DBMS-UNIT 4

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM Unit I
CH-1 INTRODUCTION TO PL/SQL
SQL is the natural language of the DBA but suffers from inherent disadvantages. They are
 It does not have procedural capabilities
 SQL statements are passed to the oracle engine one at a time. This decreases the
processing speed in a multi-user environment
 SQL has no facility of programmed handling of error messages.
Advantages of PL/SQL
1. PL/SQL is a development tool that not only supports SQL data manipulation but also
provides facilities for condition checking, branching and looping
2. PL/SQL sends the entire block of SQL code to oracle engine. As the entire block of SQL
code is passed to Oracle engine at one time for execution, all the changes made to the
data in the table are done or undone in one go.
3. PL/SQL facilitates the displaying of user-friendly messages when errors are
encountered.
4. PL/SQL allows declaration and use of variables in blocks of code. The variables are
used to store intermediate results of a query for later processing
5. PL/SQL all sorts of calculations can be done efficiently and quickly
6. Applications written in PL/SQL are portable to any computer hardware system and
operating system.
The Generic PL/SQL block
A single PL/SQL code block consists of a set of SQL statements.This block has to be logically
grouped together for the engine to recognize it as singular block of code.
A PL/SQL block has a definite structure, which can be divided into sections. The sections of
PL/SQL block are
a. Declare section
b. Master begin…end section
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DECLARE Declarations of memory variables, constants, cursors

BEGIN SQL executable statements
PL/ SQL executable statements
EXCEPTION Handles errors that arise during execution of code block between BEGIN
and EXCEPTION
END; End of PL/SQL block
The Declare Section

Code block starts with the declaration section, in which memory variables and other oracle
objects are declared, and initialized if necessary. Once declared they can be used in SQL
statements for data manipulation
The Begin Section
It consists of a set of SQL and PL/SQL statements which describe processes to be applied to
table data. Actual data manipulation, retrieval, branching and looping constructs are
specified in this section.
The Exception Section
This section deals with handling of errors that arise during the execution of data
manipulation statement, which make up the PL/SQL code block. Errors can arise due to
syntax, logic or validation rule violation
The End Section :This marks the end of a PL/SQL block
Structure of PL/SQL block
DECLARE
<declarations section>
BEGIN
<executable command(s)>
EXCEPTION
<exception handling>
END;
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Example:
DECLARE
message varchar2(20):= 'Hello, World!';
BEGIN
dbms_output.put_line(message);
END;
/
PL/SQL Execution Environment:
The PL/SQL engine accepts any valid PL/SQL block as input
PL/SQL engine resides in the Oracle engine. Oracle engine can process both SQL statements
and PL/SQL blocks.These blocks are sent to the PL/SQL engine, where the procedural
statements are executed. SQL statements are sent to the SQL executor in the Oracle engine.
The call to the oracle engine needs to be made only once to execute any number of SQL
statements if these SQL statements are bundled inside a PL/SQL block
PL/SQL Character set:

The basic character set in PL/SQL includes
Upper case letters {A..Z},Lower case letters {a..z}
Numerals {0..9},Symbols ( ) + - * / < > = ! @ %
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Words used in PL/SQL blocks are called lexical units. Blank spaces can freely be inserted
between lexical units in a PL/SQL block.
A literal is a numeric or character string used to represent itself. A numeric literal can be a
integer or float value. E.g. 5, -20, 29.6. A string literal is a set of two or more characters
enclosed in single quotes.E.g. ‘Hello’, ‘Hi’.A character literal is a single character enclosed in
single quotes. E.g. ‘Y’, ‘N’, ‘m’. Boolean literals or logical literals are predetermined
constants. The values these literals can hold are TRUE, FALSE, NULL
PL/SQL Data types
The default data types that can be declared in PL/SQL are
1. Number – Numeric values, on which arithmetic operations are performed.
2. Character – Alphanumeric values that represent single characters or strings of
characters.
3. Boolean – Logical values, on which logical operations are performed.
4. Date/time – Date and time.
The above data types can have NULL values.
5. The % type attribute is used to declare variables based on the definitions of
columns in a table. It helps to declare a variable or constant to have same data
type as that of a column declared in a table.
Variables
A variable in PL/SQL is a named variable. A variable name must begin with a character and
can be followed by a maximum of 29 characters. Reserved words cannot be used as variable
names unless enclosed within double quotes.
A blank space cannot be embedded in a variable name. variable names are not case
sensitive. Variables are separated from each other by a comma.
Values can be assigned to variables in two ways:
1. Using the assignment operator :=
2. Selecting or fetching table data values into variables
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Constants: A constant is declared in the same way as how a variable is declared. The only
difference is that we use a keyword constant and a value is assigned to it immediately.
Thereafter no further assignments can be made.
Logical Comparisons
Comparisons in PL/SQL can be made using Boolean expressions. A Boolean expression
consists of variables separated by relational operators{<,>,<=,>=,<>}.
A logical expression is a combination of two or more Boolean expressions separated by
logical operators{AND,OR, NOT}.
A Boolean expression always evaluates to TRUE, FALSE or NULL.
Displaying user messages on the VDU:

DBMS_OUTPUT is a package that includes a number of functions and procedures that
accumulate information in a buffer so that it can be retrieved later. These functions can also
be used to display a user message on the screen.
PUT_LINE puts a piece of information in package buffer followed by end of the line marker.
It expects a single parameter of character data type.
In order to display a message, SERVEROUTPUT should be set ON.
It is a SQL*Plus environment parameter that displays the information passed as parameter
to the PUT_LINE function.
Syntax: SET SERVEROUTPUT [ON/OFF]
Comments:
A comment in PL/SQL can be written in two ways:
1. It can begin with a double hyphen(--). Here, the entire line can be treated as a comment.
2. A group of lines can be enclosed between /* and */. All the lines will be ignored for
processing
Example:
a. --Single line comment
b. /* This is
a comment*/
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Example of PL/SQL code

SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
DECLARE
-- constant declaration
pi constant number := 3.141592654;
-- other declarations
radius number(5,2);
circumference number(7, 2);
area number (10, 2);
BEGIN
-- processing
radius := 9.5;
circumference := 2.0 * pi * radius;
area := pi * radius * radius;
-- output
dbms_output.put_line('Radius: ' || radius);
dbms_output.put_line('Circumference: ' || circumference);
dbms_output.put_line('Area: ' || area);
END;
SET SERVEROUTPUT OFF
/
Control Structures
The flow of control statements can be classified as
•Conditional control
•Iterative control
Conditional control
PL/SQL allows the use of an IF statement to control the execution of a block of code.
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In PL/SQL, IF-THEN-ELSE-END structure allows to check certain conditions under which a

specific block of code should be executed.
The different forms of IF statements are as follows:
1) IF condition THEN
<action>
ELSIF<condition> THEN
<action>
Else
<action>
END IF;
2) IF condition THEN
statement 1;
ELSE
statement 2;
END IF;
3)IF condition 1 THEN
statement 1;
statement 2;
ELSIF condtion2 THEN
statement 3;
ELSE
statement 4;
END IF;
Example:
set serveroutput on
declare
x number(2);
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y number(2);
begin
x:=&x;
y:=&y;
if x>y then
dbms_output.put_line (x || 'is bigger');
else
dbms_output.put_line (y || 'is bigger');
end if;
end;
Output:
Enter value for x: 35
Enter value for y: 25
35is bigger
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
Iterative control
Iterative control indicates the ability to repeat sections of code. A loop marks the
sequence of statements that has to be repeated. Iterative control Statements are used when
we want to repeat the execution of one or more statements for specified number of times.
There are three types of loops in PL/SQL:
• Simple Loop
• While loop
• For loop
Simple Loop
A Simple Loop is used when a set of statements is to be executed at least once before
the loop terminates. An EXIT condition must be specified in the loop, otherwise the loop will
get into an infinite number of iterations. When the EXIT condition is satisfied the process
exits from the loop.
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Syntax of Simple Loop:

LOOP
<sequence of statements>;
[EXIT WHEN condition;]
END LOOP;
Example:
set serveroutput on
declare
i number:=0;
begin
dbms_output.put_line('Even numbers from 1 to 10 are:');
loop
i:= i+2;
dbms_output.put_line (i);
exit when i>=10;
end loop;
end;
Output:
Even numbers from 1 to 10 are:
2
4
6
8
10
While loop
A WHILE LOOP is used when a set of statements has to be executed as long as a condition is
true. The condition is evaluated at the beginning of each iteration. The iteration continues
until the condition becomes false.
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Syntax of WHILE LOOP is:

WHILE <condition>
LOOP
<Action>
END LOOP;
Example:
set serveroutput on
declare
pi constant number(5,2):=3.14;
r number(2);
c number(5,2);
begin
r:=3;
while r<=7
loop
c:=2*pi*r;
insert into circle values(r,c);
r:=r+1;
end loop;
end;
Output:
SQL> select * from circle;
RADIUS CIRCUM
---------- ----------
3 18.84
4 25.12
5 31.4
6 37.68
7 43.96
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FOR Loop
A FOR LOOP is used to execute a set of statements for a predetermined number of times.
Iteration occurs between the start and end integer values given. The counter is always
incremented by 1. The loop exits when the counter reachs the value of the end integer.
Syntax of FOR LOOP is:
FOR variable IN [REVERSE] start…end
LOOP
<action>
END LOOP;
Example:
set serveroutput on
declare
i number;
n number;
f number:=1;
begin
n:=&n;
for i in 1..n
loop
f:=f*i;
end loop;
dbms_output.put_line('Factorial is '|| f);
end;
Output:
Enter value for n: 5
Factorial is 120
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CH-2 PL/SQL Transactions

