1.

Define Internet, Intranet, and Extranet:

Internet: A global network that connects millions of computers worldwide, allowing them to share information
and resources.
Intranet: A private network within an organization that uses internet technologies to securely share information
and resources among its members.
Extranet: An extended intranet that allows authorized external users, such as suppliers and customers, to access
specific parts of an organization's network.
2. Explain Star, Bus, and Ring Topology:
Star Topology: Devices are connected to a central hub or switch, enabling easy management and If the central
node fails then the complete network is damaged. Mainly used in home and office networks.
Bus Topology: Devices are connected in a linear sequence along a central cable, with terminators at both ends to
prevent signal reflection. Here, If the main cable gets damaged, it will damage the whole network.
Ring Topology: Devices are connected to exactly two nodes forming a ring structure, and data travels in one
direction, passing through each device until it reaches the destination.
3. Difference between Bridge, Hub and Switch and Router:
A Bridge operates at the Data Link layer, connecting and filtering traffic between two or more network segments.
A Repeater Extends the reach of a network by regenerating signals, but doesn't filter traffic.
A Hub operates at the physical layer and broadcasts data to all connected devices.
A Switch operates at the data link layer and intelligently forwards data only to the intended recipient.
A Router is a networking device that connects multiple networks together and forwards data packets between
them. It uses routing table and protocols to determine the best path for data packets to travel from one network
to another.
4. Hub and Switch Similarity:
Both are network devices used to connect multiple devices together.
5. Difference between L2 Switch and L3 Switch?
Difference: Layer 2 switch work on data link layer and sends a “Frames” to destination port using MAC address
table which stores the mac address of a device associated with that port. Layer 3 switch work on network layer
where it routes packet by using IP address, it is used widely on VLANs.
6. Difference Between L3 Switch and Router:
Routers are used for different LAN communications because they can route data between LANs using IP
addresses, while L3 switches are typically used within a LAN to provide faster and efficient data forwarding based
on IP addresses.
7. What is Switching and Routing?
Switching involves the process of forwarding data frames within a local network based on MAC addresses,
typically done at the Data Link layer (Layer 2). It's used to efficiently connect devices within the same network
segment.
Routing is the process of forwarding data packets between different networks based on IP addresses, typically
done at the Network layer (Layer 3). It enables communication between devices on separate networks and
involves making decisions about the best path for data to reach its destination.
8. When two routers are communicate, which type of communication they perform?
When two routers communicate, they engage in a form of communication known as "routing." This
communication involves the exchange of routing information and updates between routers to determine the best
path for forwarding data packets. Routers use routing protocols like OSPF, EIGRP, BGP, and others to share
information about network topology, reachability, and routing decisions.
9. What is Firewall?
A Firewall is a security device, that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing traffic based on predefined
rules. It can be hardware and software based.
10. Why Hub is called Physical Star and Logical Bus Topology:
Physically, devices in a hub-based network are connected in a star configuration (to the hub).
Logically, data transmission resembles a bus topology because the hub broadcasts data to all connected devices.
11. What are FCS and CRC?
Frame Check Sequence (FCS) refers to extra bits added to the frame for error detection. It is used for HDLC error
detection.
The FCS field contains a checksum value which uses by receiving side to prove that the data is not corrupted in
the middle. The algorithm that is used to generate the FCS is a Cyclic Redundancy Check(CRC). The CRC algorithm
is used by a number of technologies, and not restricted to networking.
12. What is maintain hybrid protocol from Link state and distance vector routing?
A hybrid routing protocol combines elements of both link-state and distance-vector routing protocols to provide a
balance between their characteristics.
From Link-State Protocols, a hybrid protocol may maintain:
• Knowledge of the entire network topology.
• Fast convergence when network changes occur.
• Accurate routing information.
From Distance-Vector Protocols, it may maintain:
• Simplicity and lower overhead.
• The concept of hop count for path selection.
• Split horizon and route poisoning mechanisms to prevent routing loops.

