Module 14

Propulsion
for

EASA Part-66

BT-B2-1400-LN
Rev.00 – 31 March 2016
Revision and Amendment Status
These course notes have been produced in accordance with AMC 147.A.120, Part 66 and
AMC/GM Rev May 2012.

Amendment Service is not provided.

REVISION REVISION REVISION NOTE REVISED

NO DATE BY

00 31.03.2016 This document is produced from TTS and reviewed on 17 March 2016 E. Yener
according to Part 66 Appendix I.

Revision and Amendment Status Rev.00 – 31 March 2016

i Turkish Technic Inc.

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 MODULE CONTENT AND APPLICABILITY

Level
Sub Rev.
17 PROPELLER Rev. Date Page(*)
Module Nbr.
A1 B1.1 B2

14.1 Turbine Engines 00 31.03.2016 N/A N/A 2 5

14.2 Engine Indicating Systems 00 31.03.2016 N/A N/A 2 57
14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems 00 31.03.2016 N/A N/A 2 137

N/A: Not Applicable

(*): This number indicates the page number of the digital PDF document.

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European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)

Module 14
Licence Category B2

Propulsion

14.1 Turbine Engines

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 Copyright Notice
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Turkish Technic Inc.

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1,
2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2
basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
 The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
 The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives:
 The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.

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 Table of Contents

Module 14.1 Turbine Engines _________________________________________________ 9

(a) ________________________________________________________________________ 9
Introduction ______________________________________________________________ 9
Newton's Laws of Motion ___________________________________________________ 9
Convergent and Divergent Ducts ____________________________________________ 10
The "Choked" Nozzle _____________________________________________________ 11
The Rocket and the Ram Jet________________________________________________ 13
The Rocket Engine ______________________________________________________ 13
The Ram Jet ___________________________________________________________ 14
The Turbojet Engine ______________________________________________________ 15
Introduction ____________________________________________________________ 15
The Constant Pressure Cycle ______________________________________________ 17
Constructional Arrangements ______________________________________________ 18
Single Spool Axial Flow Engine _____________________________________________ 18
Multi-Spool Design _______________________________________________________ 19
Twin Spool Axial Flow Turbo Fan ____________________________________________ 19
By-Pass Engines ________________________________________________________ 20
Turbo Prop Engines ______________________________________________________ 22
Summary of Engine Types _________________________________________________ 27
(b) _______________________________________________________________________ 31
Electronic Engine Control (EEC) ____________________________________________ 31
Supervisory Electronic Engine Control________________________________________ 31
A Typical Electronic Engine Control System ___________________________________ 31
Full Authority Digital Engine Control_________________________________________ 37
Overview ______________________________________________________________ 37
Sections of a FADEC system_______________________________________________ 38
The Engine Control Unit (ECU) _____________________________________________ 41
ECU Architecture ________________________________________________________ 42
Thrust Control Modes ____________________________________________________ 45
Power Supplies _________________________________________________________ 47
Hydro Mechanical Unit (HMU) ______________________________________________ 48
Glossary of Terms ________________________________________________________ 51

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 Module 14.1 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EU) No. 1321/2014 Annex III
(Part-66) Appendix I, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:
Licence
Part-66
Objective Category
Reference
B2
Turbine Engines
(a) 14.1 (a) 1
Constructional arrangement and operation of turbojet,
turbofan, turboshaft and turbopropeller engines;

(b) 14.1 (b) 2

Electronic Engine control and fuel metering systems
(FADEC).

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 Module 14.1 Turbine Engines
(a)

Introduction
To understand the working principle of the gas turbine engine, the following facts about physics
must be studied.

These are;

 Newton's Laws of Motion

 Behaviour of a gas as it flows through ducts of non-constant cross
section.

Newton's Laws of Motion

First Law A body at rest tends to stay at rest and a body in

motion tends to stay in motion in a straight line
unless caused to change its state by an external
force.

Second Law The acceleration of a body is directly proportional

to the force causing it and inversely proportional to
the mass of the body.

Third Law For every action there is an equal and opposite

reaction.

The first law is of little importance to the function of the gas turbine engine.

The second law is the law which is used to determine exactly the amount of thrust achieved by
the gas turbine engine. The second law can be written as a formula:

Force = Thrust = Mass x Acceleration

The third law is of most importance to us in understanding the gas turbine engine. What it is
saying is that if a mass of air is propelled backwards, the object which propelled it will be
propelled forwards at an equal rate. It follows then that the more air that the gas turbine engine
can propel backwards, the greater will be the forward thrust of the engine. The second law also
tells us that the greater the mass propelled backwards (m), the greater is the forward force (F).

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Convergent and Divergent Ducts

Figure 1.1: Gas Flowing Through a CONVERGENT DUCT - Subsonic Airflow

Figure 1.2: Gas flowing through a DIVERGENT DUCT - Subsonic airflow

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 The "Choked" Nozzle

An exception to the above rules

There is one, and only one, exception to the above rule, and that is when the gas is at the
speed of sound (Sonic Velocity) just before it enters the DIVERGENT part of the duct.

It is extremely difficult to accelerate a gas to supersonic speed - the only way to do it is to have
a very high pressure to begin with and increase its speed in a CONVERGENT duct. Once it
has reached sonic speed, it is impossible to increase its speed any further - the duct (or
nozzle) is then said to be CHOKED

If this procedure is carried out in a CONVERGENT-DIVERGENT duct, an additional form of

thrust (additional to Newton's Third Law) can be achieved.

This can be visualised more easily if you think of a beach-ball being forced and compressed
through a convergent-divergent duct. As it expands through the divergent duct, it will cause a
forward reaction on the wall of the duct.

Figure 1.3: The choked nozzle

The application of the CHOKED CONVERGENT-DIVERGENT nozzle can be seen in

supersonic military aircraft and rockets.

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 The Rocket and the Ram Jet
The Rocket Engine
Although the rocket engine is a jet engine, it has one major difference in that it does not use
atmospheric air as the propulsive fluid stream. Instead, it produces its own propelling fluid by
the combustion of liquid or chemically decomposed fuel with oxygen, which it carries, thus
enabling it to operate outside the earth’s atmosphere. It is therefore, only suitable for operating
over short periods.

The fuel or propellant is carried in one tank and an oxidizer in another tank. These are typically
pumped to and mixed in the combustion chamber where the fuel is burned. As the gases rush
out of the nozzle at the back of the engine, thrust is produced. This nozzle has a definite shape
and is known as a converging-diverging nozzle. This type of nozzle is required in rockets
because of the desire for extremely high velocity (highly accelerated) exhaust gases.

Figure 1.4: The rocket engine

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The Ram Jet
The Ram Jet requires initial forward motion to get it started. It's operation is then as follows

Figure 1.5: The ram jet

Intake The intake is convergent/divergent in shape and therefore the air flowing
through it will decrease/increase in pressure.

Combustion At a certain pressure, the air is mixed with fuel and ignited. Its temperature
will increase and it will expand. This expansion takes the form of an
increase in velocity.

If the gas increases in velocity inside the jet, it will obey Newton's 2nd Law,
which is that:

Force = Mass x Change in Velocity through the duct

Exhaust Before entering the exhaust nozzle, the gas may be of high enough
pressure to be accelerated to supersonic speed. The exhaust nozzle would
then be choked. The force produced as a result of the acceleration is
known as momentum or kinetic thrust. A second type of thrust is produced
in the divergent part of the exhaust nozzle and is called pressure thrust.

The total force produced will, according to Newton’s 3rd Law, produce an
equal and opposite reaction on the inner workings of the engine. This is
known as Thrust

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 The Turbojet Engine

Introduction
In 1931 Sir Frank Whittle patented the self sustaining Gas Turbine Engine. It consists of a single
rotating spool comprising of a compressor and turbine. The advantage of this engine over the
ram jet is that it is self sustaining without the need for forward speed. In other words it can be
started whilst stationary on the ground.

Figure 1.6: The pure turbo-jet

The engine is started by spinning the compressor. This establishes a rearward flow of air into
the combustion zone where fuel is added and ignited. The gasses increase in temperature and
therefore expand rearwards. Before the gasses reach the exhaust nozzle, some of its energy is
extracted by rotating the turbine, which in turn drives the compressor.

To increase the thrust of the gas turbine engine, more fuel is added which raises the energy
level of the gas stream. The turbine will therefore be turned at a greater speed which will turn
the compressor at a greater speed. The compressor will therefore deliver a greater mass of air,
and the thrust force of the gas turbine engine is therefore increased according to Newton's 2nd
Law.

The thrust produced by the turbojet is proportional to the change in momentum of the gas
stream. To increase the thrust, more fuel is introduced which raises the energy level of the gas
stream and the turbine and compressor rotates at a higher speed. The compressor delivers a
larger mass of air to the combustion zone and there is a corresponding increase in the thrust
produced by the engine.

