 Orifices as well as mouthpieces are used to measure the discharge.
1.1. Classification of orifices
The Orifices are classified on the basis of their size, shape, nature of discharge and shape of
upstream edge. The following are the important classifications: -
1. According to size:
Small Orifice or Large orifice depending upon the size of Orifice and head of liquid from the
Centre of the Orifice. If the head of liquid from the Centre of the Orifice is more than five
times the depth of Orifice and the velocity does not vary appreciably from top to the bottom
edge of the orifice and is assumed to be uniform the Orifice is called Small Orifice. And if
the head of liquids is less than five times the depth of Orifice and the variation in the velocity
from the top to the bottom edge is considerable. it is known as Large Orifice.
2. According to shape
(i) Circular orifice (ii) Rectangular orifice (iii) Square orifice (iv) Triangular orifice.
3. According to shape of upstream edge
(i) Sharp-edged orifice (ii) Bell-mouthed orifice.
4. According to discharge conditions
i) Free discharging Orifices and ii) Drowned or Submerged Orifices depending upon the
nature
of discharge. The Sub-merged Orifices are further classified as a) Fully Sub-merged

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Orifices and b) Partially Sub-merged Orifices.

Note. An orifice or a mouthpiece is said to be discharging free when it discharges into
atmosphere. It is said to be submerged when it discharges into another liquid.
1.2. Flow through an orifice and hydraulic coefficients

Consider a tank is fitted with a circular orifice in one of its sides shown in the fig. 1.1. let H be
the head of the liquid above the orifice. The liquid flowing through the orifice forms a jet of
liquid whose area of cross-section is less than that of the orifice. The area of the jet of the fluid
goes of decreasing and at the section c-c. the area is minimum. This section is approximately at
the distance of half diameter of the orifices. At this section. The streamlines are straight and
parallel to each other and perpendicular to the plane of the orifice. This section is called Vena-
contracta. Beyond this section, the jet diverges and is attracted in the downward direction by the
gravity.

Figure 1-1 Tank with an orifice

Considering points 1 and 2 as shown in Fig. 1.1 and applying Bernoulli’s theorem, we have:

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Therefore, this is the theoretical velocity. Actual velocity is less than of this value.
1.2.1. Hydraulic coefficients
The hydraulic co-efficient (or orifice co-efficient) are enumerated and discussed below:
1. Co-efficient of contraction, 𝐶�𝑐�
2. Co-efficient of velocity, 𝐶�𝑣�
3. Co-efficient of discharge, 𝐶�𝑑�.
1.2.1.1. Co-efficient of Contraction (𝐶�𝑐�)
The ratio of the area of the jet at vena-contracta to the area of the orifice is known as Co-efficient
of contraction. It is denoted by 𝐶�𝑐�.
Let, 𝑎�𝑐�= Area of jet at vena contracta, and
a = Area of orifice.
𝑎𝑐
Then, 𝐶𝑐 = 1.1
𝑎
The value of 𝐶�𝑐� varies slightly with the available head of the liquid, size and shape of the
orifice; in practice it varies from 0.613 to 0.69 but the average value is taken as 0.64.

1.2.1.2. Co-efficient of Velocity (𝑪� 𝒗�)

The ratio of actual velocity (V) of the jet at vena-contracta to the theoretical velocity (𝑉�𝑡�ℎ) is
known as Co-efficient of velocity. It is denoted by 𝐶�𝑣� and mathematically, 𝐶�𝑣� is given as:
𝑉
������������������Cv� = =
Actual�velocity�of�jet�at�vena�contracta�(V)
Theoretical�velocity�(Vth)

1.2
[where, V = Actual velocity, and
H = Head under which the fluid flows out of the orifice

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The value of 𝐶�𝑣� varies from 0.95 to 0.99, depending upon the shape of orifice and the head of
liquid under which the flow takes place. For sharp-edged orifices the value of 𝐶�𝑣� is taken as
0.98.
1.2.1.3. Co-efficient of Discharge
The ratio of actual discharge (Q) through an orifice to the theoretical discharge, (𝑄�𝑡�ℎ) is known
as Co-efficient of discharge. It is denoted by 𝐶�𝑑�. Mathematically,
𝐶�𝑑� = Actual discharge (Q) / Theoretical discharge (𝑄�𝑡�ℎ )
Actual�discharge�(Q)� Actual�area� × �actual�velocity�
Cv� = =
Theoretical�discharge�(Qth�) Theoretical�area� × �theoretical�velocity

1.3
The value of 𝐶�𝑑� varies from 0.62 to 0.65 depending upon size and the shape of the orifice and
the head of liquid under which the flow takes place.
1.2.1.4. Co-efficient of Resistance (𝐶�𝑟�)
The ratio of loss of head (or loss of kinetic energy) in the orifice to the head of water (actual
kinetic energy) available at the exit of the orifice is known as Co-efficient of resistance. It is
denoted by 𝐶�𝑟�. Mathematically,
Loss�of�head�in�the�orifice�
Cr� = 1.4
Head�of�water
The loss of head in the orifice takes place, because the walls of the orifice offer some resistance
to the liquid, as it comes out. While solving numerical problems 𝐶�𝑟� is generally neglected.
1.2.2. EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF HYDRAULIC CO-EFFICIENTS
1.2.2.1. Determination of Co-efficient of Velocity (𝐶�𝑣�).
A tank containing water at a constant level, maintained by a constant supply. Let the water flow
out of the tank through an orifice, fitted in one side of the tank. Let the section C–C represents
the point of vena contracta. Consider a particle of water in the jet at P.