13. What is the matric value of routing protocols?

RIP: Hop count (maximum 15 hops).
EIGRP: Calculated metric considering bandwidth, delay, reliability, load, and MTU.
OSPF: Cost based on bandwidth.
BGP: Path attributes, including AS path, local preference, and more, with route selection based on policy.
14. When you configure OSPF, what are the different type of packet generate?
1. Hello packets are used to discover and establish neighbor relationships between OSPF routers. They are
exchanged periodically to verify the health of neighbor routers.
2. Database Description packets are used to exchange information about the OSPF link-state database.
Routers use these packets to synchronize their link-state databases during the OSPF adjacency formation
process.
3. Link-State Request packets are sent when a router needs more detailed information about a specific OSPF
link-state advertisement (LSA). LSR packets request specific LSAs from neighboring routers.
4. Link-Sate Update packets are used to respond to LSR packets by sending the requested LSAs. They contain
the detailed link-state information about the requested LSAs.
5. Link-State Ack packets acknowledge the receipt of LSU packets. They ensure that OSPF routers confirm
the successful reception of LSAs.

15. Which routing protocols maintain which table for communication?

RIP: RIP maintains three tables:

• Routing Table: Contains the best routes to reach destinations based on hop count.
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First): OSPF maintains several tables, including:

• Neighbor Table: Stores information about OSPF neighbors.

• Topology Table: Contains a link-state database with information about all routers and links in the OSPF
area.
• Routing Table: Contains the best routes selected based on Shortest Path Fast algorithm calculations.
EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol): EIGRP maintains:

• Neighbor Table: Records information about neighbor routers.

• Topology Table: Stores a copy of the neighbor routers' routing tables.
• Routing Table: Contains the best routes chosen from the Topology Table.