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The gas turbine can also be compared with the piston engine where fuel and air are burned
inside a cylinder to cause a piston to move and turn a crankshaft. The working cycle of the gas
turbine engine is indeed similar to that of the 4-stroke piston engine as in each gas turbine
engine there is induction, compression, combustion and exhaust. In the piston engine cycle the
combustion cycle is intermittent where as in the gas turbine engine it is continuous. The gas
turbine engine has a separate compressor, combustion chamber, turbine wheel, and exhaust
system with each part concerned only with its function. Thus the combustion in a gas turbine
engine takes place as a continuous process at a constant pressure. This, combined with the
absence of reciprocating parts, provides a much smoother running engine that can be of a
lighter structure, enabling more energy to be released for useful propulsive work.

The modern gas turbine engine is basically cylindrical in shape because it is essentially a duct
in which a mass airflow is the same from the intake to the exhaust nozzle. Into this duct the
necessary parts are fitted. The parts from front to rear are an air compressor, a combustion
chamber, a turbine wheel, and an exhaust duct. A shaft connects the turbine wheel to the
compressor, so that turning the turbine will also turn the compressor. In side the combustion
chambers are fuel burners and the means of igniting the fuel.

Because the jet engine is basically an open ended duct it is not satisfactory to ignite the fuel in
static air, because this would allow the gas to expand equally forwards and backwards without
doing any useful work; when the air was used up the flame would die out. Before lighting the
fuel it is, therefore, essential that the air is moving, and the moving columns of air must be
moving through the engine from the front towards the rear. This movement is brought about by
using a starter motor to spin the compressor and the turbine wheel in excess of 1500rpm; this
drives a large volume of air through the combustion chamber. When the airflow is sufficient, fuel
is injected into the chambers through spray nozzles, and is ignited by means of ignitor plugs.
(Note that the gas turbine engine is not an alternate firing engine. The spark ignitors are only
used for the initial firing, and the fuel in all the combustion chambers burns continuously like a
blowtorch). This burning will cause the airflow towards the rear to increase in velocity and drive
the turbine wheel as it flows over the turbine blades in its headlong rush through the exhaust
system out to atmosphere. The spinning turbine wheel turns the compressor through the drive
shaft, and the compressor feeds more air into the combustion chamber to complete a cycle of
operations that continues as long as fuel is fed to the burners. The turbine wheel also originates
a drive to a gearbox that provides external drives for items such as:

 Fuel pumps
 Hydraulic pumps
 Electrical generators
 Other engine accessories

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 The Constant Pressure Cycle
The Constant Pressure Cycle or Brayton Cycle is so called because the heat is added within the
combustion chamber where a theoretical constant pressure is maintained. (In fact there is
always a very slight – less than 3% - pressure drop due to friction between the gases and the
combustion liner.

Figure 1.7: The constant pressure cycle

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Constructional Arrangements
The basic design of Whittles gas turbine engine exists in all gas turbine engines. However
various applications have been derived over the past 60 years to suit the airframe and industrial
requirements.

Single Spool Axial Flow Engine

A modern single spool axial flow turbojet engine produces its thrust from the acceleration of the
flow of the hot gases. Air enters the engine inlet and flows into the compressor where its
pressure is increased. Fuel is added in the combustor where it is ignited and burns, expanding
the gases as they leave the tail pipe produces the reaction we know as thrust.

Figure 1.8: A single spool axial flow engine

The use of a multi stage axial flow compressor enabled higher compression ratios to be
obtained and hence more thrust.

The single spool turbo jet has very low propulsive efficiency, high specific fuel consumption
(SFC) and an undesirable noise level.

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 Multi-Spool Design
Dual and triple spool axial compressors were developed for the operational flexibility they
provide to the engine in the form of high compression ratios, quick acceleration, and better
control of stall characteristics. This operational flexibility is not possible with single spool axial
flow engines.

For any given power lever setting, the high pressure (HP) compressor speed is held fairly
constant by a fuel control governor. Assuming that a fairly constant energy level is available at
the turbine, the low pressure (LP) compressor will speed up and slow down with changes in
aircraft inlet conditions resulting in changes in atmospheric changes or manoeuvres in flight.
The varying LP compressor output therefore, provides the HP compressor with the best inlet
condition within the limits of the design. That is, the LP compressor tries to supply the HP
compressor with a fairly constant air pressure for a particular air pressure for a particular power
setting.

To better understand when the low pressure compressor speed up and slow down, consider that
when ambient temperature increases, the air's molecular motion increases. In order to collect
air molecules at the same rate as temperature increases, the compressor would have to change
either its blade angles, which it cannot do, or its speed, which it in fact does.

Twin Spool Axial Flow Turbo Fan

Figure 1.9: A twin spool axial flow engine

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By-Pass Engines

Twin Spool Low By-Pass Turbo Fan

This type of engine has a twin spool layout with the addition that the L.P. compressor is of larger
diameter than before and thus handles a greater mass of air than is required by the H.P.
compressor. The airflow which is not required by the H.P. compressor is fed into the by-pass
duct and it rejoins the normal gas flow behind the turbines. The airflow is split approximately 50
% each way. The mixing of the "hot" and "cold" gas streams promotes very rapid expansion of
the gasses, which gives good power output with a low fuel consumption. Low bypass engines
are defined as having a bypass ratio of 3:1 or less

Figure 1.10: A twin-spool by-pass turbo-jet

High By-Pass Turbo Fan

The difference in operation between a propeller and a pure jet engine can be summarised as
follows;

A propeller accelerates a large quantity of air rearwards at a low rate.

A pure jet engine accelerates a small quantity of air rearwards at a high rate.

The net result is the same, but the efficiency of each depends on the required speed of the
aircraft. For medium speed aircraft, a combination of the two has been developed. On the
following pages are two examples of high bypass multi-spool engines. High Bypass is defined
as a bypass ratio of 4:1 up to 8:1. Ultra high bypass engines are being researched with a
bypass ratio of 10:1 and above.

A high bypass engine is more efficient than a pure turbo jet because its principle of operation is
more akin to that of a propeller, in that it accelerates a relatively large mass of air at a low rate.

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 Twin Spool High Bypass
The amount of air going through the by-pass section (or "fan") is typically 5 or 6 times that going
through the combustion section. Approximately 80% of the thrust produced is from the by-pass
air ducting.

Figure 1.11: A twin-spool high-bypass engine

Figure 1.12: Pratt and Whitney GP7000

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Turbo Prop Engines
The advent of the twin spool engine enabled easier starting (only the small HP compressor
needs to be rotated by the starter) and better surge resistance as the two spools run at their
own optimum speeds. This type was used as a pure thrust engine, but the example shown
above drove a propeller on the end of the LP compressor shaft via a reduction gear

Figure 1.13: Geared turbo-prop engines

All types invariably use a multi-stage turbine and an epicyclic reduction gear. Multi-stage
turbines with small diameter discs can run at higher rev/min and thus absorb more energy from
the gas stream than a single large disc that must necessarily be restricted in rev/min because of
high centrifugal loading. Epicyclic gearing is selected for the reduction gear because:

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 (a) A high degree of speed reduction can be obtained.
(b) The propeller shaft and thrust lines remain on the same centre line as the
compressor and turbine shafts, thus causing little interference with the entry of air
into the air intake. Streamlining of the whole unit is, therefore, an easier task.

This type of gas turbine engine is used wherever the direct thrust from the engine is not
required,

All the energy in the gasses is absorbed by the turbines and transformed into a rotational force -
or TORQUE.

There is usually little or no thrust produced in the exhaust.

The reduction gearbox is required because the gas turbine engine is most efficient at high RPM,
but the device which it drives (propeller, helicopter rotor etc.) becomes inefficient at such high
speed.

Figure 1.14: A direct-coupled single spool centrifugal flow turbo-prop engine

This example of a turboprop engine uses two centrifugal compressors in tandem. They are
driven, along with the reduction gear by a three-stage turbine, all on one shaft. Compared to
the axial flow twin spool turbo prop shown above this engine produces much less power and is
very inefficient.

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 Figure 1.15: Twin Spool Turbo Shaft engine with free power turbine

Figure 1.16: The Allison 250 series turbo-shaft engine

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 A turbo-shaft engine is used to drive any industrial application that requires high torque output.

For example:

 Helicopter rotors
 Ship Drive shafts
 Hovercraft engines
 Oil pumps
 Generator sets

This example uses a free or power turbine. All the energy not required to drive the gas
generator compressor is used to drive the free turbine which drives the output shaft. The output
shaft is shown above coming out o the front of the engine but it can be geared to come out at
any angle, even through the exhaust directly connected to the rear of the turbine.

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 Summary of Engine Types

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 Figure 1.17: Various engine types

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 Figure 1.18: The triple spool high-bypass engine

Figure 1.19: The sections of a fan engine

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 (b)

Electronic Engine Control (EEC)

Advances in gas turbine technology have demanded more precise control of engine parameters
than can be provided by hydromechanical fuel controls alone. These demands are met by
electronic engine controls, or EEC, of which there are two types: supervisory and full-authority.