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Figure 1-2 value of Cd

Let, x = Horizontal distance travelled by the particle in time ‘t’,

y = Vertical distance between C-C and P,
V = Actual velocity of the jet at vena-contracta, and
H = Constant water head.
Then, horizontal distance, x = V × t ...(i)

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1.2.2.2. Determination of Co-efficient of Discharge (𝐶�𝑑�)

The water flowing through the orifice under the constant head H is collected in a measuring tank
for a known time ‘t’. The rise of water level in the measuring tank is noted down. Then actual
discharge through the orifice,

1.5
1.2.2.3. Determination of Co-efficient of Contraction (Cc)
The co-efficient of contraction (𝐶�𝑐) can be found from the following relation:

1.3. Discharge through a large rectangular orifice

If the head of liquid is less than 5 times the depth of the orifice, the orifice is called large orifice.
In this case of small orifice, the velocity in the entire cross-section of the jet is considered to be
constant and discharge can be calculated by 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ √2𝑔ℎ. But in case of large orifice, the

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velocity is not constant over the entire cross-section of the jet and hence Q cannot be calculated
by 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ √2𝑔ℎ.
Consider a large rectangular orifice in one side of the tank discharging water freely into the
atmosphere, as shown in Fig.1-3 Let, 𝐻�1 = Height of liquid above the top of the orifice,
𝐻�1 = Height of liquid above the bottom of the orifice,
b = Breadth of the orifice, and 𝐶�𝑑� = Co-efficient of discharge.
Consider an elementary horizontal strip of depth ‘dh’ at depth of ‘h’ below the water level as
shown in Fig.

Figure 1-3 large rectangular orifice

Through the

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1.4. Discharge through fully and partially submerged orifice

1.4.1. Discharge through fully submerged orifice
If an orifice has its whole of the outlet side submerged under liquid so that it discharges a jet of
liquid into the liquid of the same kind then it is known as fully submerged (or drowned) orifice.
Consider a fully submerged orifice as shown in (Fig. 1-4)
Let, 𝐻�1 = Height of water (on the upstream side) above the top of the orifice,
�������𝐻�2 = Height of water (on the upstream side) above the bottom of the orifice,
H = Difference between the two water levels on either side of the orifice,
b = Width of orifice, and
������𝐶�𝑑� = Co-efficient of discharge.
∴ Area of the orifice = b (𝐻�2– 𝐻�1)

Figure 1-4 Fully sub-merged orifice

We know that theoretical velocity of water through the orifice = √2gH

∴ Actual velocity of water = 𝐶�𝑣� √2gH

Since in this case co-efficient of contraction is 1, therefore, taking 𝐶�𝑑� equal to 𝐶�𝑣�’ we find that
the actual velocity of water = 𝐶�𝑑� × √2gH�� ∴ Discharge through the orifice,
Q = Area of orifice × actual velocity
= b (𝐻�2 − 𝐻�1) × 𝐶�𝑑� √2gH

= 𝐶�𝑑� · b (𝐻�2 − 𝐻�1) × √2gH

1.6
Sometimes, depth of submerged orifice (d) is given instead of 𝐻�1 and 𝐻�2. In such cases, the

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discharge,
Q = 𝐶�𝑑� · b · d √2gH����������������������������
1.7
1.4.2. Discharge Through Partially Submerged Orifice
If the outlet side of an orifice is only partly submerged (or drowned) under liquid then it is
known as partially submerged (or drowned) orifice (Fig 1-5.). The upper portion behaves as an
orifice discharging free, while the lower portion behaves as a submerged orifice. The total
discharge is determined by computing separately the discharges through the free and the
submerged portions and then adding together the two discharges thus computed.