16. What is Topology:

Topology refers to the arrangement of devices and connections in a network. Mainly It is a physical layout of the
network, connecting the different nodes using the links.
17. Difference between Non-Routable, Routable, and Routing Protocols:
Non-Routable Protocols are used within a local network and can't be routed over the internet (e.g., NetBEUI).
Routable Protocols can be used for communication over larger networks and the internet (e.g., IP).
Routing Protocols are used by routers to exchange routing information and determine the best path for data.
18. Concept of Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Protocol:
Connection-Oriented Protocol (e.g., TCP) is a protocol that establishes a virtual connection between two hosts
before data is sent and ensures reliable data delivery
Connectionless Protocol (e.g., UDP) is a protocol that doesn't establish a formal connection and doesn't
guarantee delivery but offers faster transmission.
19. Why Connection-Oriented Protocol Ensures Reliable Data Delivery?
Connection-oriented protocols ensure reliable data delivery by establishing a dedicated communication path
between sender and receiver before any data is exchanged. This process involves a series of handshakes and
acknowledgments to confirm that data is received correctly. If any packets are lost or corrupted during
transmission, the protocol ensures retransmission until all data is successfully delivered. This approach prioritizes
data integrity over speed.
20. Why Connectionless Protocol Offers Faster Transmission?
Connectionless protocols offer faster transmission because they do not establish a dedicated connection before
sending data. Instead, they send data independently in discrete packets, often with minimal overhead. While this
approach sacrifices some reliability, it allows for faster data transmission since there's no need to wait for
connection setup and acknowledgment exchanges. Connectionless protocols are commonly used for real-time
applications and situations where speed is crucial, such as streaming media or online gaming.
21. What is TCP/IP:
TCP/IP is short form of Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol. It represents a suite of protocols, and the
name reflects the two most prominent protocols within the suite: TCP and IP. While TCP operates primarily at the
transport layer and IP operates at the network layer, that is designed to make data exchange possible on different
types of computer networks.
TCP/IP has four layers: Application, Transport, Internet, and Link.
22. Difference between OSI and TCP/IP Model:
The OSI model is a theoretical framework with more layers, whereas the TCP/IP model is a practical framework
that forms the backbone of the internet. The choice between them depends on the context and specific
networking needs, but TCP/IP is far more prevalent in practice. Both used to understand and describe how
network protocols work.
23. Function of OSI 7 Layers:
Application: To enable communication between different applications, provide a user interface, manage data
exchange, and handle errors.
Presentation: Data translation, encryption, and compression.
Session: It provides services such as session establishment, Data Transfer, Dialog Management, synchronization,
Authentication, Authorization. It also manages session checkpoints and recovery.
Transport: End-to-end communication, error detection, and flow control.
Network: Routing, logical addressing, and path determination.
Data Link: Framing, addressing, and error detection at the link level.
Physical: Physical medium and signal transmission.
24. Define Sublayers (LLC and MAC):
LLC (Logical Link Control): Upper Sublayer, that provides the control for synchronization, flow control and error
checking in the data link layer.
MAC (Media Access Control): Lower Sublayer, that provides the control access to the physical transmission
medium, addressing, and framing.
25. Explanation of Layer Protocols and Devices:
Physical Layer: The physical layer is responsible for transmitting raw data over a physical medium.
Devices: Hubs, Repeaters. Protocols: Ethernet, USB, RS-232.
Data Link Layer: The data link layer is responsible for the reliable transfer of data between two adjacent nodes on
a network.
Devices: Switches, Bridges, NICs. Protocols: PPP, IEEE 802, MAC.
Network Layer: The network layer is responsible for handles routing, logical addressing, and path determination.
Devices: Routers, Layer 3 Switches. Protocols: IP, ICMP, OSPF.
Transport Layer: The Transport Layer provides end-to-end communication, error detection, and flow control
between applications on different hosts.
Devices: None specific. Protocols: TCP, UDP.
Session Layer: The Session Layer is responsible for establishing, maintaining, and terminating connections
between applications.
Devices: None specific. Protocols: NetBIOS, RPC.
Presentation Layer: The presentation layer is responsible for formatting and converting data from one format to
another.
Devices: None specific. Protocols: SSL/TLS, JPEG, GIF.
Application Layer: The application layer provides services to the end-user applications.
Devices: Servers, Computers. Protocols: HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS.
26. Connector Used in Bus Topology:
The connector commonly used in bus topology is the BNC (Bayonet Neill-Concelman) connector.
27. Why OSI Layer Model was Developed:
The OSI model was developed to standardize and define the functions of various networking protocols, allowing