A series of one or more SQL statements that are logically related or a series of
operations performed on the Oracle table data is called as a transaction.
Oracle treats changes made to data in a table as a two step process.
 First, the requested changes are done. In order to make these changes permanent, a
COMMIT statement is issued at the SQL prompt.
 A ROLLBACK statement issued at the SQL prompt can be used to undo a part of or
the entire transaction.
A transaction begins with the first executable statement after a commit, rollback or a
connection made to the Oracle engine.
A transaction is a group of events that occur between any of the following events:
•Connecting to Oracle
•Disconnecting from Oracle
•Committing changes to database table
•Rollback
Closing Transactions – A transaction can be closed using either a commit or rollback
statement. By using these statements, table data can be changes or all the changes made to
the table data can be undone.
COMMIT – A commit ends the current transaction and makes permanent any changes made
to the table data during a transaction. Syntax: commit;
SAVEPOINT – It marks and saves the current point in the processing of a transaction. When
a savepoint is used with a rollback statement, parts of the transaction can be undone. An
active savepoint is one that is specified since the last COMMIT or ROLLBACK.
Syntax: savepoint <savepointname>;
ROLLBACK – A rollback does exactly the opposite of COMMIT. It ends the transaction but
undoes any changes made during the transaction. Rollback can be fired at the SQL prompt
with or without savepoint clause.
Syntax: rollback [work] [to [savepoint]<savepointname>];
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CURSORS
The Oracle engine uses a work area for its internal processing in order to execute an SQL
statement. This work area is private to SQL operations and is called a Cursor.
The data that is stored in the cursor is called the Active Data Set. The size of the cursor in
the memory is the size required to hold the number of rows in the active data set. Oracle has
a predefined area in the main memory set aside, within which cursors are opened.
A cursor contains information on a select statement and the rows of data accessed by
it. A cursor can hold more than one row, but can process only one row at a time.
Cursors are classified depending on the circumstances under which they are
opened.Both implicit and explicit cursors have the same functionality, but they differ in the
way they are accessed
Implicit cursors
If the oracle engine opened a cursor for its internal processing, it is known as implicit
cursor. These are created by default when DML statements like, INSERT, UPDATE, and
DELETE statements are executed. They are also created when a SELECT statement that
returns just one row is executed.
Implicit Cursor Attributes:
AttributesReturn Value Example
%FOUND The return value is TRUE, if the DML SQL%FOUND
statements like INSERT, DELETE and
UPDATE affect at least one row and if
SELECT ….INTO statement return at least one
row.
The return value is FALSE, if DML statements
like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE do not
affect row and if SELECT….INTO statement
do not return a row.
%NOTFOUND The return value is FALSE, if DML statements SQL%NOTFOUND
like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE at least
one row and if SELECT ….INTO statement
return at least one row.
The return value is TRUE, if a DML statement
like INSERT, DELETE and UPDATE do not
affect even one row and if SELECT ….INTO
statement does not return a row.
%ROWCOUNT Return the number of rows affected by the SQL%ROWCOUNT
DML operations INSERT, DELETE, UPDATE,
SELECT
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Example: Consider the PL/SQL Block that uses implicit cursor attributes as shown below:
/*increase the salary of all employees by 1000*/
DECLARE var_rows number(5);
BEGIN
UPDATE employ
SET salary = salary + 1000;
IF SQL%NOTFOUND THEN
dbms_output.put_line('None of the salaries where updated');
ELSIF SQL%FOUND THEN
var_rows := SQL%ROWCOUNT;
dbms_output.put_line('Salaries for ' || var_rows || 'employees are updated');
END IF;
END;
Output:
Salaries for 7employees are updated
Explicit cursors
A cursor can be opened They must be created when you are executing a SELECT statement
that returns more than one row. Even though the cursor stores multiple records, only one
record can be processed at a time, which is called as current row.
When you fetch a row the current row position moves to next row. When individual
records in a table have to be processed inside a PL/SQL block explicit cursor is used. This
cursor will be declared and mapped to an SQL query in the declare section of the PL/SQL
block and used with the executable section of PL/SQL block.
The steps involved in using explicit cursor and manipulating data are
•Declare a cursor in the declare section of PL/SQL block
•Open the cursor
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•Fetch the data from the cursor one row at a time into the memory variables
•Process the data that was fetched
•Exit from the loop after the processing is complete
•Close the cursor
Explicit cursor attributes

AttributesReturn Value Example
%ISOPEN Evaluates to TRUE, if an explicit cursor is Cursor_name%ISOPEN
open. It returns FALSE if the cursor is closed
%FOUND The return value is TRUE, if the DML Cursor_name%FOUND
UPDATE affect at least one row and if
SELECT ….INTO statement return at least
one row.
The return value is FALSE, if DML
UPDATE do not affect row and if
SELECT….INTO statement do not return a
row.
%NOTFOUND The return value is FALSE, if DML Cursor_name%NOTFOUND
UPDATE at least one row and if SELECT
….INTO statement return at least one row.
The return value is TRUE, if a DML
statement like INSERT, DELETE and
UPDATE do not affect even one row and if
SELECT ….INTO statement does not return
a row.
%ROWCOUNT Return the number of rows affected by the Cursor_name%ROWCOUNT
DML operations INSERT, DELETE,
UPDATE, SELECT
Functionality of Open, Fetch and Close commands