Figure 1-5 Partially sub-merged orifice

Discharge through the submerged portion,

and, the discharge through the free portion,

Total discharge Q = Q1 + Q2
2 3/2 3/2
Q = Cd * b (H2 – H1) * √2𝑔𝐻 + ∗ 𝐶𝑑 ∗ 𝑏√2𝑔�[𝐻2 − 𝐻1 ] 1.8
3

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1.5. Time Required for Emptying a Tank Through an Orifice at Its Bottom
Consider a tank, of uniform cross-sectional area, containing some liquid, and having an orifice at
its bottom as shown in Fig.1-6

.
Figure 1-6 Emptying a Tank Through an Orifice at Its Bottom

Let, A = Cross-sectional area of the tank,

a = Area of the orifice,
H1 = Initial height of liquid,
H2 = Final height of liquid
T = Time in seconds, required to bring the level from H1 to H2
Let at some instant the height of the liquid be h above the orifice and let the liquid surface fall by
an amount dh after a small interval for time dt.
Also, theoretical velocity through the orifice, v = √2gH

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1.5.1. Time Required for Emptying A Hemispherical Tank

Consider a hemispherical tank containing some liquid and fitted with an orifice at its
bottom as shown in the Fig.1-7
Let, R = Radius of the tank,
a = Area of the orifice,
𝐻�1 = Initial height of the liquid,
𝐻�2= Final height of the liquid, and
T = Time in seconds for the liquid to fall from height 𝐻�1 to 𝐻�2.

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Figure 1-7 Emptying A Hemispherical Tank

Let at any instant of time, the height of liquid over the orifice is h and x be the radius of
the liquid surface. Then, area of liquid surface, A = π𝑥�2
Theoretical velocity of liquid = √2𝑔ℎ
Let the height of liquid decrease by dh in a small interval of time dT. Then,
Volume of liquid leaving the tank in time dT
= A. dh = p𝑥�2 × dh ................................................................(i)
Also, volume of liquid flowing through the orifice in time dT
= Cd × area of orifice × velocity × dT
= Cd. a. √2𝑔𝐻× dT ……………………………………………………. (ii)
Equating (i) and (ii), we get:
𝜋�𝑥�2 (–dh) = Cd. a √2𝑔𝐻× dT
The negative sign accounts for the decrease in head on the orifice with increase in time
interval.
dT = 𝜋�𝑥�2 (–dh) / Cd. a 2𝑔�𝐻� ………………………………………………………………. (iii)

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From, we have:
OU = R and OS = (R – h)
x = US =√𝑂𝑈 2 − 𝑂𝑆 2 = √𝑅 2 − (𝑅 − ℎ)2

=√𝑅 2 − 𝑅 2 − ℎ2 + 2𝑅ℎ = √2𝑅ℎ − ℎ2

Or 𝑥 2 = (2𝑅𝐻 − ℎ2)
Substituting this value of 𝑥�2 in eqn. (iii), we get:

The total time T required to bring the liquid level from 𝐻�1to 𝐻�2 is obtained by integrating the
above equation between the limits 𝐻�1to 𝐻�2.
𝑇 𝐻2 −π�
∫0 𝑑𝑇 = ∫𝐻1 (2Rℎ1/2 � − ℎ3/2 )��dh
Cd�∗a∗√2𝑔�

−π� 𝐻1
T= ∫ (2Rℎ1/2 � − ℎ3/2 )��dh
Cd�∗a∗√2𝑔� 𝐻 2

3 3 5 5
−π� 4 2 2 2
= [� �R (𝐻1 − 𝐻2 )- 2
�(𝐻1 − 𝐻2 )]2
Cd�∗a∗√2𝑔� 3 5

1.10
For completely emptying the tank, H2 =0, and hence
𝟑 𝟓
−𝛑� 𝟒 𝟐
T = [� �R 𝟐
𝑯𝟏 − �𝑯𝟏 ]𝟐
𝐂𝐝�∗𝐚∗√𝟐𝒈� 𝟑 𝟓

1.11
1.6. Time Required for Emptying a Circular Horizontal Tank
Consider a circular horizontal tank having an orifice at its bottom and containing some liquid.
Fig. 1-8

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Figure 1-8 Circular Horizontal Tank

Let, R = Radius of the tank,

L = Length of the tank,
H1 = Initial height of the liquid,
H2 = Final height of the liquid, and
T = Time in seconds for the liquid to fall from height H1 to H2.
Let at any time, the height of liquid over the orifice is h and it decreases dh in a small interval of
time dT. Further, let x be the radius of liquid surface at this instant. Then,
Volume of liquid leaving the tank in time dT = A.dh ...............................................................(i)
= A.dh = UP × L × dh = 2xL.dh (∴ UP = 2x)
(Where, A = surface area)
Velocity of liquid through the orifice = √2gH

Volume of liquid flowing through the orifice in time dT = Cd x a x √2gh× dT

………..(ii)

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Volume of liquid leaving the tank equals the volume of liquid flowing through the orifice.
i.e. – 2x L.dh = Cd x a x √2gh× dT
The negative sign accounts for the decrease in head on the orifice with increase in time interval.
2xL�.dh�
∴ dT = − ………………………………………………………………...(iii)
𝐶𝑑�.𝑎�.√2gh����
From Fig. we have:
OU = R and OS = (R – h)

1.7. Classification of mouthpieces

The mouthpieces may be classified as follows:
1. According to the position of the mouthpiece:
(i) Internal mouthpiece. (ii) External mouthpiece.