interoperability between different systems and technologies.
28. Invention of OSI Layers:
The OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
29. Difference between Subnetting and Subnet Mask:
Subnetting is the process of dividing a network into smaller sub-networks. It is used for getting a higher routing
efficiency and enhances the security of the network. It reduces the time to extract the host address from the
routing table.
A Subnet Mask is a 32-bit value used to divide and identify an IP address into network and host portions.
30. Concept of FLSM and VLSM:
FLSM (Fixed-Length Subnet Masking) creates subnets of the same size and an equal number of host identifiers.
VLSM (Variable-Length Subnet Masking) creates subnets with varying sizes with a variable number of hosts.
31. Cables Used for Switch-to-Switch Communication:
Ethernet cables, specifically Cat5e, Cat6, or higher, are commonly used for switch-to-switch communication.
32. What is Node:
Any communicating device in a network is called a Node. It can send, receive, or process a data within a network.
33. What is Workstation:
A workstation is a computer or terminal used by an individual for work or tasks in a networked environment.
34. What is NAS?
NAS, or Network Attached Storage, is a type of storage device that is connected to a network and provides data
storage and retrieval services to other devices on a network.
35. What is NFS?
NFS, or Network File System, is a protocol used for sharing files between computers on a network. It allows files
to be accessed and manipulated from different locations on the network.
36. What is CDP in CCNA?
The Cisco Discovery Protocol (CDP) is a network discovery tool, which assists network administrators and
engineers in identifying neighboring Cisco devices, particularly those running lower-layer, transparent protocols.
37. What is Firmware?
Firmware is a type of software that is embedded in hardware devices, such as computer components or
appliances. It provides low-level control over the devices operation and is typically stored in non-volatile memory.
38. What is the use of Proxy Server?
Proxy servers prevent external users from identifying the IP addresses of an internal network. They make a
network virtually invisible to external users, who cannot identify the physical location of a network without
knowledge of the correct IP address.
39. What is Protocol:
A set of instructions or rules or guidelines that are used in establishing communications between computers of a
network is called Protocol.
40. Range of different Classes and Subnet Mask of IPV4:
Class A: 0.0.0.0 – 127.255.255.255 Subnet Mask: 255.0.0.0
Class B: 128.0.0.0 – 191.255.255.255 Subnet Mask: 255.255.0.0
Class C: 192.0.0.0 – 223.255.255.255 Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
Class D: 224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255
Class E: 240.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.254
41. What does 0 mean in subnet mask?
A subnet mask of 255.255. 255.0 means that the device can connect with any other device on the network with
an IP address containing identical values in the first three octets. 255 means that the value of that octet must be
identical. 0 means that the value can be anything.
42. How to enter safe mode in windows 10?
Press and hold the Shift key while selecting Power > Restart
After the PC restarts, select Troubleshoot > Advanced options > Startup Settings > Restart
Select 4 or F4 to start the PC in Safe Mode
43. When to Customize Subnet Mask:
Customizing the subnet mask is necessary when subnetting a network to achieve better IP address allocation and
management.
44. UTP and STP Cables Color Comparison:
UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair): Typically has four color-coded pairs (blue, orange, green, brown).
STP (Shielded Twisted Pair): May have similar color coding, but with additional shielding.
45. Connector Used in Fiber Optics Cable:
Fiber optics cables use various connectors, including SC, LC, and ST connectors.
46. Connector Used in Coaxial Cable:
Coaxial cables commonly use BNC connectors.
47. Broadcast Domain and Collision Domain:
Broadcast Domain: A Broadcast Domain is a scenario in which when a device sends out a broadcast message
then all the devices present in its broadcast domain will received the message. This creates a lot of congestion
in the network, commonly called LAN congestion, which affects the bandwidth of the users present in that
network.
Collision Domain: A Collision Domain is a scenario in which when two devices send out data packets at the
same time then their packets will collide and both will have to resend the data, causing delays.
48. Attenuation:
Attenuation is the loss of signal strength as it travels over a medium.
49. Difference between Classful and Classless Domain:
Classful: Refers to addressing where IP addresses are assigned in predefined classes (A, B, C).
Classless: Refers to subnetting and supernetting where networks can have variable-length subnet masks.
50. CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing):
CIDR is a method to allocate and manage IP addresses more efficiently by allowing variable-length subnet masks.
51. Difference between Gateway and Default Gateway:
A Gateway is a device that connects two different networks and acts as a translator between them.
A Default Gateway is the router on a local network that directs traffic from the network to other networks.
52. Interface Used in Fiber Optics Cable:
Interfaces like LC and SC are commonly used in fiber optics cables.
53. What is NIC (Network Interface Card):
NIC is short form of Network Interface Card, It operates at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model. And This
is a peripheral card and hardware component that is attached to a PC in order to connect to a network. Every NIC
has its own MAC address that identifies the PC on the network.
54. Loopback Address:
A loopback address (127.0.0.1 in IPv4) is used to test network connectivity on the local machine.
In IPv6, the loopback address is "::1".
55. Difference between IPv4 and IPv6:
IPv4 has 32-bit addresses, limited availability, and uses NAT for address shortage.
IPv6 has 128-bit addresses, abundant address space, and better security features.
56. VLAN Purpose with Practical Example:
VLANs (Virtual Local Area Networks) are used to logically segment a network for better management and
security. For example, separating different departments in a company onto different VLANs.
57. Concept of Native VLAN:
The native VLAN is the default VLAN on a trunk port and carries untagged traffic.
58. Concept of VTP (VLAN Trunking Protocol): [FRAME TAGGING]
VTP is CISCO proprietary protocol used to maintain consistency throughout the network or the user can say
that synchronizing the VLAN information in the same VTP domain. VTP allows you to add, delete and rename
VLANs which is then propagated to other switches in the VTP domain. VTP advertisements can be sent over
802.1Q, and ISL trunks.
There are 3 modes: i) Server, ii) Client, iii) Transparent
59. WHAT IS VTP PRUNING?
VTP pruning is a dynamic mechanism, When the downstream routers do not need the vlan traffic, it will send
pruning message. VTP trunk allow is a static mechanism, it allows the specific vlans pass through the trunk. The
two have the same result, that is reduce the unnecessary traffic through the trunk.
60. Protocol Used to Convert IPv6 to IPv4:
Protocol 41 (6to4) is used to encapsulate IPv6 packets within IPv4 packets for tunneling.
61. Basic Function of ARP with Practical Example:
ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses. For example, a host uses ARP to find
the MAC address of a device on the same network.
62. Basic Function of RARP with Practical Example:
RARP, or Reverse ARP, is used to map a hardware address (MAC address) to an IP address when the IP address is
known but the MAC address is not. It's the reverse process of ARP (Address Resolution Protocol).
For example, consider a situation where a diskless workstation needs to boot and obtain its IP address from a
server on the network. The workstation sends a broadcast RARP request, essentially asking, 'Who has this IP
address?' The server with the corresponding IP address responds with its MAC address, allowing the workstation
to establish network communication.
RARP is an older protocol and has largely been replaced by more modern methods like DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol) for IP address assignment.
63. Concept of IP Address, MAC Address, and Port Address:
IP Address: Logical address used for network communication.
MAC Address: Hardware address unique to a network interface card.
Port Address: A number used to identify a specific process or service on a host.
64. Basic Function of DNS and DHCP:
DNS (Domain Name System): Translates domain names to IP addresses and IP to doman.
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol): Assigns IP addresses dynamically to devices in a network. It first
checks for the next available address not yet taken by any device, then assigns this to a network device.
65. Concept of APIPA (Automatic Private IP Addressing):
APIPA assigns a private IP address to a device when it can't obtain an IP address from a DHCP server.
The APIPA range is typically 169.254.0.0/16 and it is reserved by IANA. You can't customize this range; it's
reserved for APIPA.
66. Default Lease Period of DHCP Server:
The default lease period of a DHCP server is usually 8 days.
67. Device Used in Network Layer and Data Link Layer:
A router operates at the network layer and data link layer.
68. Types of Zones in DNS:
The common types of DNS zones are Primary, Secondary, Stub, Active Directory Integrated.
69. Difference between Peer-to-Peer and Client-Server Network:
In a Peer-to-Peer network, devices share resources without a central server.
In a Client-Server network, a central server manages resources and provides services to clients.
70. Difference between Workgroup and Domain:
A Workgroup is a collection of computers on a local network where each computer has its own user accounts and
resources.
A Domain is a centralized network environment where a server (Domain Controller) manages user accounts and
resources.
71. Ports Used in DNS, DHCP, and Active Directory:
DNS: Port 53
DHCP: Port 67 (Server), Port 68 (Client)
Active Directory: Port 389 (LDAP), Port 636 (LDAPS)
72. Difference between TCP and UDP:
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) provides reliable, connection-oriented communication with error checking
and acknowledgment.
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) provides connectionless communication without acknowledgment, suitable for
faster data transmission.
73. Why TCP is reliable and UDP is non-reliable?
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is reliable because it includes mechanisms for error checking,
acknowledgment of data receipt, and retransmission of lost packets. It ensures that data is delivered accurately
