1.
Basic Commands
SELECT Statements
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name;
● SELECT: Used to select data from a database. The data returned is stored in a result table, sometimes
called the result set.
DISTINCT: Eliminates duplicate records.
SELECT DISTINCT column1 FROM table_name;
WHERE Clause
Filters records based on a condition.
SELECT column1, column2
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
ORDER BY Clause
Sorts the result set in ascending (ASC) or descending (DESC) order.
SELECT column1, column2
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column1 ASC | DESC;
LIMIT Clause
Limits the number of records returned.
SELECT column1, column2
FROM table_name
LIMIT number;
●
AND, OR, and NOT Operators
Used with WHERE to filter records based on more than one condition.
SELECT * FROM table_name
WHERE condition1 AND condition2;
SELECT * FROM table_name
WHERE condition1 OR condition2;
SELECT * FROM table_name
WHERE NOT condition;
2. Aggregate Functions
COUNT(): Returns the number of rows.
SELECT COUNT(column_name) FROM table_name;
SUM(): Adds up values in a numeric column.
SELECT SUM(column_name) FROM table_name;
AVG(): Returns the average value of a numeric column.
SELECT AVG(column_name) FROM table_name;
MIN() and MAX(): Return the smallest and largest value.
SELECT MIN(column_name) FROM table_name;
SELECT MAX(column_name) FROM table_name;
●
3. Joins
INNER JOIN
Returns records with matching values in both tables.
SELECT columns
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;
LEFT JOIN (LEFT OUTER JOIN)
Returns all records from the left table, and the matched records from the right table.
SELECT columns
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;
RIGHT JOIN (RIGHT OUTER JOIN)
Returns all records from the right table, and the matched records from the left table.
SELECT columns
FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;
FULL JOIN (FULL OUTER JOIN)
Returns all records when there is a match in either table.
SELECT columns
FROM table1
FULL OUTER JOIN table2
ON table1.column = table2.column;
●
4. Aliases
Used to rename a table or column temporarily.
SELECT column1 AS alias_name
FROM table_name AS alias_table;
5. Data Manipulation Language (DML)
INSERT INTO
Inserts new data into a table.
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, ...)
VALUES (value1, value2, ...);
UPDATE
Modifies existing records.
UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2
WHERE condition;
DELETE
Deletes records.
DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
6. Data Definition Language (DDL)
CREATE TABLE
Creates a new table.
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
...
);
ALTER TABLE
Modifies a table’s structure.
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD column_name datatype;
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP COLUMN column_name;
ALTER TABLE table_name
MODIFY COLUMN column_name datatype;
DROP TABLE
Deletes a table and all its data.
DROP TABLE table_name;
TRUNCATE TABLE
Deletes all records but keeps the table structure.
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;
7. Constraints
PRIMARY KEY: Uniquely identifies each record.
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 datatype PRIMARY KEY,
column2 datatype
);
FOREIGN KEY: Links two tables.
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
FOREIGN KEY (column2) REFERENCES other_table(column_name)
);
UNIQUE: Ensures all values in a column are unique.
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 datatype UNIQUE,
column2 datatype
);
NOT NULL: Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value.
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 datatype NOT NULL,
column2 datatype
);
CHECK: Ensures that all values satisfy a condition.
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 datatype CHECK (column1 condition),
column2 datatype
);
DEFAULT: Sets a default value for a column.
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 datatype DEFAULT value,
column2 datatype
);
8. Subqueries
A query within a query, often nested in WHERE or FROM clauses.
SELECT column1
FROM table_name
WHERE column1 IN (SELECT column1 FROM table_name WHERE condition);
9. CASE Statements
Allows conditional logic in .
SELECT column1,
CASE
WHEN condition1 THEN result1
WHEN condition2 THEN result2
ELSE result3
END AS alias_name
FROM table_name;
10. Views
A virtual table based on the result-set of a query.
CREATE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column1, column2
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
●
Modifying Views
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW view_name AS
SELECT columns
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