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2. According to the shape of the mouthpiece:

(i) Cylindrical mouthpiece. (ii) Convergent mouthpiece.
(iii) Convergent - divergent mouthpiece.
3. According to nature of discharge:
(i) Mouthpiece running full. (ii) Mouthpiece running free.
 A mouthpiece is said to be running free if the jet of liquid after contraction does not touch
the sides of the mouthpiece. But if the jet after contraction expands and fills the whole
mouthpiece it is known as running full.

1.8. Discharge through an external mouthpiece

A mouthpiece is a small tube (two or three times its diameter in length) attached to an orifice.
An external mouthpiece is attached to the vessel such that it projects outside. Fig. shows a tank
to which is attached an external cylindrical mouthpiece.
Let, a1 = Area of mouthpiece at outlet,
v1 = Velocity of liquid at outlet,
ac = Area of flow at vena-contracta,
vc = Velocity of liquid at C-C section,
H = Height of liquid above the centre of
the mouthpiece, and Cc = Co-efficient of contraction.
Applying continuity equation at C-C and 1-1,

we get: ac vc = a1ν1 Figure 1-9 external mouthpiece

From section C-C the jet of liquid suddenly enlarges at section 1-1; the loss of head due to
sudden enlargement is given by:

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1.8.1. Mouthpieces running free and full

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An internal mouthpiece is short cylindrical tube attached to an orifice in such a way that it (tube)
projects inwardly to a tank. If the length of the tube is equal to diameter, the jet of liquid comes
out from mouthpiece without touching the sides of the
tube(fig.) the mouthpiece is known as running free. But if
the length of the tube is about 3 times its diameter of
mouthpiece at the outlet (fig.) the mouthpiece is said to be
running full.
1.8.2. Mouthpiece running free
Mouthpiece running free as shown in the fig.1-10 Figure 1-10 Mouthpiece running free

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1.8.3. Mouthpiece running full

Consider a mouthpiece running full

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Figure 1-11 Mouthpiece running full

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Chapter Two

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Characteristics flow over notch and weir

2. Introduction
Notch. A notch may be defined as an opening provided in the side of a tank or vessel such that
the liquid surface in the tank is below the top edge of the opening. A notch may be regarded as an
orifice with the water surface below its upper edge. It is generally made of metallic plate. It is
used for measuring the rate of flow of a liquid through a small channel or a tank.
Weir. A weir may be defined as any regular obstruction in an open stream over which the flow
takes place. It is made of masonry or concrete. The conditions of flow in the case of a weir are
practically the same as those of a rectangular notch. That is why, a notch is sometimes called as a
weir and vice versa. Weirs may be used for measuring the rate of flow of water in rivers or
stream and canal etc.
 Nappe or vein. The sheet of water flowing through a notch or over a weir is known as the
nappe or vein.
 Sill or crest. The top of the weir over which the water flows is known as the sill or crest.
 The height above the bottom of the tank or channel is known as crest height.
Note. The main difference between a notch and a weir is that the notch is of small size, but the
weir is of a bigger one. Moreover, a notch is usually made in a plate, whereas a weir is usually
made of masonry or concrete.

Figure 2-1 Nappe and crest

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2.1. Types/classification of notches and weirs

Notches are classified based on the criteria’s;
1. According to the shape of the opening
 Rectangular notch
 Triangular notch
 Trapezoidal notch
 Stepped notch
2. According to the effect of the sides on nappe:
 Notch with end contraction
 Notch without end contraction or suppressed notch

Weirs are also classified based different important classifications;

(i) According to the shape of the opening:
 Rectangular, Triangular and Trapezoidal (Cipolletti weir)
(ii) According to the shape of crest
A) Sharp crested C) Narrow-crested
B) Broad crested D) Ogee-shaped
(iii) According to the effect of sides on the emerging nappe:
 Weir with end contraction
 Weir without end contraction

2.2. Advantage of Triangular Notch or Weir over Rectangular Notch or Weir

A triangular notch claims the following advantages over a rectangular notch:
1. For a right-angled V-notch or weir the expression for the computation of discharge is very
simple.
2. For low discharges a triangular notch gives more accurate results than a rectangular
notch.
3. In a given triangular notch, only one reading i.e., head (H) is required to be taken for the
measurement of discharge.
4. Ventilation of a triangular notch is not necessary.
5. The same triangular notch can measure a wide range of flows accurately.

