BTECCE21503: Computer Networks

BTECH TY Comp ,Pattern-2021

Computer Networks

UNIT - I
Introduction to Physical Layer and Data Link Layer

Teaching Scheme: Theory (TH) : 3 hrs/week

Credit Scheme: 03 Credit
Examination Scheme:
CIE: 50 Marks
ESE: 50 Marks

Unit I : Introduction to Physical Layer and Data Link Layer 1

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Course Description

• This course will help students to understand characteristics and suitability of

various communication protocols.

• It will also highlight the basics of transport protocols programming for different
applications and help students to gain insight into design and deployment of
Computer Networks.

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Course Outcomes
1. Analyze the design issues of data link layer.

2. Evaluate the different aspects of media access control protocol.

3. Learn and understand various Network layer Protocols.

4. Implement socket programming suitable for connection oriented and connection less protocols.

5. Understand application level protocol.

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Introduction to Physical Layer and Data Link Layer

• Transmission media: Guided/Bounded - Twisted Pair, Coaxial and Fiber-optic cables, Ethernet.
• Overview of protocol suite: OSI and TCP/IP, infrastructure network, ad-hoc network.
• Data Link Layer: Design Issues, Error Detection and correction, Examples on Checksum,
Stop-and-Wait protocol, Sliding Window protocols, HDLC. Point-to-Point-Access (PPP): Frame format,
Transition states, PPP Stack: LCP, NCP.

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Syllabus GAP

• Types of Computer Network

• Network Components
• Topology

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Computer Network
• Interconnecting devices for transmitting and sharing information

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Computer Components

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Computer Components

Computer, Mobile, Router, switch, server, gateway,

Network Devices
access point

Links Wired, Wireless

Communication
Layered Protocol- IP, TCP,UDP, DHCP, SMTP, etc.
Protocols

Network Defense Firewall, IDS, IPS, Antivirus etc.

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Types of Computer Networks

• AD-HOC Network

• LAN – Local Area Network

• MAN – Metropolitan Area Network

• WAN – Wide Area Network

• VPN – Virtual Private Network

• Cloud Network

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Topology
• Bus Topology

• Ring topology

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Topology
• Star Topology

• Mesh Topology

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Topology
• Hybrid Topology

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OSI Reference Model

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The TCP/IP Reference Model

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Physical Layer

• The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one hop (node)
to the next.
• Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium - interface between the devices and
the transmission medium. It also defines the type of transmission medium.
• Representation of bits. -The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence
of Os or 1s) with no interpretation
• Data rate - The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also defined by
the physical layer.
• Synchronization of bits - The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate
but also must be synchronized at the bit level.
• Line configuration – Point to Point / Multipoint configuration
• Physical topology – It defines how devices are connected to make a network.
• Transmission mode - simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex

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Transmission media

Guided/Bounded Media
The purpose of the physical layer is to transport bits from one machine to another.
Transmission media that rely on a physical cable or wire are often called guided
transmission media because the signal transmissions are guided along a path with a
physical cable or wire.

Examples of guided transmission media

• Copper Cable – Co-axial cable & Twisted Pair cable
• Fiber Optic cable

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Twisted Pair Cable

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)- Copper core with

plastic cover.

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)- STP cable has a metal

foil or braided-mesh covering that encases each pair
of insulated conductors. Although metal casing
improves the quality of cable by preventing the
penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier and
more expensive.

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Twisted Pair Cable

Twisted pairs can be used for

transmitting either analog or digital
information. The bandwidth depends
on the thickness of the wire and the
distance traveled

Why twisted pair cables are

Twisted?

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Categories of Twisted Pair Cable

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Connector for Twisted Pair Cable

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Applications of Twisted Pair Cable

• Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and

data channels.

• The digital subscriber lines (DSLs) that are used by the telephone
companies to provide high-data-rate connections also use the high
bandwidth capability of unshielded twisted-pair cables.

• Computer Local Area Network

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Coaxial Cable

Better shielding and greater bandwidth than unshielded twisted pairs, so it can span longer distances at
higher speeds.

