Reviewer: Computer Networks and Telecommunications

1. Introduction to Computer Networks

• Definition: A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices

(computers, servers, routers, switches) that communicate with each other to share
resources and information.

• Types of Networks:

o Personal Area Network (PAN): Small network, typically within a single

person's range (e.g., Bluetooth).

o Local Area Network (LAN): Covers a small geographical area, like an office
or home (e.g., Ethernet).

o Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): Spans a city or campus.

o Wide Area Network (WAN): Covers large geographical areas, such as

countries or continents (e.g., the Internet).

2. Networking Models and Protocols

• OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection): A conceptual framework used to

understand network interactions in seven layers:

1. Physical Layer: Transmission of raw data (bits) over a physical medium.

2. Data Link Layer: Error detection and handling, MAC addressing (e.g.,
Ethernet).

3. Network Layer: Routing of data packets (e.g., IP addressing).

4. Transport Layer: Reliable data transfer and error recovery (e.g., TCP/UDP).

5. Session Layer: Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between

applications.

6. Presentation Layer: Data translation, encryption, and compression.

7. Application Layer: Interface for end-user services (e.g., HTTP, FTP, DNS).

• TCP/IP Model: A four-layer model that simplifies OSI:

 o Network Interface Layer (Link Layer)

o Internet Layer

o Transport Layer

o Application Layer

3. Transmission Media

• Wired Media:

o Twisted Pair Cables: Common in LAN (e.g., Cat5, Cat6).

o Coaxial Cable: Used in TV networks and older Ethernet.

o Fiber Optic Cable: High-speed data transmission using light; ideal for long
distances.

• Wireless Media:

o Radio Waves: Used in Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.

o Microwave Transmission: Point-to-point communication, commonly used

in satellite links.

o Infrared: Short-range communication (e.g., remote controls).

4. Network Devices

• Router: Connects different networks and directs data packets between them.

• Switch: Connects devices within the same network and uses MAC addresses to
forward data.

• Hub: A basic networking device that broadcasts data to all devices in a network.

• Firewall: A security device that monitors and controls incoming and outgoing
network traffic.

• Access Point (AP): Extends a wired network by adding Wi-Fi capabilities.

5. IP Addressing and Subnetting

 • IPv4 Addressing: A 32-bit address written in dotted decimal format (e.g.,
192.168.1.1).

o Classes: A, B, C, D, E (Class A, B, and C are used for host addressing).

• IPv6 Addressing: A 128-bit address in hexadecimal format, designed to overcome

IPv4 limitations.

• Subnetting: Dividing a larger network into smaller sub-networks (subnets) to

optimize performance and enhance security.

o Subnet Mask: Defines the network and host portions of an IP address (e.g.,
255.255.255.0).

6. Routing and Switching

• Routing: Process of selecting the best path for data packets to travel across a
network.

o Static Routing: Manually configured routes.

o Dynamic Routing: Uses protocols like RIP, OSPF, and BGP to automatically
find the best path.

• Switching: The process of forwarding data packets within the same network.

o Types of Switching: Circuit switching, Packet switching, and Message

switching.

7. Wireless and Mobile Networks

• Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity): A technology for wireless local area networking (WLAN).

o Standards: 802.11a/b/g/n/ac/ax.

• Bluetooth: Short-range wireless technology for exchanging data.

• Cellular Networks: Mobile networks such as 2G, 3G, 4G (LTE), and 5G.

• IoT (Internet of Things): Interconnection of physical devices over the Internet.

8. Network Security
 • Common Threats:

o Malware: Viruses, worms, trojans.

o Phishing: Fraudulent attempts to obtain sensitive information.

o DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service): Overloading a network service to

make it unavailable.

• Security Measures:

o Encryption: Securing data by converting it into a code.

o Firewalls: Filtering incoming and outgoing network traffic.

o VPN (Virtual Private Network): Creates a secure connection over the

Internet.

o Authentication Protocols: e.g., WPA2 for Wi-Fi security.

9. Telecommunications Fundamentals

• Analog vs. Digital Signals:

o Analog: Continuous signals (e.g., radio waves).

o Digital: Discrete signals (0s and 1s).

• Modulation Techniques:

o AM (Amplitude Modulation)

o FM (Frequency Modulation)

o PM (Phase Modulation)

• Multiplexing: Combining multiple signals into one medium.

o TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)

o FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing)

10. Emerging Technologies in Networking

• 5G Networks: Offers faster speeds, lower latency, and supports IoT.

• Software-Defined Networking (SDN): Decouples the control plane from the data
plane for easier network management.

• Network Function Virtualization (NFV): Virtualizes network services traditionally

run on hardware.

• Cloud Computing: Delivers computing services over the Internet (IaaS, PaaS,
SaaS).

• Edge Computing: Processes data closer to where it is generated to reduce latency.