Supervisory Electronic Engine Control

The first type of EEC is a supervisory control that works with a proven hydromechanical fuel
control.

The major components in the supervisory control system include the electronic control itself, the
hydromechanical fuel control on the engine, and the bleed air and variable stator vane control.
The hydromechanical element controls the basic operation of the engine including starting,
acceleration, deceleration, and shutdown. High-pressure rotor speed (N2), compressor stator
vane angles, and engine bleed system are also controlled hydro-mechanically. The EEC, acting
in a supervisory capacity, modulates the engine fuel flow to maintain the designated thrust. The
pilot simply moves the throttle lever to a desired thrust setting position such as full takeoff thrust,
or maximum climb. The EEC adjusts the fuel flow as required to maintain the thrust
compensating for changes in flight and environmental conditions. The EEC control also limits
engine operating speed and temperature, ensuring safe operation throughout the flight
envelope.

If a problem develops, control automatically reverts to the hydromechanical system, with no

discontinuity in thrust. A warning signal is displayed in the cockpit, but no immediate action is
required by the pilot. The pilot can also revert to the hydromechanical control at any time.

A Typical Electronic Engine Control System

A typical example of an EEC system is that used in many of the Pratt and Whitney 100 series
engines currently in service. A brief explanation of how the system works, both in automatic and
manual modes follows.

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 Figure 1.20: Pratt & Whitney 100 Series Fuel Control System Schematic.

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 Automatic Operation (EEC mode)
The EEC receives signals from various sources:

 Power Management Switch, enabling take off thrust, maximum continuous thrust, climb
thrust or cruise thrust settings to be selected
 Engine inlet pressure and temperature
 Ambient pressure
 Air data computer inputs. (a computer that senses pitot pressure, static pressure and
total air temperature)
 Engine RPMs – N1 and N2
 Power lever position. (via a potentiometer)
 Failure signals

Based on these input signals the EEC will output command signals to adjust and control:

 The Hydromechanical Fuel Control Unit via a stepper motor which adjusts the throttle
metering valve.
 Ignition circuits.
 Bleed valves
 Torque gauge

Fuel Control
The fuel control is provided by the hydro-mechanical unit (HMU) The HMU is supplied by the
HP fuel pump and provides the required fuel quantity to the nozzles.

In normal operation the fuel control is managed by the Electronic Engine Control (EEC). This
enables accelerations and decelerations without engine surge or flame out whatever the
displacement sequence of the power lever. The HMU is also mechanically connected to the
power lever thus ensuring fuel control in case of failure of the EEC.

Hydro-mechanical Unit (HMU)

The HMU comprises:

 A stepper motor controlled by the EEC
 A lever which controls fuel shutoff
 A lever which controls the fuel flow

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 Figure 1.21: PW100 Series Fuel System Auto/Normal Mode

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 Operation
The fuel flow supplied to the nozzles is mainly obtained through two valves:

 a bypass valve
 a metering valve.

The fuel enters the HMU from pump outlet with a constant flow. This flow is split by the bypass
valve into two flows, one for the nozzles (via the metering valve) and one bypass return flow to
the pump. The position of the bypass valve is a function of the loss of fuel pressure caused by
the metering valve. The metering valve is pneumatically actuated. In the pneumatic servo block,
the reference pressure is the HP compressor outlet pressure, P3. A controlled reduction of the
P3 pressure results in a variable Py pressure which when opposed to a bellows device, moves
the piston of the metering valve.

The pneumatic servo block is managed:

 in normal operation by the EEC

 in manual operation, by the power input lever.

Normal Operation (EEC Mode)

According to the input data (pressures, temperatures, speeds) and to the commanded
power (power lever), the EEC controls a stepper motor located in the HMU.

The stepper motor regulates Py pressure thus modulating the fuel flow as requested. A
governor acts on the Py pressure, thus setting an NH speed limit function of the
compression of a spring by a cam (EEC cam) connected to the power lever.

Manual Operation (Manual Mode)

Py pressure is not regulated by the stepper motor but by the simultaneous actions of the
NH speed governor and the spring, compressed by a second cam (manual cam)
connected to the power lever.

Transfer from the EEC Mode to the Manual Mode.

In normal operation the EEC manages the fuel regulation. The manual operation is
automatically connected when the operation in the EEC mode is switched off. A solenoid
in the HMU selects the manual cam instead of the EEC cam and cancels the regulation
control through the stepper motor.

Operation of the HMU in the fail mode

In case of failure of the EEC, the position of the stepper motor is "frozen". Whatever the
increase of power through the power lever, the last NH speed remains unchanged (the
load applied by the spring on the NH speed governor increases).For any power reduction
through the power lever, the NH speed decreases according to the curve of the EEC cam
(decreasing spring load).

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 Figure 1.22: PW 100 Series Fuel System in Manual Mode

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 Full Authority Digital Engine Control

Overview
FADEC is the name given to
the system that controls the
engine on modern Gas
Turbine Engines. This section
discusses the common
features of FADEC and also
the different applications used
by the large commercial
passenger aircraft engine
manufacturers, Rolls Royce
and General Electric and their
derivatives IAE and CFM.

FADEC replaces the hydro-

mechanical fuel control
systems as exemplified by the
Rolls Royce Spey or JT8D.

Figure 1.23: Typical FADEC unit

Benefits of FADEC:

 Substitution of Hydromechanical control system reduces weight and hence fuel

consumption.
 Automation brings reduced pilot workload
 Optimized engine control reduces maintenance and optimizes fuel consumption
 Optimized airflow control allows the engine to work nearer the surge line thus
increasing thrust whilst reducing the chance of surge or flameout.

A FADEC system consists of

 Sensors
 A Central Processor Unit called an Electronic Engine Control (EEC) or an
Engine Control Unit (ECU)
 A Hydro Mechanical Unit (HMU).

The Central Processor Unit, for the purposes of this document will be referred to as the ECU

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A FADEC system has the following inputs:

1 Analogue signals from electrical sensors.

2 Digital signals, usually on an ARINC 429 Data Bus, from aircraft computers such
as the Air Data Computer (ADC), Thrust Management Computer (TMC) and Flight
Management Computer (FMC).
3 Thrust lever signals are transmitted by Rotational Variable Differential
Transformers mechanically connected to a conventional thrust drum that is moved
by the Manual Thrust Lever and the Auto Thrust Servo Motor.
4 Pressure inputs – apart from those received from the ADC. P0 and PS3
(Compressor Delivery Pressure) signals are tapped directly into pressure
transducers located within the ECU.
5 Feedback signals from any moving mechanical device, such as Thrust Reverser,
Variable Stator Vanes (VSVs) and Variable Bypass Valves, utilize Linear or Rotary
Variable Differential Transducers (LVDTs or RVDTs).

Sections of a FADEC system

Engine Control Unit (ECU)

The ECU is a dual channel processor that computes all functions of the FADEC system
based on its inputs and stored data and then commands the HMU to take appropriate
actions. The ECU also provides ARINC 429 data to the FMC TMC and EICAS (Boeing)
or ECAM (Airbus) cockpit display computers.

Hydro Mechanical Unit (HMU)

The HMU provides an interface between the electrical analogue output from the ECU
and the fuel. It is achieved by an Electrical Hydraulic Servo Valve (EHSV) actuating a
Fuel Metering Valve (FMV), thus controlling fuel supply to the burners. In addition the
HMU will have EHSVs controlling fuel muscle pressure to VSVs and VBVs if fitted.

Figure 1.24 shows a simple schematic overview of the FADEC system.

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 Figure 1.24: FADEC Schematic Overview

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Figure 1.25 shows the flow paths for a CFM 56-5 Engine, which is a typical FADEC engine.
Please note the following:

1 FADEC is a very useful tool for gathering information for a condition monitoring
system. Customers can choose whether to have Condition Monitoring for their
system, therefore the sensors required are customer options and are marked *.
2 TLA stands for Thrust Lever Angle. This signal is received from the RVDT fitted to the
thrust lever drum. However this angle is sometimes quoted as the TRA (Throttle or
Thrust Resolver Angle)
3 The ECU is powered by its own alternator or by aircraft 28VDC Aircraft Bus for
Starting Testing and Maintenance. 115VAC aircraft power is required for the AC
Ignitor circuit.

Figure 1.25: CFM 56–5 Airframe – ECU – Engine Flow Paths

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 The Engine Control Unit (ECU)
The ECU is a dual channel processor housed within a single container, however all hardware
within the container is partitioned into the two channels.

Normally mounted on the fan casing cooling is either by natural Fan Case Cooling Air or directly
by a dedicated Fan Air Ducting

Figure 1.26: ECU Location and Connectors (CF6-80C2 FADEC) – similar for all other High
Bypass Gas Turbine Engines

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ECU Architecture

 Dual Channel
The FADEC System is fully redundant built around two independent control channels.
Dual Input, dual outputs and automatic switching from one channel to the other eliminate
any dormant failure.