Declaring a cursor – A cursor is declared in the declare section of the PL/SQL block. This is
done to create an active data set. The cursor name is used to reference the active data set
that is held within the cursor
Syntax:
CURSOR cursor-name IS SELECT statement;
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Example:
DECLARE
CURSOR emp_cur IS
SELECT *
FROM employ
WHERE salary > 5000;
In the above example we are creating a cursor ‘emp_cur’ on a query which returns the
records of all the employees with salary greater than 5000.
Opening a cursor – Opening a cursor executes a query and creates an active data set that
contains all rows which meet the search criteria of the query. An open statement retrieves
the records from the table and places the records in the cursor
Syntax:
OPEN cursor_name;
Fetching records from the cursor – The fetch statement retrieves the rows from the active
data set into the memory variables declared in the PL/SQL block one row at a time. Each
time a fetch statement is executed, the cursor pointer is advances to the next row in the
active data set.
Syntax:
FETCH cursor-name INTO variable list;
Closing a cursor – The close statement disables the cursor and the active data set becomes
undefined. This will release the memory occupied by the cursor and the active data set.
Syntax:
CLOSE cursor-name;
General Form of using an explicit cursor is:
DECLARE
variables;
records;
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create a cursor;
BEGIN
OPEN cursor;
FETCH cursor;
process the records;
CLOSE cursor;
END;
Example:
/*Display employee name and salary whose salary is more than 6000*/
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
DECLARE
emp_rec employ%rowtype;
CURSOR emp_cur IS
SELECT *
FROM employ
WHERE sal > 6000;
BEGIN
OPEN emp_cur;
FETCH emp_cur INTO emp_rec;
dbms_output.put_line (emp_rec.ename || ' ' || emp_rec.sal);
CLOSE emp_cur;
END;
/
Output:
SQL> @EXPCUR.SQL
Gita 7000
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Cursor FOR LOOP

When using FOR LOOP you need not declare a record or variables to store the cursor
values, need not open, fetch and close the cursor. These functions are accomplished by the
FOR LOOP automatically.
General Syntax for using FOR LOOP:
FOR record_name IN cursor_name
LOOP
process the row...
END LOOP;
Example:
/*To display all employees whose salary is greater than 9000*/
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
DECLARE
CURSOR emp_cur IS
SELECT *
FROM employ
WHERE sal > 9000;
BEGIN
for emp_rec in emp_cur
loop
dbms_output.put_line (emp_rec.ename || ' ' || emp_rec.sal);
end loop;
END;
/
Output:
Rani 10000
Ranbir 11000
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Parameterized Cursors
Oracle permits the data that is retrieved from the table be allowed to change
according to need. The contents of parameterized cursor will constantly change depending
on the value that is passed as parameter. Since the cursor accepts user-defined values into
its parameters, thus changing the result set extracted, it is called parameterized cursor.
Declaring Parameterized cursor:
Syntax: CURSOR cursor_name IS <SELECT statement>;
Opening a Parameterized Cursor:
Syntax: OPEN cursor_name(value/variable/expression);
Example:/*DISPLAY DETAILS OF STUDENT WITH ROLLNUMBER */
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
DECLARE
cursor c(no number) is select * from student
where rollno = no;
tmp student%rowtype;
BEGIN
FOR tmp IN c(14)
LOOP
dbms_output.put_line('ROLLNO: '||tmp.rollno);
dbms_output.put_line('STUDENT_Name: '||tmp.name);
dbms_output.put_line('TOTAL: '||tmp.total);
dbms_output.put_line('COURSE: '||tmp.course);
END Loop;
END;
/
Output:
ROLLNO: 14
STUDENT_Name: Gita
TOTAL: 145
COURSE: bca
PL/SQL procedure successfully completed
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CH-3 PL/SQL Database Objects
PROCEDURES AND FUNCTIONS

Procedures or Functions is a logically grouped set of SQL and PL/SQL statements
that perform a specific task.
A stored procedure or function is a named PL/SQL code block that has been compiled and
stored in one of the oracle engine’s system tables .
Procedure and functions consists of
1. A declarative part
2. An Executable part
3. An exceptional –handling part (optional)
Oracle engine performs the following steps automatically while creating a procedure or
function
• Compiles the procedure or function
• Stores the procedure or function in the database
The oracle engine compiles the PL/SQL block. If errors occur during the compilation of
procedure or function, an invalid procedure or function gets created. The oracle engine
displays the message after creation of that the procedure or function was created with
compilation errors. The compilation process does not display any errors. These errors can
be viewed by giving the following statement at the SQL prompt
SQL> SELECT * FROM USER_ERRORS;
Advantages of using procedure or function