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2.3. Effect on Discharge over a Notch or Weir due to Error in the

Measurement of Head
For an accurate value of the discharge over a weir or notch, an accurate measurement of head
over the weir or notch is very important as discharge is proportional to head.
The following cases of error in the measurement of head will be considered
2.3.1. For rectangular Weir or Notch
Consider the equation for discharge for a rectangular weir or notch below
2
Q = *Cd *L*√2𝑔 *𝐻 3/2 ……………………..(1)
3
2
Where, K= 3 *Cd *L*√2𝑔

Differentiating the above equation for Q, will give

3
dQ= K* 2 *𝐻1/2 dH ……………………………..(2)
1
3
𝑑𝑄 K∗� �∗𝐻 2 �dH� 3 �dH�
Dividing (2) by (1) = 2
3 =2 � …………….(3)
𝑄 𝐻�
𝐾𝐻 2 �

Equation (3) shows that an error of 1% in measuring H will produce 1.5% error in discharge over
a rectangular weir or notch.
2.3.2. For Triangular Weir or Notch
Consider the equation for discharge for a Triangular weir or notch below
5
8 𝜃
Q = 15 *Cd *tan 2*√2𝑔 *𝐻 2 ………………………….(4)
8 𝜃
Where k= = 15 *Cd *tan 2 *√2𝑔

Then differentiating equation (4), will get

3
5
dQ = =k 2 𝐻 2 *dH………………………………(5)
3
5
𝑑𝑄 K∗� �∗𝐻 2 �dH� 5 �dH�
Dividing (5) by (4) gives; = 2
5 = 2� ………….(6)
𝑄 𝐻�
𝐾𝐻 2 �

Equation (6) shows that an error of 1% in measuring H will produce 2.5% error in discharge over
a triangular weir or notch.

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2.4. Discharge Over a Notch or Weir

The discharge over different types of notches or weirs is discussed as follows.

2.4.1. Discharge over a rectangular Weir or Notch

`

Figure 2-2 rectangular Weir or Notch

Consider a rectangular notch or weir provided in a channel carrying water as in Fig.2-2

Let H= Head of water over the crest
L= Length of the notch or weir
Consider an elementary horizontal strip of water of thickness dh and length at depth h from free
surface of water as fig.2-2 ( c).
Area of strip = L*dh and theoretical velocity of flow through strip =√2𝑔ℎ
Discharge through strip, dQ= Cd*Area of strip*Theoretical velocity
= Cd*L*dh*√2𝑔ℎ
To get the total discharge Q,for the whole notch or weir is determined by integrating the above
equation between 0 and H.

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2.4.2. Discharge Over a Triangular Notch or Weir

The expression for the discharge over a triangular notch or weir is the same.

Figure 2-3 Triangular Notch or Weir

Let H= head of water above the v-notch

𝜃 = angle of notch
Consider a horizontal strip of water of thickness ‘dh’ at a depth of h from the free surface of
water as shown in Fig.8 (b).
𝜃 𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
tan = = multiplying both sides by H-h will gives
2 𝑂𝐶 (𝐻−ℎ)
𝜃
AC = (H-h) tan 2
𝜃
Width of strip = AB =2AC = 2(H-h) tan 2

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𝜃
Area of strip = 2(H-h) tan 2 *dh and theoretical velocity through strip =√2𝑔ℎ

So, discharge through strip, dQ = Cd *Area of strip * Velocity

𝜃
= Cd* 2(H-h) tan 2 *dh * √2𝑔ℎ
𝐻 𝜃
Therefore, total Discharge, Q =∫0 Cd ∗ �2(H − h)�tan 2 � ∗ �� √2𝑔ℎ�dh
𝜃 𝐻
= 2 Cd* tan 2 * √2𝑔 ∫0 (H − h)�ℎ1/2 �dh
𝟖 𝜽
= *Cd *𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟐*√𝟐𝒈 *𝑯𝟓/𝟐
𝟏𝟓

For right angled V-notch, if Cd =0.6

𝜃
𝜃= 900 , hence tan 2 = 1
5
8
Total Discharge Q = 15 *0.6 *1*√2 ∗ 9.81 *𝐻 2 = 1.417 𝑯𝟓/𝟐

2.4.3. Discharge over a Trapezoidal Notch or Weir

A Trapezoidal notch or weir is a combination of a rectangular and triangular notch or weir, so the
total discharge will be the sum of the discharge through a rectangular and triangular notch or
weir.

Fig.9 The trapezoidal notch

Let H = height of water over the notch
L = Length of the crest of the notch
Cd1 = Co-efficient of discharge for rectangular portion ABCD
Cd2 = Co-efficient of discharge for triangular portion (FAD &BCE)
The discharge through rectangular portion ABCD is given by;
3
2
Q1 = 3�Cd1*L*√2𝑔 𝐻 2

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The discharge through the two triangular notches FDA and BCE is equal to the discharge through
a single triangular notch of angle 𝜃 and given by;
5
8 𝜃
Q2 = 15 *Cd2 *tan 2*√2𝑔 *𝐻 2

Therefore, the discharge through trapezoidal notch or weir FDCEF = Q1 + Q2

𝟐 𝟖 𝜽
= 𝟑�Cd1*L*√𝟐𝒈 𝑯𝟑/𝟐 + 𝟏𝟓 *Cd2 *𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟐*√𝟐𝒈 *𝑯𝟓/𝟐 ……………..(7)