Figure 1.27: ECU Dual Channel Philosophy

 Channel Selection
The ECU will always select the “healthiest” channel as the Active channel based on a
fault priority list. The fault priority list contains critical faults such as; processor, memory
or power failures, and other failures that involve a channel’s capability to control the
FMV, VSV, or VBV torque motor(s). During engine run status, each channel within the
ECU will determine whether to be in the active state or standby state every
30 milliseconds based on a comparison of its own health and the health of the cross-
channel. Either channel can become active if its health is better than the cross-channels
health; likewise it will become standby if its health is not as good as the cross-channel. If
the two channels have equal health statuses, the channels will alternate Active/Standby
status on each engine shutdown and the standby channel will become the active channel
on the next start.

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  Channel Transfer
Assuming the opposite channel is of equal or greater health, channel Active/Standby
transfer will occur after the engine has been run above 76% N2 and subsequently
shutdown (N2 less than 35%).

 Dual Inputs
Electrical Inputs:
All command inputs to the FADEC system are duplicated.

Only some secondary parameters used for monitoring and indicating are single (e.g. the
EGT input on the CF6 engine).

To increase the fault tolerant design, the parameters are exchanged between the two
control channels via the cross channel data link.

 Pressure inputs
Pressure tappings from the engine are plumbed directly into the ECU, either discretely to
each channel or a single tapping that is split within the ECU and then sent to discrete
channel transducers.

 Hardwired Inputs
Information exchanged between aircraft computers and the ECU is transmitted over
digital data buses. In addition signals are hardwired directly from the aircraft where a
computer is not used. (Thrust Reverser feedback via RVDTs or TLA via an RVDT)

Figure 1.28: Example Hardwired Dual Input Device – Thrust Lever Angle RVDTs

 Dual Outputs
All the ECU outputs are double but only the channel in control supplies the engine control
signals to the various receptors such as torque motors, actuators or solenoids. Further
information on output signal receivers can be found below in the HMU section.

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  BITE Capability
The ECU is equipped with BITE, which provides maintenance information, and test
capabilities via an aircraft mounted component called MCDU (Airbus) or PIMU (Boeing).

The ECU performs a self-test on power up, and self monitors during operation. In
addition operation of a ground test switch powers up the ECU and hence a real time
ground test is carried out when this switch is operated. For Boeing airframes the ECU
stores faults in the ECU volatile memory until the aircraft lands. On landing the faults are
streamed to a Propulsion Interface Monitoring Unit (PIMU). There is a PIMU for each
engine. The PIMU holds the fault until a BITE test is carried out. An EICAS message will
advise maintenance staff to carry out this procedure even if the pilot has not noticed the
problem.

AIRBUS faults will be stored in the MCDU in real time.

BITE interrogation is airframe specific and cannot be covered in a generic FADEC

publication.

Using the BITE system, the ECU can detect and isolate failures in real time and hence
allows switching of engine control from the faulty channel to the healthy one.

 Fail Safe Control

If a standby channel is faulty and the channel in control is unable to ensure one engine
function, this control is moved to a fail-safe position.

Example

If the standby channel is faulty and the channel in control is unable to control VBV
position, the valves are operated to the open position.

 Main Interfaces
To perform all its tasks the ECU interfaces with aircraft computers, either directly or via
the Engine Interface Monitoring Unit (EIMU). Principle among these are the aircraft Left
and Right Air Data Computers which supply data , notably Ambient Temperature (Tamb);
Total Air Temperature (TAT); Static Pressure (Ps0) and Total Pressure (PT). All of these
are required to determine that the thrust commanded remains constant for the ambient
conditions and that thrust and EGT limits are not exceeded.

 Limits Protection
The ECU has a dual channel limit protection section comprising max limits for N1 N2 and
N3 (RR only) In addition various max limits are protected depending on the system, most
commonly Compressor Delivery Pressure(Ps3)

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  Thrust Regulation
Thrust regulation on high bypass engine is calculated using ADC inputs to calculate the
required fuel to provide the commanded thrust. The thrust is measured in terms of N1
speed or EPR (RR Trent). For the EPR engine in the event of EPR signal failure then it
reverts to control by N1.

As a back up there is a mechanical high pressure compressor (HP2 or HP3) governor

located within the HMU

Thrust Control Modes

Systems vary, therefore below are three typical systems:

CF6 FADEC Control Modes

In the event that an ADC signal is lost then the ECU will use the opposite channel signal.
In the event that the channels inputs do not agree as to which signal is accurate then the
ECU will revert to an alternate mode using the last known ambient pressure signal. This
is also known as the soft reversionary mode.

The soft reversionary mode can cause throttle stagger as the other engine is still
operating in the normal mode. To prevent this the ECU mode switches can be pushed for
both engines, to select hard reversionary mode which means they are using the fixed
cornerpoint ambient temperature for that engine. Because Tamb may be higher than
cornerpoint there is now a danger of overboosting the engine. Consequently the pilot will
always throttle back before selecting hard reversionary and subsequently be aware of his
max N1 indication to prevent overboosting or over temping the engine.

R.R. Trent FADEC Control Modes

The primary thrust control loop uses EPR .In the event that EPR computation is
impossible then the ECU reverts to the N1 mode where N1 is used to control thrust. In
the N1 mode Auto Throttle is no longer available.

CFM 56 FADEC Control Modes

The engine operates in one of three thrust modes, AUTO - MEMO -MANUAL
Entering/exiting these three modes is controlled by inputs to the Engine
Interface Unit (EIU).

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a) Auto Thrust Mode
The auto thrust mode is only available between idle and Max Climb Thrust when the
aircraft is in flight.

After take-off the throttle is pulled back to the max climb position, the auto thrust system
will be active and the Automatic Flight system will provide an N1 target to provide either -

 Max Climb Thrust.

 An Optimum Thrust.
 A Minimum Thrust.
 An Aircraft Speed (Mach Number). In association with the autopilot.

b) Memo Mode
The Memo Mode is entered automatically, from Auto mode if the N1 target is invalid.
One of the instinctive disconnect buttons on the throttle is activated.
Auto thrust is disconnected by the EIU.

In the memo mode, the thrust is frozen to the last actual N1 value and will remain frozen
until the throttle lever is moved manually, or, auto thrust is reset.

c) Manual Thrust Mode

This mode is entered any time the conditions for Auto or Memo are not present in this
mode. Thrust is a function of throttle lever position.

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 Power Supplies

Permanent Magnet Alternator (PMA)

A dual coil Permanent Magnet Alternator driven from the External or Accessory Gearbox
powers the ECU. The dual output is fed independently to the two Channels. The PMA can
provide all power requirements once the engine is running above 15% N2 (N3 for RR Engine).

28V DC Aircraft BUS

For engine starting an aircraft 28V DC supply is used. In addition a 28V DC Bus supplies power
for ground testing the system and for back up in the case of the primary 28V DC Bus failing.
Aircraft 28 V DC is also always available in the event of PMA supply failing to both channels.

28V DC is applied to the ECU when:

 The start switch is activated

 The Fuel switch is placed to on (for an in-flight windmilling start)
 When ground test power is applied

115V AC 400Hz
The aircraft supplies a 115V AC 400HZ power source to each channel for ignition excitor # 1
and ignition excitor # 2. The inputs are routed to the exciters or terminated within the ECU by
switching relays.

It should be noted that if the ECU has a double channel failure then the engine will not start as
the exciters can only be powered via the ECU.

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Hydro Mechanical Unit (HMU)
Primary outputs from the ECU are directed to the torque motors of the EHSVs located on the
HMU and to the torque motor controlling the primary fuel metering valve.

The fuel metering subsystem is completely contained in the HMU. The HMU is mounted on the
front, right side of the accessory gearbox. It is driven by a mechanical connection to the
gearbox. The HMU responds to electrical signals from the ECU to meter fuel flow for
combustion and to modulate servo fuel flow to operate the engine air systems. The HMU also
receives signals from the aircraft fuel control system to control an internal high pressure fuel
shutoff valve (HPSOV).

There are four external electrical connectors for electrical interfaces with the aircraft and ECU.
Four fuel ports connect the HMU with the fuel pump and fuel nozzles. There are five hydraulic
connections for control interfaces with the engine fuel and air systems. Each hydraulic interface
is controlled by an electro-hydraulic servo valve (EHSV) that varies servo fuel pressure in
response to EEC signals. The fuel connections to the HMU are:

 Fuel inlet from the fuel pump

 Fuel discharge to the fuel nozzles
 Fuel bypass discharge to the fuel pump
 Servo fuel inlet from the servo fuel heater.