The following are the advantages of using functions or procedures
a. Security : Stored procedures and functions can help to enforce data security.
For example, we can give permission to a stored procedures or function to query a table and
grant permission to the user to use the stored procedures or function, rather than the table
itself.
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b. Performance: it improves database performance in the following ways:

• Amount of information sent over network is less
• No compilation step to execute the code
c. Memory allocation: the amount of memory used reduces as stored procedures and
functions have shared memory capability. Only one copy of stored procedure or function
needs to be loaded for execution by multiple users.
d. Productivity – redundant coding can be avoided thereby increasing the productivity
e. Integrity: Stored procedures and functions need to be tested only once to guarantee that
it returns accurate result.
Procedures:
A stored procedure or in simple a proc is a named PL/SQL block which performs one
or more specific task. This is similar to a procedure in other programming languages. A
procedure has a header and a body.
The header consists of the name of the procedure and the parameters or variables
passed to the procedure. The body consists or declaration section, execution section and
exception section similar to a general PL/SQL Block. A procedure is similar to an
anonymous PL/SQL Block but it is named for repeated usage.
General Syntax to create a procedure is:
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE procedure-name
(<Argument> {IN, OUT, IN OUT}<data type>…)
IS
Declaration section
BEGIN
Execution section
EXCEPTION
Exception section
END;
We can pass parameters to procedures in three ways.
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1. IN – indicates that the parameter will accept a value from the user
2. OUT – indicates that the parameter will return a value to the user
3. IN OUT - indicates that the parameter will either accept a value from the user or
return a value to the user
Example:
/*procedure */
CREATE or REPLACE PROCEDURE pro1(no in number,temp out student%rowtype)
IS
BEGIN
SELECT * INTO temp FROM student WHERE rollno = no;
END;
/
SQL> @proc1;
Procedure created.
SQL> ed sqlproc.sql
/*PL-SQL code for implementing procedure*/
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
DECLARE
temp student%rowtype;
no number :=&no;
BEGIN
pro1(no,temp);
dbms_output.put_line(temp.rollno||' '|| temp.name||' '||temp.total);
END;
/
Output:
Enter value for no: 12
12 Sriram 235
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Functions: A function is a named PL/SQL Block which is similar to a procedure. The major
difference between a procedure and a function is, a function must always return a value, but
a procedure may or may not return a value. Here, return type in the header section defines
the return type of the function. The return data type can be any of the oracle data type like
varchar, number etc.
Syntax for creating a function:
CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION <function_name>
(<Argument> {IN }<data type>…)
RETURN return_datatype;
IS
Declaration_section
BEGIN
Execution_section
Return return_variable;
EXCEPTION
exception section
Return return_variable;
END;
Example:
SQL> ED STUDFUN.SQL
/*create a function*/
CREATE or REPLACE FUNCTION STUDFUN(no in number) RETURN varchar2
IS
name varchar2(20);
BEGIN
select name into name from student where rollno = no;
return name;
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END;
SQL> @STUDFUN.SQL;
Function created.
SQL> ed plfun.sql
/*PL-SQL block to call the function*/

SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
DECLARE
no number :=&no;
name varchar2(20);
BEGIN
name := studfun(no);
dbms_output.put_line('Name:'||' '||name);
END;
Output:
Enter value for no: 12
old 2: no number :=&no;
new 2: no number :=12;
Name: Sriram