50-ohm Coaxial cable - It is commonly used for digital transmission

75-ohm Coaxial cable – It is commonly used for analog transmission and cable
television.

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Coaxial Cable

• Better shielding and greater bandwidth than unshielded twisted

pairs, so it can span longer distances at higher speeds.

• Although coaxial cable has a much higher bandwidth, the signal

weakens rapidly and requires the frequent use of repeaters.

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Coaxial Cable Connector

BNC - Bayonet Neill–Concelman

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Applications of Coaxial Cable

• Telephone networks where a single coaxial network could carry 10,000

voice signals.
• Digital telephone networks where a single coaxial cable could carry digital
data up to 600 Mbps.
• Cable TV networks

Now a days telephone network and cable TV network replaced most of the
media with fiber-optic cable.

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Applications of Coaxial Cable

• Telephone networks where a single coaxial network could carry 10,000

voice signals.
• Digital telephone networks where a single coaxial cable could carry digital
data up to 600 Mbps.
• Cable TV networks

Now a days telephone network and cable TV network replaced most of the
media with fiber-optic cable.

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fiber-optic cable
A high-bandwidth transmission medium that carries data signals in the form of
pulses of light.
It consists of a thin cylinder of glass or plastic, called the core, surrounded by a
concentric layer of glass or plastic called the cladding.

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fiber-optic cable

Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel.

A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic.

Performance - The attenuation in an optical fiber is much less than in a twisted-pair cable

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Applications of fiber-optic cable

• Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide

• bandwidth is cost effective
• Cable TV network
• Local Area Network
• Metropolitan Area Network

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Ethernet

Ethernet is the most popular physical layer LAN technology in use today.
It defines the number of conductors that are required for a connection, the
performance thresholds that can be expected, and provides the framework
for data transmission.

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Ethernet
History –
The original Ethernet was created in 1976 at Xerox’s Palo Alto Research Center
(PARC). In 1985, the Computer Society of the IEEE started a project, called Project
802, to set standards to enable intercommunication among equipment from a variety of
manufacturers Since then, it has gone through four generations.
IEEE Standard – 802.3

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Standard Ethernet (10 Mbps)

Standard Ethernet implementations

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Standard Ethernet (10 Mbps)

10Base5 implementation

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Standard Ethernet (10 Mbps)

10Base2 implementation

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Standard Ethernet (10 Mbps)

10Base T implementation

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Standard Ethernet (10 Mbps)

10Base F implementation

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Standard Ethernet (10 Mbps)

Summary of Standard Ethernet implementations

Encoding and Decoding

All standard implementations use digital signaling (baseband) at 10 Mbps. At the
sender, data are converted to a digital signal using the line coding scheme; at the
receiver, the received signal is interpreted as coded and decoded into data
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FAST ETHERNET(100 Mbps)

Advanced LAN technologies such as Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) and
Fibre Channel require speed more than 10 Mbps. So, Ethernet made a big jump by
increasing the transmission rate to 100 Mbps, and the new generation was called the
Fast Ethernet.

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Fast Ethernet Topologies

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Fast Ethernet Implementation

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GIGABIT ETHERNET

The need for an even higher data rate resulted in the design of the Gigabit
Ethernet Protocol (1000 Mbps).

In the full-duplex mode of Gigabit Ethernet, there is no collision; the maximum

length of the cable is determined by the signal attenuation in the cable.

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Topologies in Gigabit Ethernet

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Gigabit Ethernet Implementation

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10-Gigabit Ethernet
Ethernet can be used as a LAN and a metropolitan area network(MAN).
10 Gigabit Ethernet design can be summarized as upgrading the data rate to 10 Gbps.
Interconnection of LANs, MANs, and WANs.
The data rate is possible only with fiber-optic technology.
10 Gigabit Ethernet operates only in full-duplex mode.
10GBase-SR, 10GBase-LR, 10GBase- EW, and 10GBase-X4.

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10-Gigabit Ethernet Implementation

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Overview of protocol suite

A single-layer protocol

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Overview of protocol suite

A three-layer protocol

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Overview of protocol suite

• OSI Model

• TCP-IP Model

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The OSI model

An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate
regardless of their underlying architecture.
• ISO is the organization
• An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network communications is the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model.
• OSI is the model.