The hydraulic connections from the HMU are:

 Servo fuel pressure to the low pressure turbine case cooling (LPTCC) valve
 Servo fuel pressure to the high pressure turbine case cooling (HPTCC) valve
 Servo fuel reference pressure to the LPTCC and HPTCC valves
 Servo fuel pressure to the variable bypass valves (VBVs)
 Servo fuel pressure to the variable stator vanes (VSVs).

The electrical connections to the HMU are:

 Fuel control signals from EEC channel A

 Fuel control signals from EEC channel B
 HPSOV solenoid inputs from the fuel control valves
 HPSOV position indication outputs to the EEC.

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 The HMU has three hydraulic circuits:

 A fuel metering circuit

 A bypass circuit
 A servo control circuit.

The fuel metering circuit controls fuel flow to the fuel nozzles in the engine combustor. It has a
fuel metering valve and a high pressure fuel shutoff valve (HPSOV). Unmetered fuel from the
fuel pump goes to the FMV. Metered fuel from the FMV goes to the HPSOV. If the HPSOV is
open, metered fuel is routed to the fuel nozzles.

The bypass circuit is composed of a bypass valve, a differential pressure (delta P) regulator,
and an overspeed governor. The fuel pump supplies more fuel than needed for the metered fuel
flow. The bypass circuit returns excess fuel to the fuel pump.

The servo control circuit divides the fuel supply from the servo fuel heater into regulated and
unregulated servo flows. These flows operate actuators located both inside and outside of the
HMU. The circuit has a servo regulating and distribution section and five electro-magnetic servo
valves. One of these servo valves supplies servo pressure for FMV control and is discussed
below. The other servo valves control pressure to engine air system actuators as listed
previously.

Fuel Metering Valve

A fuel metering valve (FMV) inside the HMU controls fuel flow to the nozzles. The hydraulically
driven metering valve is controlled by the fuel metering valve EHSV. The EHSV has two coils,
one for each EEC channel. The controlling EEC channel increases current through its EHSV
coil to hydraulically open the FMV. If neither coil has power, the FMV closes. The FMV has two
position-indicating resolvers. One resolver is excited by, and provides a position feedback signal
to, EEC channel A. The other resolver goes to EEC channel B.

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 Figure 1.29: Typical HMU System

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 Glossary of Terms

ACFT Aircraft
ADC Air Data Computer
BITE Built In Test Equipment
ECAM Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitoring (Airbus version of EICAS)
ECU Engine Control Unit
EEC Electronic Engine Control
EGT Exhaust Gas Temperature
EHSV Electro Hydraulic Servo Valve
EICAS Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System (Boeing version of ECAM)
EIMU Engine Interface Monitoring Unit
EIU Engine Interface Unit
EPR Engine Pressure Ratio
FADEC Full Authority Digital Engine Control
FMC Flight Management Computer
FMV Fuel Metering Valve
HMU Hydro-Mechanical Unit
HPSOV High Pressure Shut Off Valve
HPTCC High Pressure Turbine Case Cooling
LPTCC Low Pressure Turbine Case Cooling
LVDT Linear Variable Differential Transformer (or Transducer)
MCDU Maintenance Display Control Unit
PIMU Propulsion Interface Control Unit
PMA Permanent Magnet Alternator
Po Atmospheric Pressure
Ps3 Compressor Delivery Pressure
PT Total Pressure
RACC Rotor Active Clearance Control
RVDT Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (or Transducer)
Tamb Ambient Temperature
TAT Total Air Temperature
TLA Thrust (or Throttle) Lever Angle
TMC Thrust Management Computer
TRA Thrust (or Throttle) Resolver Angle
VBV Variable Bleed Valves
VSV Variable Stator Vanes

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 Intentionally Blank

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European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)

Module 14
Licence Category B2

Propulsion

14.2 Engine Indicating Systems

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Copyright Notice
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of
Turkish Technic Inc.

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft

Maintenance Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1,
2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2
basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
 The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
 The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives:
 The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.

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Table of Contents

Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems _________________________________________ 9

Cockpit Displays __________________________________________________________ 9
Analogue _______________________________________________________________ 9
Electronic Indicating System _______________________________________________ 11
EICAS and ECAM _______________________________________________________ 12
Gas Temperature Measurement _____________________________________________ 13
Thermocouple __________________________________________________________ 13
Resistance Thermometers _________________________________________________ 13
Wheatstone Bridge Temperature Sensor______________________________________ 15
DC Ratiometer __________________________________________________________ 15
Turbine Engine Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) ______________________________ 19
The Thermocouple _______________________________________________________ 19
A Modern Thermocouple System____________________________________________ 26
Thermocouple Maintenance _______________________________________________ 27
Piston Engine Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)________________________________ 29
Piston Engine Cylinder Head Temperature (CHT) ______________________________ 33
Turbine Engine Speed Measurement and Indication ____________________________ 37
Tacho-generator ________________________________________________________ 37
Phonic Wheel and Pulse Probe _____________________________________________ 38
Propeller Speed Measurement and Indication _________________________________ 39
Mechanical Tachometers __________________________________________________ 40
Mechanical Indicators ____________________________________________________ 41
Electrical Tachometers ___________________________________________________ 41
Tacho Generators _______________________________________________________ 42
Indicators ______________________________________________________________ 44
Maintenance Practices____________________________________________________ 45
Fuel Flow Measurement and Indication_______________________________________ 47
Vane Type Fuel Flowmeter ________________________________________________ 47
Synchronous Fuel Flowmeter (Motor driven) ___________________________________ 48
The Motorless Integrated Fuel Flow Transmitter ________________________________ 49
The Synchronous Integrated Fuel Flowmeter __________________________________ 50
Maintenance Practices____________________________________________________ 50
Engine Thrust Measurement and Indication ___________________________________ 51
Engine Pressure Ratio ____________________________________________________ 51
RPM __________________________________________________________________ 54
Oil Pressure, Quantity and Temperature Measurement and Indication _____________ 55
Pressure Measurement ___________________________________________________ 55
Direct Reading Pressure Gauges ___________________________________________ 56
Remote Reading Pressure Instruments _______________________________________ 59
Oil pressure Warning Light ________________________________________________ 63
Oil Quantity Measurement _________________________________________________ 65

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 Manifold Pressure and Boost Pressure Measurement and Indication ______________ 67
Construction and Action ___________________________________________________ 68
Fuel Trap ______________________________________________________________ 70
Testing Boost Gauges ____________________________________________________ 71
Engine Torque Measurement and Indication __________________________________ 73
Vibration Indication Systems _______________________________________________ 77

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Module 14.2 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EU) No. 1321/2014 Annex III
(Part-66) Appendix I, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:
Licence
Part-66
Objective Category
Reference
B2
Engine Indicating Systems 14.2 2
Exhaust gas temperature/Interstage turbine
temperature systems;
Engine speed;
Engine Thrust Indication: Engine Pressure Ratio,
engine turbine discharge pressure or jet pipe pressure
systems;
Oil pressure and temperature;
Fuel pressure, temperature and flow;
Manifold pressure;
Engine torque;
Propeller speed.

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Module 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems

Cockpit Displays
Analogue
The following examples of cockpit displays of engine instrumentation relate to turbine engine
powered aircraft.

Figure 2.1: Analogue engine indication

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 Figure 2.2: Analogue engine instruments (B737)

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Electronic Indicating System
Display of engine performance and condition parameters has changed dramatically in terms of
presentation, with the advent of the glass cockpit. Instead of individual analogue dials the flight
deck display is now show digitally on flat screen displays.

Figure 2.3: Electronic engine indications (B737)

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 EICAS and ECAM
Boeing aircraft use a system called EICAS (Engine Indicating and Crew Alert System) and
Airbus use a system called ECAM (Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor). In both cases whilst
the flight deck instrument display has changed the system sensors have not changed
dramatically and the principles of operation are the same.

Figure 2.4: Typical EICAS screens

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Gas Temperature Measurement
Temperatures of the air/gas entering and leaving an engine are measured. These are known
as “Intake (or Inlet) Air Temperature” and “Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)”.

There are two types of sensors:

 Thermocouple sensors
 Resistance Bulb thermometers

Thermocouple
Works exactly the same way as the EGT system and requires no external power. There is likely
to be only one thermocouple however - this is the reason that Iron and Constantan is
sometimes used as the dissimilar metals as they give a greater current flow per degree Celsius
than Alumel/Chromel.

Resistance Thermometers
Resistance thermometers are used as the sensing device for both Wheatstone bridge and DC
Ratiometer circuits. The device is usually a platinum or nickel wire sensor wound on a former
made of an insulating material such as mica. This assembly will be enclosed within a steel tube.
The resistance of the wire will increase with increasing heat and hence it will act as the variable
resistance element of either of the above instrument types.

Figure 2.6: Resistance thermometer probe

Resistance thermometers can often be found with double

windings to act as dual channel devices in a single unit,
particularly for FADEC controlled engines.