Procedures versus Functions:
The differences between a procedure and a function are listed below:
•A function must return a value back to the caller. A function can return only one value to
the called PL/SQL block
•By defining multiple OUT parameters in a procedure, multiple values can be passed to the
caller. The OUT variable is global in nature. Hence, it can be accessible by any PL/SQL code
block.
Deleting a stored procedure or function
DROP PROCEDURE <PROCEDURENAME?
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ORACLE PACKAGES
A package is an Oracle object, which holds other objects within it. PL/SQL packages
are schema objects that groups logically related procedures, functions, constants,
variables and cursors. It is a way of creating generic, encapsulated and reusable code. A
package once written and debugged is compiled and stored in Oracle’s system tables held in
Oracle database. Packages contain PL/SQL blocks of code, which have been written to
perform some process entirely on their own. These PL/SQL blocks do not require any input
from other PL/SQL blocks of code.
Components of an Oracle Package:
A package has usually two components – specification and a body.
Package Specification:
The specification is the interface to the package. It just DECLARES the types,
variables, constants, exceptions, cursors, and subprograms that can be referenced from
outside the package. In other words, it contains all information about the content of the
package, but excludes the code for the subprograms. All objects placed in the specification
are called public objects. Any subprogram not in the package specification but coded in the
package body is called a private object.
Package specification contains
• Name of the package
• Names of the data types of any arguments
• This declaration is local to the database and global to the package
The syntax for package specification is as follows:
CREATE PACKAGE <package-specification-name> IS
<function declaration>
<procedure declaration >
END<package-specification-name>;
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Package Body:
The body of a package contains the definition of the public objects that are declared
in the specification. The package body has the codes for various methods declared in the
package The CREATE PACKAGE BODY Statement is used for creating the package body. The
syntax for creating package body is as follows:
CREATE PACKAGE BODY <package-name> AS
<function definition >
<procedure definition>
END<package-name>;
Advantages of Packages
Packages offer the following advantages
• Packages enable organizing applications as efficient modules
• It allows granting of privileges efficiently
• They enable overloading of procedures and functions, if required
• They promote reusability of code
• They improve performance by loading multiple objects into the memory at once.
Creating a Package:
The first step in creating a package is to create its specification. The specification
declares the objects that are contained in the body of the package. A package can include
functions and procedures. After the specification is created, the body of the package needs
to be created. The body of the package is a collection of detailed definitions of the objects
that were declared in the specification.
Example:
Display the student name, course and total by implementing package
/*Creating package specification*/
SQL> ed sampkg
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CREATE or REPLACE PACKAGE pkg1

AS
PROCEDURE janpro1
(no in number);
FUNCTION janfun1
(no in number)
RETURN number;
END pkg1;
/
SQL> @sampkg;
Package created.
/*Creating body of package*/

SQL> ed pkgbody
CREATE or REPLACE PACKAGE BODY pkg1
AS
FUNCTION janfun1(no in number) return number
IS
tot number;
BEGIN
select total into tot from student where rollno = no;
return tot;
END;
PROCEDURE janpro1(no in number)

IS
temp1 student.name%type;
temp2 student.course%type;
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BEGIN
select name,course into temp1, temp2 from student where rollno = no;
dbms_output.put_line('Student Name:' || temp1);
dbms_output.put_line('Course Name:' || temp2);
END;
ERROR HANDLING IN PL/SQL
An exception handler is nothing but a code block in memory that will attempt to resolve the
current exception condition. The oracle engine can recognize every exception condition that
occurs in the memory. To handle very common and repetitive exception conditions, the
oracle engine uses Named Exception Handlers.
PL/SQL Errors are pre-defined and are automatically raised by Oracle whenever an error is
encountered. Each error is assigned a unique number and a message. In PL/SQL, a warning
or error condition is called an exception. Exceptions can be internally defined (by the run-
time system) or user defined.
Examples of internally defined exceptions include division by zero and out of
memory. Some common internal exceptions have predefined names, such as ZERO_DIVIDE
and STORAGE_ERROR. The other internal exceptions can be given names.
When an error occurs, an exception is raised. That is, normal execution stops and
control transfers to the exception-handling part of your PL/SQL block or subprogram.
Internal exceptions are raised implicitly (automatically) by the run-time system. User-
defined exceptions must be raised explicitly by RAISE statements, which can also raise
predefined exceptions. To handle raised exceptions, you write separate routines called
exception handlers.
Syntax:
EXCEPTION
WHEN<Exception Name> THEN
<User Defined Action to be carried out>
Oracle’s Named Exception Handlers
BCA III SEM Page 28