2.4.4. Discharge over a Stepped Notch

A stepped notch is a combination of rectangular notches and hence the discharge through stepped
notch is equal to the sum of the discharges through the different rectangular notches.
Consider a stepped notch shown in Fig.10

Fig.10 The stepped notch

Let H1 = height of water above the crest of notch 1
L1 = length of notch 1
H2, L2 and H3 and L3 are corresponding values for Notches 2,3 respectively.
Cd = Co-efficient of discharge for all notches
Therefore, total discharge Q = Q1 +Q2 + Q3
2 3/2 3/2 2 3/2 3/2 2
Q = 3�Cd*L1*√2𝑔 (𝐻1 − 𝐻2 ) + 3�Cd*L2*√2𝑔 (𝐻2 − 𝐻3 ) + 3�Cd*L3*√2𝑔 𝐻3 3/2

2.4.5. Discharge over Cipolletti Weir or Notch

A Cipolletti weir is a trapezoidal weir which has side slope of 1 horizontal to 4 verticals as
shown in Fig.9

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Fig.11 The Cipolletti Weir

Therefore, taking ΔABC
𝜃� 𝐴𝐵 𝐻⁄ 1 𝜃
tan 2 =�𝐵𝐶 = 4
=4 = 140 2’
𝐻 2

Then by giving these slopes to the sides, an increase in discharge through the triangular portions
ABC and DEF of the weir is obtained. If slope is not provided (rectangular weir) end contraction
will decrease the discharge. Hence end contraction factor is neglected for Cipolletti weir.
The discharge through a rectangular weir with two end contraction is

Q = 3�Cd*(L- 0.2H) *√2𝑔 𝐻3/2

2

2 2
= 3�Cd*L*√2𝑔 𝐻 3/2 - �Cd *���√2𝑔 𝐻 5/2
15
2
Thus, due to end contraction, the discharge decreases by 15�Cd *���√2𝑔 𝐻 5/2 . This decrease can
𝜃
be compensated by giving a slope to the sides. Let the slope is given by 2. So, the discharge
8 𝜃
through a v-notch of angle 𝜃 is = 15 *Cd *tan 2*√2𝑔 *𝐻 5/2
𝜃
As, = 140 2’
2
2
The discharge through the Cipolletti weir is, Q = 3�Cd*L*√2𝑔 𝐻 3/2

If velocity of approach, Va is to be taken into consideration,

2
Q = 3�Cd*L*√2𝑔 [(𝐻 + ℎ𝑎 )3/2 - ℎ𝑎 3/2 ]

2.4.6. Discharge over a Broad-Crested Weir

A weir with a wide crest is called a broad-crested weir. Consider the figure below.

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Fig.12 Broad-crested weir

Let H = height of water above the crest
L = length of the crest
If 2L>H, the weir is called broad- crested weir
If 2L<H, the weir is called a narrow-crested weir
For a broad crested weir in fig.10
Let h = head of water at the middle of weir which is constant
V = velocity of flow over the weir
Applying Bernoulli’s equation on u/s side and end of weir
𝑉2
0+0+H = 0+2𝑔 +h
𝑉2
= H-h, v = √2𝑔(𝐻 − ℎ)
2𝑔

Therefore, the discharge over weir Q = Cd * Area of flow*Velocity

= Cd * L*h*√2𝑔(𝐻 − ℎ)

= Cd * L*√2𝑔(𝐻ℎ2 − ℎ3 )
The discharge will be maximum, if (𝐻ℎ2 − ℎ3 ) is maximum
𝑑
(𝐻ℎ2 − ℎ3 ) = 0 2h*H -3h2 =0 or 2H = 3h hence h = 2/3 H
𝑑ℎ

Then Qmax will be obtained by substituting this value in the above equation for discharge.
2 2
Qmax = Cd * L*√2𝑔[𝐻 ∗ (3 𝐻)2 − (3 𝐻)3 ]

4
= Cd * L*√2𝑔 √27 𝐻 3 Substituting a value of acceleration due to gravity(g)

= 1.705* Cd * L*𝑯𝟑/𝟐

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2.4.7 Discharge over a Narrow -Crested Weir

For a narrow -crested weir,2L<H. It is similar to a rectangular weir or notch. Hence Q is
2
Q = 3�Cd*L*√2𝑔 * 𝐻 3/2

2.4.8 Discharge over an Ogee weir

An ogee weir is which the crest of the weir rises up to maximum height of 0.115*H ( H is height
of water above inlet of weir) and the falls as shown in Fig.11.The discharge for an ogee weir the
same as that of rectangular weir.