and in order.
UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is non-reliable because it lacks these mechanisms. It focuses on speed and
minimal overhead, making it faster but not guaranteeing data delivery or order. This trade-off suits real-time
applications like video streaming or online gaming where speed matters more than perfect reliability.
74. Router Used for DHCP Relay Agent:
A router with the IP Helper feature enabled acts as a DHCP Relay Agent to forward DHCP messages between
clients and servers in different subnets.
75. Concept of IP Helper:
The IP Helper feature allows routers to assist in forwarding broadcast DHCP requests from clients to DHCP servers
in different subnets.
76. Difference between Server and Client:
A Server provides services or resources to clients on a network.
A Client is a device that requests and uses services or resources from a server.
77. Concept of Telnet:
Telnet is a protocol used to remotely access and manage devices over a network.
78. Authentication Used in Default Telnet:
The default authentication used in Telnet is often username/password.
79. Full Form of PING:
PING stands for Packet Internet Groper.
80. Function of ICMP Protocol:
ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) is used for error reporting and diagnostics in IP networks, including
functions like ping and traceroute.
81. What is SNMP?
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is an internet standard protocol used to monitor and manage
network devices connected over an IP. SNMP is used for communication between routers, switches, firewalls,
load balancers, servers, CCTV cameras, and wireless devices.
82. What is CDMA Technology?
CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. It is a channel access method used by several radio
communication technologies. It is generally used for mobile communication.
83. Protocol Used to Send Mail:
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is used to send emails.
84. Difference between POP3 and IMAP Protocol:
POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3) downloads emails from a mail server to a device, often deleting them from the
server.
IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) keeps emails on the server and syncs changes with the client.
85. Protocol to Convert Broadcast to Unicast in DHCP Relay Agent Environment:
BOOTP (Bootstrap Protocol) is often used by DHCP relay agents to convert DHCP broadcast messages into unicast
messages.
86. What is BOOTP?
BOOTP (Bootstrap Protocol) is an internet protocol that lets a network user automatically be configured to
receive an IP address and have an operating system booted without user involvement.
87. Difference between BOOTP and DHCP:
The main difference between BOOTP and DHCP is that DHCP is an enhanced and more versatile version of
BOOTP. DHCP can dynamically allocate and manage IP addresses, offering more flexibility and automation
compared to BOOTP, which requires manual configuration for each device. DHCP is the preferred choice for
modern networks.
88. Explain the difference between a LAN and a WAN.
A LAN (Local Area Network) is a network confined to a small geographic area, while a WAN (Wide Area Network) spans
larger geographical distances.
89. Concept of VPN (Virtual Private Network):
VPN or the Virtual Private Network is a private WAN built on the internet. It creates a secure and encrypted
tunnel over a public network, allowing remote users to access a private network securely.
Types of VPN: i) Access VPN, ii) Site-to-Site VPN
90. Why is VPN called “virtual”?
It is called “virtual” because it depends on the use of virtual connections—that is, temporary connections that
have no real physical presence.
91. Concept of Tunneling Protocol:
Tunneling protocols encapsulate one protocol's packets within another, allowing data to traverse networks where
the encapsulated protocol is unsupported.
92. What is Data encapsulation?
Data encapsulation is the process of breaking down information into smaller, manageable chunks before it is
transmitted across the network. In this process that the source and destination addresses are attached to the
headers, along with parity checks.
93. Difference between Distance Vector and Link State Routing Protocol:
Distance Vector: Routers exchange information about their routing tables with neighboring routers. They
calculate the best path to a destination based on distance (often measured in hops) and share this information
periodically. (e.g., RIP).
Link State: Routers exchange detailed information about the state of their links and the entire network. They use
this information to build a complete network topology map and calculate the best path using algorithms like
Dijkstra's. (e.g., OSPF).
The key difference is in how they exchange routing information. Distance Vector routers share summarized
routing tables, while Link State routers share detailed link-state information. Link State routing typically results in
more efficient and accurate routing but requires more memory and processing power.
94. Difference between DCE and DTE Mode in Cisco Router:
DCE (Data Communications Equipment): A device that provides clocking in a serial connection.
DTE (Data Terminal Equipment): A device that receives clocking in a serial connection.
95. Concept of Administrative Distance:
Administrative distance is a value between 0-255 that routers use to prioritize routing information from different
sources. Lower values are preferred.