Figure 2.7: Resistance thermometer probes

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 Figure 2.8: Fan inlet temperature sensor in the CFM56-3 engine intake (B737)

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Wheatstone Bridge Temperature Sensor
A Wheatstone bridge circuit consists of three fixed resistors and one resistance thermometer
whose resistance varies with temperature.

When power is applied to a Wheatstone bridge circuit and all four resistances are equal, no
difference in potential exists between the bridge junctions. However, when the variable resistor
is exposed to heat, its resistance increases, causing more current to flow through the fixed
resistor R3 than the variable resistor R4. The disproportionate current flow produces a voltage
differential between the bridge junctions, causing current to flow through the galvanometer
indicator. The greater the voltage differential, the greater the current flow through the indicator
and the greater the needle deflection. Since indicator current flow is directly proportional to the
temperature, an indicator calibrated in degrees provides an accurate means of registering
temperature.

Figure 2.9: Wheatstone Bridge

DC Ratiometer
A ratiometer circuit measures current ratios and is more reliable than a Wheatstone bridge,
especially when the supply voltage varies. Typically, a simple ratiometer circuit consists of two
parallel branches powered by the aircraft electrical system. One branch consists of a fixed
resistor and coil, and the other branch consists of a variable resistor and coil. The two coils are
wound on a rotor that pivots between the poles of a permanent magnet, forming a meter
movement in the gauge.

The shape of the permanent magnet provides a larger air gap between the magnet and coils at
the bottom than at the top. Therefore, the flux density, or magnetic field, is progressively
stronger from the bottom of the air gap to the top. Current flow through each coil creates an
electromagnet that reacts with the polarity of the permanent magnet, creating torque that
repositions the rotor until the magnetic forces are balanced. If the resistances of the
temperature probe and fixed resistor are equal, current flow through each coil is the same and
the indicator pointer remains in the centre position. However, if the probe temperature
increases, its resistance also increases, causing a decrease in current through the temperature-
sensing branch. Consequently, the electromagnetic force on the temperature sensing branch

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 decreases, creating an imbalance that allows the rotor to rotate until each coil reaches a null, or
balance. The pointer attached to the rotor then indicates the oil temperature

Ratiometer temperature measuring systems are especially useful in applications where

accuracy is critical or large variations of supply voltages are encountered. Therefore, a
ratiometer circuit type temperature sensing system is generally preferred over Wheatstone
bridge circuits by aircraft and engine manufacturers.

Figure 2.10: DC Ratiometer

Figure 2.11: DC Ratiometer

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Notes:

 Variation in input voltage does not affect readout

 An open circuit in the sensor will cause the instrument to go to FSD
 A short circuit in the sensor will cause the instrument to go to a minimum (off-scale)
position
 A hairspring is not required (as in a moving coil instrument), any hairspring used is only
to take the needle indicator off scale

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Turbine Engine Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)
The temperature of the exhaust gases is always monitored closely during engine operation,
especially during the starting cycle when overheat damage is most prevalent. Hot section
temperature is considered the most critical of all engine-operating parameters because an out
of limit condition can render the engine unserviceable in a matter of seconds. The temperature
gauge in the flight deck, when labelled Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT), indicates the
temperature is being monitored forward of the turbine wheel(s). When labelled Interstage
Turbine Temperature (ITT), it indicates that the temperature is being monitored at some
intermediate position between adjacent turbine wheels; and when labelled Turbine Outlet
Temperature (TOT), it indicates the temperature is being taken aft of the turbine wheels.

A generic term of Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) is commonly used for all of the above

The Thermocouple
If two wires of any different metals are joined together at both ends as shown, then heat is
applied to one of the junctions, a very small current will flow around the wires. The reason for
this is the fact that every metal has a different electrical potential to the next, or a different
amount of free electrons, or even a deficiency of free electrons compared to other metals. The
heating of one of the junctions, known as the hot junction allows free electrons from the wire
with the greatest electrical potential, to flow into the wire of the lesser electrical potential - this is
known as the Seebeck Effect. The flow of electrons is continuous for as long as the heat is
applied and is directly proportional to the amount of heat applied. The current flows right
around through the cold junction and back to the hot junction in a complete loop. Although the
current is very small, it can be measured at any point in the loop by a sensitive ammeter.

Note that no external electrical supply is needed.

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 Figure 2.12: The Thermocouple Principle

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The exhaust gas temperature EGT system for a turbine engine is similar to that for a
reciprocating engine except that several thermocouples are used. These are arranged around
the exhaust so they can sample the temperature in several locations.

For accurate temperature indication, the reference junction temperature must be held constant.
It is not practical to do this in an aircraft instrument, so the indicator needle is mounted on a
bimetallic hairspring in such a way that it moves back as the cockpit temperature increases.
This compensates for reference junction temperature changes.

Figure 2.13: EGT Indication (Copper Constantan)

Small indicators operate without any additional electrical power except for the illumination. For
more complex indicators, electrical power supply is used for the amplifiers and motors inside the
indicator.

 Chromel (alloy of chromium and nickel)

 Alumel (alloy of aluminium and nickel)

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 Figure 2.14: EGT Indication (Chromel Alumel)

Figure 2.13 shows a typical aircraft system. Its features are as follows:

1 The two different metals used are; Nickel Aluminium (Alumel)

Nickel Chromium (Chromel)

Alumel has an excess of free electrons and is usually colour coded GREEN

Chromel has a deficiency of free electrons and is usually colour coded WHITE

These metals are used as a standard in the aircraft industry, not because they give the best
current flow per degree centigrade, but because they are most reliable.

2 There are at least eight thermocouple placed in parallel around the exhaust and each
within a casing which helps to protect the delicate wires from the hot gases. In this way,
a thermocouple may burn out and it will not affect the sensitivity of the system.

3 All the thermocouple come together at a common cold junction which is where the
indicator is situated. The indicator is a sensitive ammeter but indicating degrees Celsius
instead of amps. This is a moving coil ammeter and is very delicate. During transit of
the instrument, the terminals should be shorted by a piece of copper wire. This will help
to damp the internal mechanism and should only be removed when the indicator is
connected to a thermocouple. This type of instrument is sometimes called a D’Arsonval
meter.

4 In the circuit will be situated a calibrating resistor (or sometimes a dummy thermocouple).
This resistor is temperature sensitive and is subject to ambient temperature. It has two
functions:

It calibrates the system since the lengths of the wires from the sensors to the indicators is
critical (see below)

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 It compensates for ambient air temperature.

5 The complete circuit resistance is critical, usually 8, 15 or 22 ohms and is measured

between the thermocouple harness and the flight deck indicator. For this reason, all
connections must be accurately torque loaded and all screw threads should be smeared
with graphite grease. No alterations are allowed in the wiring of any part of the system.

Figure 2.15: Thermocouple thermometer

Figure 2.16: Simple aircraft thermocouple system

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 Thermocouples are usually of the rapid response or stagnation type as shown opposite. Gas
Turbine engines are usually of the stagnation type due to the rapid velocity of the jet efflux.

Thermocouples are inserted into the gas stream at a depth to obtain the most accurate reading.
Many systems use double or triple element units (see below) to obtain an even more accurate
indication. These multiple units are of differing lengths in order to obtain a temperature reading
from different depths in the gas stream to provide a better average reading than can be
obtained from a single probe.

Figure 2.17: Stagnation Type and Rapid Response Type thermocouple probes

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 Figure 2.18: TGT thermocouple system

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 A Modern Thermocouple System
Modern thermocouple systems do not use the simple moving coil instrument. If the engine uses
an instrument, them it is likely to be a moving coil ratiometer, where the cold junction is in fact
one leg of the ratiometer device.

In a FADEC engine the cold junction is within the FADEC EEC.

For Non FADEC engines with glass cockpit (Boeing 757) the cold junction will terminate at the
EICAS computer. See below for the RB211/B757 EGT system

Figure 2.19: RB211/B757 EGT System

Note that the compensating resistor is fitted to adjust for variation in ambient temperature at the
cold junction, whilst the ballast resistor standardizes EGT output to enable variation in individual
engine performance to be eradicated in the interest of fleet commonality.

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Thermocouple Maintenance
Maintenance of thermocouple EGT system consists of testing the circuit. This may be done in 2
ways.

The Jetcal Analyser

The Jetcal analyzer is a RPM and EGT test set. In the EGT mode it tests the following:

 Continuity Check of aircraft EGT circuit

 Functional Check of Aircraft EGT Circuit
 Resistance and Insulation Check
 EGT Indicator check

The first three above are carried out by heating a probe that fits over a thermocouple and the
output is cross checked between the test set and the cockpit gauge. None of these tests require
compensation for ambient temperature because the aircraft circuit and the test set are
automatically corrected.

The EGT indicator test is carried out by removing the indicator from the aircraft and connecting
to the test set. Correction for ambient temperature is not required.

Resistance and Continuity Checks

On modern engines you should confirm serviceability of the system by checking continuity and
resistance of the system using Multimeter and Ohmmeter. Thermocouples are also checked
individually by isolating them and checking resistance.