The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows
communication between all types of computer systems.

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The OSI model

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The OSI model

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The OSI model

Three concepts are central to the OSI

• Services.

• Interfaces.

• Protocols.

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The TCP/IP Reference Model

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The TCP/IP Reference Model - Addresses

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Ad-Hoc and Infrastructure Network

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Infrastructure network

• Infrastructure network is a wired network.

• All the stations are connected to a fixed wired network.

• Infrastructure mode is when the wireless network requires a physical

structure to support it. This essentially means there should be a
medium handling the network functions, creating an infrastructure
around which the network sustains.

• All the wireless devices are connected to a fixed point known as

Access Point(AP).

• AP is responsible for any type of communication between the nodes.

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Disadvantage Infrastructure network

• The one major downfall with infrastructure networks is

that they are costly and time consuming to set up once.

• If you need your device to operate in remote areas

where the infrastructure is weak or non-existent, you
cannot rely on infrastructure networks.

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AD-HOC Network

• Ease of deployment

• Speed of deployment

• Decreased dependence on
infrastructure

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AD-HOC Network
• Interference and noise easily hinder the communication between the nodes.
However, detecting an error is easy in ad hoc network as compared to
infrastructure network.
• configuration and reinstallation is economical.

• These networks do not need much maintenance.

• This type of network is fit for smaller coverage area.

• The routing in infrastructure networks is taken care of by the access point, in

ad-hoc networks the nodes in the network take care of routing.

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Disadvantages of AD-HOC Network

• As the routing is handled by each node in the network, this uses

more resources; as the number of devices connected in an ad-hoc
network increases, the network interference increases, which may
lead to slower networks.

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Difference
Parameters Infrastructure mode Ad-hoc mode

What is it? In infrastructure mode, the communication In ad-hoc mode, each node communicates directly
occurs only between the wireless nodes and with other nodes, so no access point control is
access points (AP) , but not directly between needed.
wireless nodes

External Access points acts as a bridge to other Nodes in Ad-hoc can communicate if they are within
Communication wireless/wired network the same range.

Physical needs Physical infrastructure is needed No physical infrastructure is needed.

Complexity Designing is simple as most of the network As no central co-ordination exists, we need to use
functionality lies within AP and client is just a decentralized MAC protocols such as CSMA/CA,
simple machine. with all nodes having same functionality. This
shoots up the complexity and cost.

When it can’t be It can’t be used in critical situations like It is not always fully connected as two mobile nodes
used: disaster relief where no infrastructure is left. may temporarily be out of range.

Applications IEEE 802.11 & HIPERLAN2 are based on Bluetooth is a typical ad-hoc network.
infrastructure mode.

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Data Link Layer

Responsibilities of the data link layer

• Providing services to the network layer
• Framing
• Physical Addressing
• Flow Control
• Error Control
• Access Control

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Services to the network layer
• Connection oriented service Without Acknowledgment
• Connection oriented service with Acknowledgment
• Connectionless Acknowledged Service

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Framing
Frame Structure:

• Data - The packet from the Network layer

• Header - Contains control information, such addressing, and is located at
the beginning of the PDU
• Trailer - Contains control information added to the end of the PDU
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Framing
Frame Structure:

Typical field types include:

• Start and stop indicator fields - The beginning and end limits of the frame
• Naming or addressing fields
• Type field - The type of PDU contained in the frame
• Quality - control fields
• A data field -The frame payload (Network layer packet)

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Framing

• The data link layer break up the bit stream of data into discrete frames.
• It compute a short token called a checksum for each frame, and include
the checksum in the frame when it is transmitted.
• When a frame arrives at the destination, the receiver recomputes the
checksum based on the received frame.
• If the newly computed checksum is different from the one contained in the
frame
• The data link layer knows that an error has occurred and takes steps to
deal with it (e.g., discarding the bad frame and possibly also sending back
an error report).