Static route 1
External BGP 20
 EIGRP 90
OSPF 110
RIP 120
External EIGRP 170
Internal BGP 200
Unknown 255 (This route is not used)
96. What is an Autonomous System?
An Autonomous system (AS) is a collection of connected Internet Protocol (IP) routing prefixes under the control
of one or more network operators on behalf of a single administrative entity or domain, that presents a common
and clearly defined routing policy to the Internet.
97. What is IGP and EGP?
IGP (Interior Gateway Protocol): IGP is a type of routing protocol used for routing within an autonomous system
(AS). Common IGPs include RIP, OSPF, and EIGRP.
EGP (Exterior Gateway Protocol): EGP is a type of routing protocol used for routing between different
autonomous systems (ASes). BGP (Border Gateway Protocol) is a widely used EGP for internet routing between
ASes.
98. Basic Function of Router:
Routers forward data between different networks or subnets based on routing tables.
99. How many types of modes are used in data transferring through networks?
1. Simplex: Data transferring which takes place only in one direction is called Simplex. In Simplex mode, the data
gets transferred either from sender to receiver or from receiver to sender. For Example, Radio signal, the print
signal given from computer to printer, etc.
2. Half Duplex: Data transferring can happen in both directions but not at the same time. Alternatively, the data is
sent and received. For Example, Browsing through the internet, a user sends the request to the server and later
the server processes the request and sends back the web page.
3. Full Duplex: Data transferring happens in both directions that too simultaneously. For Example, Two-lane roads
where traffic flows in both directions, communication through telephone, etc.
100. Concept of TTL (Time to Live):
TTL is a field in IP packets that limits the lifespan of a packet. It decrements as the packet traverses routers and is
used to prevent indefinite loops.
101. Layers Important for Network Communication:
The Network (Layer 3) and Transport (Layer 4) layers are crucial for network communication, routing, and end-to-
end data transfer.
102. Difference between Network Address and Host Address:
The Network Address identifies the network portion of an IP address.
The Host Address identifies a specific device within that network.
103. Topology Used for Fault Tolerance:
A Mesh Topology is often used for fault tolerance because it provides multiple paths for communication,
minimizing the impact of a single point of failure.
104. What is Spanning Tree Protocol (STP)?
Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) is a Layer 2 protocol used to prevent looping within a network topology to ensure
that you do not create loops when you have redundant paths in your network.
105. What is Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol (RSTP)?
Rapid Spanning Tree Protocol (RSTP) is a network protocol that is an advancement over Spanning Tree Protocol
that promotes high availability and “loop-free” topology within Ethernet networks.
106. Concept of HTTPS:
HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure) is a secure version of HTTP that uses encryption (usually TLS/SSL) to
ensure secure data transfer between a web browser and a server.
107. What is POST?
POST stands for Power On Self Test. It's a series of diagnostic tests that a computer performs when it's turned on
to check for hardware issues. POST is performed by firmware or software before the computer boots up the
operating system.
108. What is RAID?
RAID stands for Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks. It's a data storage virtualization technology that
combines multiple physical disk drives into one or more logical units. RAID stores the same data in different
places on multiple hard disks or solid-state drives (SSDs) to protect data in the case of a drive failure.
Types:
Striping (RAID 0) writes some data to one drive and some data to another, minimizing read and write access times and
improving I/O performance.