Fig.13 An ogee weir

The discharge is given by
2
Q = 3�Cd*L*√2𝑔 * 𝐻 3/2

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CHAPTER-3

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS, SIMILITUDE AND HYDRAULIC MODEL

3. Introduction
Any phenomenon is physical sciences and engineering can be described by the fundamental
dimensions mass, Length, time and temperature. Till the rapid development of science and
technology the engineers and scientists depend upon the experimental data. But the rapid
development of science and technology has created new mathematical methods of solving
complicated problems, which could not have been solved completely by analogical methods and
would not have consumed enormous time. This mathematical method of obtaining the equations
governing certain natural phenomenon by balancing the fundamental dimensions is called
(dimensional analysis) of course, the equation obtained by this method is known as (Empirical
equations)

Objectives
On completion of this unit, you are expected to:
 Understand the concept and application of dimensional homogeneity
 Understand dimensional analysis and know it uses.
 Be capable of solve and prove equations using the two methods of dimensional analysis.
 Know and explain the different types of hydraulic similarities.
 Classify and explain the different types of hydraulic models.

DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

A dimension is a measure of a physical quantity (without numerical values), while a unit is a way
to assign a number to that dimension. For example, length is a dimension that is measured in
units such as microns (m), feet (ft), centimeters (cm), meters (m), kilometers (km), etc. (Table 3-
1). There are seven primary dimensions (also called fundamental or basic dimensions)—mass,
length, time, temperature, electric current, amount of light, and amount of matter.

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Table 3-1 primary dimensions and their associated primary SI and English units

Physical quantities can be;

 Fundamental quantities
 Mass
 Length
 Time
 Temperature (Only for compressible fluids)
The dimension of any physical quantities can be expressed as,

 Fundamental dimension
 Mass [M]
 Length [L] In M-L-T system
 Time [T]
 Temperature [𝜃] (Only for compressible fluids)

OR
 Force [F]
 Length [L] In F-L-T system
 Time [T]
 Temperature [𝜃] (Only for compressible fluids)
The two systems are related by the Newton’s Second Law of Motion:

𝐹 = 𝑚. 𝑎

Dimensionally,

𝐿
[𝐹] = [𝑀] ∗ [ ]
𝑇2

𝐹𝑇 2
[𝑀] = [ ]
𝐿

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 Derived dimensions these are dimensions which are expressed in terms of Fundamental
dimension. For example, velocity is defined as the distance moved per unit time and
therefore its dimensions can be derived as
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐿
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = =[ ]
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇
Likewise, the dimensions of other physical quantities may be obtained. Table 2.1 gives
the dimensions of various physical quantities used in mechanics in both systems.

Table 3-2: Dimensions of various physical quantities

S.No Quantity Symbol Dimensions

. M-L-T F-L-T
1 Length L L L
2 Time T T T
3 Mass m M M
4 Force F M L T -2 F
-1
5 Velocity V LT L T -1
-2
6 Acceleration a LT L T -2
7 Area A L2 L2
3 -1
8 Discharge Q L T L T -1
3

9 Pressure P M L-1 T-2 FL-2

2 -3
10 Power P ML T FLT-1
11 Density  M L-3 FT2L4
12 Unit gravity force γ ML-2 T -2 FL3
13 Dynamic viscosity  M L-1T-1 FTL2
14 Kinematic viscosity  2 -1
L T L2 T-1
15 Surface Tension  MT-2 FL-1
16 Bulk modulus of elasticity K ML-1 T-2 FL-2

Dimensional homogeneity
A physical equation is said to be dimensionally homogeneous if the quantities on both sides of
the equation have identical dimension. A dimensionally homogeneous equation is applicable to
all system of units. On the other hand, a dimensionally non homogeneous equation is applicable
only to the system of units for which it had derived.

Let us consider the following two equations:

A) 𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ
1 2⁄ 1⁄
B) 𝑣 = 𝑁 𝑅 3𝑆 2

C) Eq. (A) is dimensionally homogeneous. This can be proved by substituting the

dimensions of each term.

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𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
D) [𝐿2 ] = [𝐿3 ] . [𝐿] = [𝐿2 ]
E) On the other hand, Eq. (B) is dimensionally non-homogeneous substitute the dimensions
Left hand side
𝐿
𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡�ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑�𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = [ ]��
𝑇
2
F) 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡�ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑�𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = [𝐿3 ] . [1]
G) Note. The quantities which are dimensionless are represented by [1].
H) As the dimensions of the two sides are not the same, the equation is non-homogeneous.
Eq. (B) is only applicable to SI-system. It cannot be used in FPS. In fact, the manning
formula in FPS system is given by
Application of the principle of dimensional homogeneity to determine the
dimensions of a physical quantity

(1) To determine the dimensions of a physical quantity.

(2) To convert units from one system to another system.
(3) To check whether a given equation is Homogeneous and convert it to the other system if
non-homogeneous
Exercise 3.2 The following equations are applicable in SI system. Find the dimensions of the
constants and their corresponding value in FPS system.

(a) 50√𝑅𝑆
(b) 1.42 tan 𝜃⁄2� 𝐻 5⁄2
(c) 1.84𝑏𝐻 35⁄2

1.2 Dimensional analysis

Dimensional analysis is the method of analysis based on the mathematics of the dimension of
quantities.
In dimensional analysis, from a general understanding of fluid phenomenon, one first predicts
the physical parameters that will influence the flow, and then by grouping these parameters in
dimension combinations, a better understanding of the flow phenomena is made possible.