Fault diagnosis

For all power settings

False Low EGT Circuit resistance is high - Corroded terminals

- leads too long after repair

False High EGT Circuit resistance low - Loose terminals

- Gauge Fault

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Piston Engine Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)
Fitted on the hottest cylinder exhaust pipe of some carburetted engines and used for leaning the
engine. If done properly, each cylinder should have an EGT indicator. FADEC controlled fuel
injected engines can not live without this important measurement, since they regulate the
amount of fuel in combination with RPM and MAP to obtain the best mixture for the power
requirement without detonation in the cylinders.

Figure 2.20: EGT indicator

To measure the temperature of exhaust gases a number of thermocouples may be equally

spaced around the area where the temperature is to be measured. They are interconnected to
provide a mean or average temperature reading at the indictor.

Figure 2.21: EGT sensor

Each thermocouple protrudes into the exhaust gas stream, and is secured in position by a union
nut.

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 The materials used for exhaust gas thermocouples (EGTs) are nickel-chromium and nickel-
aluminium, and all extension leads must be of the same material or material of similar
thermal/EMF characteristics.

The leads to the two conductors are silver soldered and together they provide the hot junction.
The leads are insulated with an asbestos / fireclay composition to withstand the high operating
temperatures. They also have an armoured outer covering of metal braid. These types of
thermocouple are termed immersion type.

Thermocouple Harness Assemblies

Thermocouple sensors and their leads are linked up into looms whose design varies with the
type of aircraft they are required for and the number of sensors (probes) required. In some
engines the probes, thermocouple leads and junction boxes are separated, but in other syst4ms
they are welded to stainless steel junction boxes. The leads terminate at a main junction box
and the extension leads are joined to connect the hot junction to the cold junction.

Adjustable Resistors
Adjustable resistors are connected in series and their purpose is to adjust the line resistance.
Figure 2.8 illustrates the type of resistance wire which is fitted to the terminal with a screw, so
that the resistance can be adjusted by winding some wire off and then cutting it to size. The
other end is a soldered connection. The resistor is connected in series with the positive
conductor of the extension cable at the terminal block.

Figure 2.23: Bobbin resistor

Indicators
Figure 2.24 illustrates exhaust gas temperature indicators. The movement is a moving coil
millivoltmeter, and there are two types of presentation, the single pointer and the dual pointer.
The dual pointer has two separate movements for indicating and temperature of two engines.
The indicator cases are enclosed in a metal screen to prevent the meter movement affecting the
magnetic compass.

Note in Figure 2.24 the zero adjuster.

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 Figure 2.24: EGT indicator types – single and dual pointers

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Piston Engine Cylinder Head Temperature (CHT)
Also a thermocouple probe fitted in the cylinder head. Each cylinder should have one, but it is
usually installed on the hottest cylinder (which ever that maybe, this doesn't so much depend on
the position but on the mixture entering the cylinders). Made from iron- or copper-constantan
(copper and nickel alloy) and able to measure up to 400°C.

Figure 2.25: CHT indicator

The system consists of three parts:-

 A thermocouple,
 The extension leads,
 The indicator.

Thermocouple
The thermocouple is in the form of a bimetallic lug with a lead attached. The lug is made of
copper and constantan, which is an alloy of copper and nickel; it is bored to take the cylinder
head bolt. The cylinder head bolt when it is torqued down secures the lug to the surface of the
cylinder head. The lead which is attached to the lug has two conductors, one copper, the other,
constantan. The copper conductor is connected to the indicator copper led via a thermal block
as illustrated in Figure 2.26.

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 Figure 2.26: Thermocouple sensors

The copper conductor is identified with a red sleeve, and the constantan has a blue sleeve.

Extension Leads
To maintain the continuity of the correct material between the hot junction and cold junction of
the circuit, a special extension lead is used to connect the thermocouple to the instrument to
give continuity.

These leads may be called either extension leads or compensating leads. Copper/constantan
extension leads are identifiable by their yellow outer covering. The conductors are marked in the
same way as on the thermocouples, with red sleeves for copper and blue sleeves for
constantan.

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The thermocouple and its lead have a resistance of about 0.25 ohm; compensating or extension
leads measure about 1.75 ohms. These leads are supplied in various lengths for installations
where a continuous led can be used. Extension leads must not be cut or altered in any way.

The Indicator
The indicator is usually a moving coil millivoltmeter which is very sensitive. An EMF is
generated by the heat applied to two different materials; there will also be a current to flow and
a voltage. The sensing element at the cylinder head is referred to as the hot junction, the
indicator the cold junction.

The amount of EMF generated depends on the amount of heat which is sensed by the
thermocouple. The more heat, the greater the current flow, the bigger the EMF and the greater
the temperature reading on the indicator.

There is a zero adjustment on the indicator in the form of a screw which is fitted to the end of a
bimetallic spiral. This spiral compensates for the effect in changes of atmospheric temperature
and the screw sets the zero position of the pointer.

To prevent damage to the instrument when it is not fitted to an aircraft system, a shorting wire is
fitted between the terminals at the rear of the instrument.

This shorting link should not be moved until the indicator is securely fitted to the instrument
panel. The same rule applies for removal; ensure that a shorting link is fitted before you remove
the indicator. The zero must be set before connecting the extension leads. To do this the
indicator, which is already fitted must be left for half an hour so that the temperature reading
settles. A check of the temperature is advisable by taping a thermometer to the indicator glass.
Note both readings after half an hour and if required, adjust the zero screw until the pointer
reads the same temperature as the thermometer.

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 Figure 2.27: Piston engine Cylinder Head Temperature sensor, and Exhaust Gas Temperature
sensor

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Turbine Engine Speed Measurement and Indication
Because no two engines and no two compressors N1 and N2 operate at the same speed,
percent revolutions per minute is used to simplify the flight deck indications.

There are two systems in common use, often both systems are used on the same engine.

 Tacho-generator
 Phonic wheel and pulse probe

Tacho-generator
The tachometer is an independent electrical system, consisting of an engine driven three
phase AC generator and a synchronous motor driven indicator. The frequency of the
generated current is dependent upon the speed of the engine. The tacho-generator is
connected to the main gearbox, which is driven by the high pressure spool, and therefore is
most commonly used to indicate the HP spool speed.

Figure 2.28: Tacho Generator

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 Phonic Wheel and Pulse Probe
Often called a "Variable Reluctance" system. It consists of either one or two permanent
magnets in close proximity to a toothed wheel on the engine shaft called a "phonic wheel".
However, no contact is made with the wheel. A pickup coil is situated in the magnetic field,
which is greatest when the teeth of the wheel are in-line with the pole pieces as shown, since
the magnetism does not have such a great air gap to travel through. The resulting fluctuating
induced current in the coil has a frequency proportional to the speed of the engine shaft. This
can then be indicated in a similar way to the tacho-generator indicator.

Figure 2.29: Pulse probe tachometer

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Propeller Speed Measurement and Indication
Located on the instrument panel, the propeller RPM indicator is graduated in 50-RPM
increments from 0 to 2700 RPM typically. The normal governed operating range of the propeller
is 1800-2200 RPM with a maximum allowable of 2200 RPM typically.

Figure 2.30: Tacho Generator

Older aircraft have a mechanical cable driven tachometer, inside the instrument are a couple of
flyweights to which a pointer is attached indicating RPM.

Figure 2.31: Tachometer gauge often combines with an engine hours meter, sometimes known
as a “Hobbs Meter”

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 Not common in modern aircraft. Later types have the cable attached to a magnet which rotates
inside an aluminium cup. In this cup eddy currents (generated by the rotating magnet) create a
magnetic field coinciding with the magnetic field from the magnet. The cup is fixed to a spring
and pointer so it can not rotate but it is dragged along by the magnetic field, hence the name:
drag-cup.

Electrical tacho's have either a DC or AC generator on the engine. The DC generator generates
a voltage related to RPM, which drops if the wires are too long. The AC types relate RPM to a
frequency and these are immune to wire length or resistance and are more reliable than the DC
models.

The latest modern engines have an electric pickup from either a separate coil on the engine or
on the magneto. This signal is pulsed so that a digital counter can be used to indicate engine
RPM.

Mechanical Tachometers
These are not much used nowadays, but you may encounter them. The basic components are
a flex drive from a drive outlet on the engine and an indicator in the cockpit. Mechanical drive
tachometers have one main drawback, and that is the flexible drive. It has a limited wear life
and it is not recommended for use over more than 25-feet and is limited to a nine inch radius
bend.

Flexible Drive
The flex drive consists of an outer flexible casing supporting the inner drive. The casing is
formed by spirally wound interlocking metal strips of either brass or steel. The interlock is
packed with asbestos stringing and at each end of the casing a union is crimped with a union
nut.