Mirroring (RAID 1) replicates data on two drives, preventing loss of data in the event of a drive failure.

RAID 5 (Striping with Parity) stripes data blocks across all drives in an array (at least 3 to a maximum of 32), and also
distributes parity data across all drives. In the event of a single drive failure, the system reads the parity data from the
working drives to rebuild the data blocks that were lost.

RAID 6 (Striping with Dual Parity) requires a minimum of 4 drives and a maximum of 32 drives to be implemented.
Usable capacity is always two less than the number of available drives in the RAID set.

RAID 10 (Striping and Mirroring) offers very good performance with good data protection and no parity calculations.
RAID 10 requires a minimum of four drives, and usable capacity is 50% of available drives. It should be noted, however,
that RAID 10 can use more than four drives in multiples of two.

109. Difference between Broadcast, Multicast, and Unicast:

Broadcast: A single message sent to all devices in a network.
Multicast: A single message sent to a specific group of devices.
Unicast: A message sent from one device to another device's unique address.
110. How to Configure Basic LAN:
Configure devices with IP addresses in the same subnet, set subnet masks, and connect them through
switches/hubs.
111. Difference between RIP v1 and RIP v2:
RIP v1: Classful routing protocol without subnet information.
RIP v2: Classless routing protocol that supports subnetting and carries subnet mask information.
112. Difference between RIP and OSPF:
113. Difference between OSPF and EIGRP:
114. Difference between RIP and EIGRP:
115. Why do we need area of OSPF?
Areas in OSPF provide network scalability, reduce routing traffic, and allow for better network management and
segmentation.
116. Concept of PDU (Protocol Data Unit):
A PDU is a specific unit of data passed between protocols on the same layer of a network.
117. Difference between Public Address and Private Address:
Public Address: Routable and unique address on the public internet.
Private Address: Used within private networks and not routed on the public internet.
118. Why Private address not routed over the internet?
Private addresses are not routed over the internet because they are reserved for use within private networks.
Routers on the internet are configured to filter out and not forward packets with these private addresses to
prevent internal network traffic from leaking onto the public internet. This helps enhance security and ensures
that private network communications remain isolated from the global internet.
119. Difference between Static and Live Dynamic Address:
Static Address: A manually configured IP address that doesn't change.
Dynamic Address: An IP address assigned dynamically by a DHCP server.
120. What is Static, Dynamic, Default Routing?
Static Routing: Static routing involves manually configuring the routing table on a router.
Example: Configuring a router to always send traffic for a specific network through a particular gateway.
Dynamic Routing: Dynamic routing protocols automatically update routing tables based on network changes.
Example: OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) and RIP (Routing Information Protocol) dynamically adjust routing
tables as network conditions change.
Default Routing: Default routing is a configuration that directs traffic to a default gateway when no specific route
is available for a destination.
Example: Setting a router to send all outbound traffic to a default gateway, often used in scenarios where the
router doesn't have specific route information for all destinations.
121. Purpose of Class D and Class E IP Address:
Class D: Reserved for multicast groups.
Class E: Reserved for experimental use and is not commonly used in networking.
122. Concept of Inside Local, Inside Global, Outside Local, and Outside Global:
Inside Local: Local IP address of a device in the private network.
Inside Global: Translated IP address used for external communication.
Outside Local: Remote device's IP address as seen from the inside network.
Outside Global: Remote device's IP address as seen from the outside network.
123. Purpose of NAT (Network Address Translation):
NAT is used to conserve IP addresses, provide security, and allow multiple devices to share a single public IP
address. It is three types:
Static NAT: One-to-one mapping of public IP to private IP.
Dynamic NAT: Maps multiple private IPs to a pool of public IPs.
PAT (Port Address Translation): Maps multiple private IPs to one public IP using different ports on a network.
124. Difference between CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA:
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection): Used in Ethernet networks to handle
collisions and manage media access.
CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance): Used in wireless networks to avoid collisions
due to hidden terminal issues.
125. What is Cloud Computing?
126. What is the difference between authentication and authorization?
Authentication is the process of verifying the identity of a user, while authorization is the process of granting or denying
access based on the authenticated user's permissions.
127. What is encryption, and why is it important in network security?
Encryption is the process of converting information into a secure format to prevent unauthorized access. It is crucial in
network security to protect data confidentiality.
128. Explain the concept of a man-in-the-middle (MitM) attack.
In a MitM attack, an attacker intercepts and possibly alters communication between two parties without their knowledge. It
can lead to data interception and unauthorized access.

129. What is a DDoS attack, and how can it be mitigated?

A Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack overwhelms a target system with a flood of traffic from multiple sources.
Mitigation strategies include traffic filtering, load balancing, and content delivery networks (CDNs).

130. What is a security vulnerability, and how can it be addressed?

A security vulnerability is a weakness in a system that could be exploited by an attacker. Addressing vulnerabilities involves
applying patches, updates, and implementing security best practices.

131. Explain the difference between symmetric and asymmetric encryption.

Symmetric encryption uses a single key for both encryption and decryption, while asymmetric encryption uses a pair of
public and private keys.

132. What is a penetration test, and why is it conducted?

A penetration test, or pen test, is a simulated cyberattack on a system, network, or application to identify vulnerabilities and
weaknesses. It helps organizations assess their security posture.

133. What is the role of an Intrusion Detection System (IDS) in network security?
An IDS monitors network or system activities for malicious activities or security policy violations. It generates alerts or takes
actions to respond to potential threats.

134. Explain the concept of two-factor authentication (2FA).

Two-factor authentication requires users to provide two forms of identification before gaining access, typically involving
something they know (password) and something they have (token).

135. What is the difference between a virus and a worm?

A virus is a malicious program that requires user interaction to spread, while a worm is a self-replicating program that
spreads automatically over a network.

136. What is the purpose of an SSL/TLS certificate in network security?

An SSL/TLS certificate is used to establish a secure and encrypted connection between a user's browser and a web server. It
ensures the confidentiality and integrity of data during transmission.

137. What is the concept of "zero trust" in network security?

The zero-trust model assumes that no user or system within or outside the network should be trusted by default. Access is
granted based on strict verification and need-to-know principles.

138. Explain the concept of a honeypot in network security.

A honeypot is a decoy system or network designed to attract and detect attackers. It helps security professionals study
attack methods and gather information about potential threats.

• Flow control is used in both the data link layer and the network layer to prevent buffer overflow,
maintain synchronization, manage congestion, promote fair resource allocation.
•