Uses Of dimensional analysis

 It can be used to obtain a functional relationship among the variables in terms of
non-dimensional parameters.
 Dimensional analysis reduces the number of experiments required in a particular
investigation.
 Dimensional analysis helps in obtaining a systematic form of the variables
involved in a particular fluid phenomenon.
 It gives a sound and orderly arrangement of the variables involved in the problem.

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 Deriving equations expressed in terms of non- dimensional parameters to show

the significance of each parameter.
However, dimensional analysis does not give the complete relationship. It gives only a general
qualitative expression. Investigations have to be done to obtain the complete expression. The
numerical values of the coefficients are usually obtained from experimental investigations.

The following two methods of dimensional analysis are commonly used:

(a) Rayleigh’s method
(b) Buckingham’s 𝜋-theorem.
(a) Rayleigh’s method
In this method, the functional relationship is expressed in an exponential form. If 𝑌 is
some function of independent variables, X1 , X2 , X3 etc.the function relationship can be
written as

𝑌 = Φ[X1 , X2 , X3 , … ]

Where Φ stands for ‘a function of’, It does not imply anything about the form of the
function.
Any function can be expressed as a series of terms each being made up of the product of
variables brought to suitable powers. Thus

𝑌 = 𝐾[𝑋1𝑎 , 𝑋2𝑏 , 𝑋3𝑐 … ]

In which k is dimension less coefficient which can be determined either from the physical
characteristics of the problem or from experiments, The exponents a, b, c etc. are
determined from the principle of dimensional homogeneity, the exponents of the
dimensions on both sides must be same.
By equating the exponents on both sides, a set of simultaneous equations is obtained. The
exponents can be determined by solving these simultaneous equations. Since there are
only three fundamental dimensions, only 3 simultaneous equations are found. If the
number of exponents involved in the relationship is more than 3, some of the exponents
can be expressed in terms of others. The non-dimensional parameters are then formed by
grouping the variables with like exponents.

Activity 3.3
Show each step of solving equations using Rayleigh’s method?

(b) Buckingham’s 𝝅 –Theorem

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The Rayleigh method of dimensional analysis becomes cumbersome when a large

number of variables are involved. The Buckingham 𝜋 –Theorem may be used in such
problems.
The Buckingham 𝜋 –Theorem states that if there are 𝑛 variables in a dimensionally
homogenous equation and if these variables contain 𝑚 fundamental dimensions (such as,
M, L, T), they may be grouped into (𝑛 − 𝑚) non-dimensional parameters. Buckingham
called these non-dimensional parameters as�𝜋 –terms.

Mathematically, if a variable 𝑥1 depends upon the variable 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 … , 𝑥𝑛 , the functional

equation may be written as
𝑥1 = [𝑥2 , 𝑥3 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ]
This equation may be written as
𝑓[𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 … , 𝑥𝑛 ] = 𝐶
Where 𝐶 is a constant and ′𝑓′ represents some function. In this equation, there are 𝑛
variables. If there 𝑚�fundamental dimensions, then according to Buckingham theorem,
𝐹 = [𝜋1 , 𝜋2 … 𝜋𝑛−𝑚 ]
Obviously, the number of 𝜋 –terms is n-m.
Each 𝜋 –term contains 𝑚 primary variable, which are also called the repeating variables.
The repeating variables appear in all 𝜋 –terms. In addition to these 𝑚 repeating variables,
each 𝜋 –terms contain one more variable of the remaining (𝑛 − 𝑚) variables. Thus, if
𝑥1 , 𝑥2 �𝑎𝑛𝑑�𝑥3 are taken as repeating variables,
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝜋1 = 𝑥1 1 𝑥2 1 𝑥31 𝑥4

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝜋2 = 𝑥1 2 𝑥2 2 𝑥32 𝑥5
.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝜋𝑛−𝑚 = 𝑥1 𝑛−𝑚 𝑥2 𝑛−𝑚 𝑥3𝑛−𝑚 𝑥𝑛

Where 𝑎1 , 𝑏1 , 𝑐1 ; 𝑎2 , 𝑏2 , 𝑐2 �𝑒𝑡𝑐. are constants to be determine as explained later.

While selecting 𝑚 repeating variables, the following points should be kept in:
(a) 𝑚�repeating variables must contain jointly all the fundamental dimensions
involved in the phenomenon. Usually the fundamental dimensions are M, L and T.
Therefore, 3 repeating variables must contain together M, L and T. However, if
only two dimensions are involved, there will be 2 repeating variable and they
must contain together the two dimensions involved.
(b) The repeating variables must not form the non-dimensional parameters amongst
themselves.

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(c) A geometrical property (such as length), a fluid property (such as mass density)
and flow characteristics (such as velocity) are generally most suitable as repeating
variables.

Activity 3.4
What are the points should be considered while selecting repeating Variables?

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