The Oracle engine has a set of predefined Oracle error handlers called Named
Exceptions. These error handlers are referenced by their names. Some of the pre-defined
Oracle named exception handlers are listed below
DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX Raised when an insert or update attempts to create two rows with
duplicate values in columns constrained by unique index
LOGIN_DENIED Raised when an invalid user name/password is used to log onto Oracle
NO_DATA_FOUND Raised when a select statement returns zero rows
NOT_LOGGED_ON Raised when PL/SQL issues an Oracle call without being logged onto
Oracle
PROGRAM_ERROR Raised when PL/SQL has an internal problem
TOO_MANY_ROWS Raised when a select statement returns more than one row
VALUE_ERROR Raised when the data type or data size is invalid
OTHERS Stands for all other exceptions not explicitly named
User-Named Exception Handlers

This technique is used to bind a numbered exception handler to a name using
Pragma Exception_init(). This binding of a numbered exception handler, to a name
(String) is done in the declare section of the PL/SQL block. The Pragma action word is a call
to a pre-compiler, which immediately binds the numbered exception handler to the name
when encountered. The function Exception_init() takes two parameters – the first is the
user defined exception name and the second is the Oracle engine’s exception number. These
lines will be included in the declare section of the PL/SQL block.
Syntax:
DECLARE
<Exception Name> EXCEPTION
PRAGMA EXCEPTION_INIT(<Exception Name>,<Error Code>);
BEGIN
…..
BCA III SEM Page 29

EXCEPTION
WHEN<Exception Name> THEN
<Action>
END;
User Defined Exception Handlers
User Defined Exception Handlers for Business Rule Validation
In commercial applications, data that is being manipulated needs to be validated
against business rules. If the data violates a business rule, the entire record must be
rejected. To trap business rules being violated the technique of raising user-defined
exceptions and then handling them is used.
User defined error conditions are declared in the DECLARE section of PL/SQL block.
In the executable part, a check for the condition is made. If the condition exists, the call to
the user defined exception is made using RAISE statement. The exception once raised is
then handled in the exception handling section of the PL/SQL code block.
Syntax:
DECLARE
<<Exception Name> Exception;
BEGIN
SQL statements;
IF <condition>THEN
RAISE <Exception Name>;
END IF;
EXCEPTION
WHEN <Exception Name> THEN {user-defined action}
END
Example:
SET SERVEROUTPUT ON
DECLARE
BCA III SEM Page 30

myex EXCEPTION;
i NUMBER;
BEGIN
FOR i IN (SELECT * FROM student)
LOOP
IF i.rollno = 15 THEN
RAISE myex;
END IF;
END LOOP;
EXCEPTION
WHEN myex THEN
dbms_output.put_line('ROLLNO is Filled Already');
END;
/
BCA III SEM Page 31

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DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM Unit I

CH-1 INTRODUCTION TO PL/SQL

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DECLARE Declarations of memory variables, constants, cursors

The Declare Section

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PL/SQL Character set:

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Displaying user messages on the VDU:

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Example of PL/SQL code

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In PL/SQL, IF-THEN-ELSE-END structure allows to check certain conditions under which a

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Syntax of Simple Loop:

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Syntax of WHILE LOOP is:

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CH-2 PL/SQL Transactions

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Explicit cursor attributes

Functionality of Open, Fetch and Close commands

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Cursor FOR LOOP

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CH-3 PL/SQL Database Objects

PROCEDURES AND FUNCTIONS

Advantages of using procedure or function

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b. Performance: it improves database performance in the following ways:

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/*PL-SQL block to call the function*/

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

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CREATE or REPLACE PACKAGE pkg1

/*Creating body of package*/

PROCEDURE janpro1(no in number)

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User-Named Exception Handlers

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/PL-SQL block to call the function/

/Creating body of package/