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Framing

• Fixed Size Framing

• Variable Size Framing

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Framing
• character-oriented (or byte-oriented) framing

• flag is added at the beginning and the end of a frame. The flag, composed of protocol
dependent special characters, signals the start or end of a frame.

• Problem - Any pattern used for the flag could also be part of the information. If this happens,
the receiver, when it encounters this pattern in the middle of the data, thinks it has reached the
end of the frame.
• Solution - To fix this problem, a byte-stuffing strategy was added to character-oriented
framing.

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Framing
• Byte Stuffing

• A special byte is added to the data section of the frame when there is a character with the same
pattern as the flag.
• The data section is stuffed with an extra byte.
• This byte is usually called the escape character (ESC) and has a predefined bit pattern.
• Whenever the receiver encounters the ESC character, it removes it from the data section and
treats the next character as data, not as a delimiting flag.
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Framing
• Bit Oriented Framing

It use a special 8-bit pattern flag, 01111110, as the delimiter to define the beginning and
end of the frame.

Problem -If Flag pattern (01111110) appears in the data .

Solution - we use bit stuffing.
Bit stuffing is the process of adding one extra 0 whenever five consecutive 1s follow a
0 in the data, so that the receiver does not mistake the pattern 0111110 for a flag.

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Physical Addressing

Physical Address Size- 48 bit

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Flow Control

A sender that systematically wants to transmit frames faster than the receiver can accept
them.
Flow control deals with throttling the speed of the sender to match that of the receiver.
Two Approaches:

• feedback-based flow control,

The receiver sends back information to the sender giving it permission to send more data
or at least telling the sender how the receiver is doing

• Rate-based flow control,

The protocol has a built-in mechanism that limits the rate at which senders may transmit
data, without using feedback from the receiver.

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Error Control
Error Detection Vs Error Correction

• The correction of errors is more difficult than the detection.

• In error detection, we are looking only to see if any error has occurred. The
answer is a simple yes or no.
• In error correction, we need to know the exact number of bits that are corrupted
and, more importantly, their location in the message.
• Error correction is more difficult than error detection.
• Data link layer focus on error detection.

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Error Control

• The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect and
retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames.

• Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame. It contains
the error detection and error correction bits.

• Single Bit Error

• Burst error

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Error Detection and correction

• Types of Errors
• Single-bit error and burst error

In error correction, we need to know the exact number of bits that are corrupted and, more
importantly, their location in the message

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Error Detection and correction

• Redundancy for Error detection
• Error detection means to decide whether the received data is correct or not without having a
copy of the original message.

• Error detection uses the concept of redundancy, which means adding extra bits for detecting
errors at the destination

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Error Detection and correction

• Process of error detection in block coding

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Error Correcting Codes

• Parity bit ( Even or odd no of 1’s)

• Hamming Codes

• Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

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Error Correcting Codes

Parity bit ( Even or odd no of 1’s)

Append a single bit at the end of data block such that the number of
ones is even
Even Parity (odd parity is similar)
1. 0110011 => 01100110
2. 0110001 => 01100011
3. 1011010 -> 10110100 - Even Parity
4. 1011010 -> 10110101 - odd Parity

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Error Correcting Codes

Hamming Distance

• The Hamming distance between two words (of the same size) is the number of
differences between the corresponding bits.
• We show the Hamming distance between two words x and y as d(x, y).
• The Hamming distance can easily be found if wc apply the XOR operation ( ) on the
two words and count the number of 1’s in the result.
• For example, if the codeword 00000 is sent and 01101 is received, 3 bits are in error
and the Hamming distance between the two is d(00000, 01101) = 3.
• In other words, if the Hamming distance between the sent and the received codeword
is not zero, the codeword has been corrupted during transmission.

To guarantee the detection of up to s errors in all cases, the minimum

Hamming distance in a block code must be dmin = s + 1.
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Error Correcting Codes

Cyclic Redundancy Check

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Error Correcting Codes

Checksum

Checksum is an error-detecting technique that can be applied to a message of

any length. In the Internet, the checksum technique is mostly used at the
network and transport layer rather than the data-link layer.

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Access Control

• When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer
protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over the link at
any given time.

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