At the remote, receiving end of the control run the cable passes through an adjustable stop and
is connected to the component operating lever by the nipple or bolts. The purpose of the stop is
to provide a means of adjusting the length of the conduit, thus altering the range of movement
of the control cable. Where two components are operated by a single cable, a junction box is
used.

The inner drive is made up of a central steel core on which layers of steel wire are wound left
then right alternatively. A square drive is then soldered, or waged onto each end. The inner
drive is retained in the outer case by slip washers which are located in a recess in the casing
union and clip into a groove on the shank of the drive connector. The two vent holes in the
union prevent oil reaching the indicator.

If a flex drive longer than 12-feet is used, the readout on the gauge is erratic and is in frequent
need of attention, as well as having a short working life.

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Mechanical Indicators
Figure 2.32 shows a basic indicator. It consists of a pivoted weight on a spindle which rotates
at ending speed, causing the centrifugal forces to act on the weight; it tries to assume a
horizontal position but is opposed by the springs.

Figure 2.32: Mechanical engine speed indicator

Electrical Tachometers
Electrical tachometers are the ones you are most likely to be concerned with. They are
preferable to the mechanical type as they do not require a flexible drive to give information to
the indicator.

Main Components

The electrical tachometer consists of two units:-

 A transmitter,
 An indicator.

They are electrically connected together by a three cored cable. The generator, which is driven
by the engine, has a three phase alternating current output.

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 Tacho Generators
Most tacho generators work on similar principles but variations in design are common. Each
generator consists of a stator and a rotor, the stator being a hollow cylinder of laminated iron
which has a three phase star connected winding. The conductors of the stator are arranged in
slots cut around the inner surface of the cylinder.

The rotor will either be a 2-pole or a 4-pole type; a 2-pole is illustrated in Figure 2.33. The
4-pole version has skewed poles, so that when the end of one pole leaves a stator the other
end is entering the next stator. This produces a better waveform and an even driving torque
and prevents the ‘cogging effect’. The 2-pole version achieves the same effect by skewing the
stator teeth and the individual coils which make up a phase.

Figure 2.33: Generator rotor

The rotor is a permanent magnet which rotates inside the stator inducting alternating
electromotive forces in the stator windings. The rotor is mounted on a spindle and runs in ball
or Oilite bearing. The Oilite bearings retain oil and allow for long periods for use without
maintenance.

There are three types of drive coupling used on tacho generators, they are:-

 Flexible,
 Splined,
 Two pin.

The most common type in use is the splined type.

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To reduce the mechanical load on the generator the operating speed is reduced by gears in the
engine drive system. If the generator is running at one quarter engine speed, then the indicator
will be calibrated to read four times engine speed.

The type of generator shown in Figure 2.34 has a 2-pole permanent magnet rotor with a three
phase stator coil producing an alternating current whose frequency is related to the speed of
rotation.

Figure 2.34: Tacho generator and indicator

The mounting flange also carries the electrical termination. The square drive shaft is flexible
enough to allow slight misalignment with the drive coupling.

At each end of the rotor shaft are ball bearing assemblies which are pre-packed with grease.
The rear bearing is pre-loaded to eliminate end shake.

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 Indicators
The indicator is a synchronous motor type. The output of the generator turns a rotor inside the
indicator. When the speed of the rotor field equals the rotating field of the generator, the two
fields lock and they both rotate synchronized with each other.

The measuring device consists of a 4-pole magnet mounted on the end of the motor spindle
and a copper drag cup with surrounds the magnet.

As the magnet rotates it tends to turn the copper drag cup which in turn moves the pointers over
the scale. The reason for the hair springs is to give the pointer a dead beat type of movement,
thus reducing the fluctuations of the pointer.

Figure 2.35 shows a basic engine speed indicator display. The smaller pointer indicates in
1,000s up to 10,000 RPM.

Figure 2.35: Typical tacho indicator

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Maintenance Practices

Flexible Drives
If you are required to install a flexible drive, here are some points which you must observe:

 The drive should be fitted with the union vent holes at the engine end.
 No part of the drive should come within 11 inches of a magnetic compass
 Bends should be avoided if possible but especially one of less than nine inches.
 The drive must be firmly cleaned throughout its whole length; pay special attention to any
bends which you may have.
 Check for easy fit of square drives in their respective sockets.
 Before final fitting grease the connections
 Before connecting the engine drive end, adjust the inner drive so that it does not bend or
stand up more than a quarter of an inch. Adjustment is made by twisting the outer case
as appropriate.

Other Servicing

Before you install a flex drive and at periodic intervals:

 Remove the slip washer and withdraw the drive from the casing.
 Wipe off old grease; examine the drive carefully looking for broken strands, loose ends,
connections and burns on the square drive. If any of these faults are in evidence, then
fit a new drive.
 Grease drive end connections thoroughly using low temperature grease and refit drive to
casing, making sure that the end is located in its drive.
 Gearboxes should be inspected internally periodically and repacked with low
temperature grease.

Tachometer indicators need no servicing other than cleaning.

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Fuel Flow Measurement and Indication
Although the amount of fuel consumed during a given flight may vary slightly between engines
of the same type, fuel flow does provide a useful indication of the satisfactory operation of the
engine.

Vane Type Fuel Flowmeter

A typical system consists of a fuel flow transmitter, which is fitted in the low pressure fuel
system. The simplest being of the vane type, its position is determined by the speed of flow.
This position is then transmitted to the flight deck by either a Desynn or an Autosyn position
indicator. Whatever system is used, it required external power.

It will indicate in lbs/hr or kg/hr. It may also indicate the amount of fuel used since the start of
the flight, which is a better measure of the fuel usage over a period of time.

Figure 2.36: Vane type fuel flowmeter

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 The vane type flowmeter shown above is generally fitted in the low pressure fuel system
downstream of the LP Fuel Pump. Also note that the Bypass valve operates when the
differential pressure across the valve increases above a set value, due to the vane seizing.

Synchronous Fuel Flowmeter (Motor driven)

Also known as an Autosyn Fuel Flowmeter.

This system, more recently developed than the vane type, is said to have greater accuracy in
that it measures mass flow rather than volume. In this way, it compensates for fuel temperature
in its read-out.

The system measures in kilograms or pounds per hour. Fuel enters the transmitter impeller,
which is rotated at a constant 60 revolutions per minute by the synchronous impeller motor. The
temperature of the fuel will determine its volume and the amount of force to be created by the
action of the impeller.

The turbine is twisted against its restraining spring by the mass flow force created by impeller
movement. The mass flow electrical transmitter arrangement is similar to the vane type system.

Figure 2.37: A mass-flow type flowmeter system

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The Motorless Integrated Fuel Flow Transmitter
This type of fuel flow transmitter consists of a housing containing a swirl generator, a free-
spinning rotor and a turbine, which is restrained by a spring attached to the housing.
Two permanent magnets are fixed, 180 degrees apart, at the forward and aft end of the rotor.
With each complete revolution of the rotor, the forward end magnet induces an electrical pulse
in a small coil mounted on the outer wall of the housing. This is known as the ‘start’ pulse. The
aft end magnet aligns with a signal blade fixed on the turbine. As the magnet passes the signal
blade, another pulse is induced into a second, larger coil, which is also on the outer wall of the
housing. This is known as the ‘stop’ pulse.

One ‘start’ pulse and one ‘stop’ pulse are generated through the coils at each revolution of the
rotor. If the rotor could spin without fuel flow, the start and stop pulses would occur
simultaneously.

When the fuel starts flowing, the rotor spins at a speed that is proportional to the fuel flow and
the signal blade on the turbine, restrained by the spring, begins to deflect along the path of
rotation. The stop pulses now begin to occur after the start pulses.

As the mass flow (weight) of fuel through the transmitter increases, the turbine deflects further
and further, and the time difference between the start and stop pulses increases proportionally.
It is this time difference which is measured by the ECU, and converted to Fuel Flow and Fuel
Used values, which are then made available to the aircraft for cockpit indication. The operating
range of the fuel flow transmitter output is from 0 to 170 milliseconds, which corresponds to a
fuel flow range of 0 to 27,000 lbs/hr.

Figure 2.38: Motorless integrated fuel flow transmitter

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 The Synchronous Integrated Fuel Flowmeter
This device still uses the pulse difference method to produce a signal. It was developed as an
interim between the synchronous motor type and the motor less integrated type.

An integrator is essential if total fuel used is to be measured as the Kg/hr figure must be
integrated to produce Kg alone.

Maintenance Practices
Fuel flow transmitters that are not installed within 24-hours must be treated to prevent corrosion.
Fill the transmitter with engine oil to coat all internal parts, then drain. Install protective covers
on the open ports.

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Engine Thrust Measurement and Indication
Thrust can only be measured in an engine static test cell. Reference to the fundamental section
of these notes should remind you why this is! Engines are rated by Static or Gross thrust, this
figure is always quoted on the engine data plate.

Because of the above the indication of thrust, in the cockpit is always going to be an analogy,
that is, some other indication that can be used to indicate the thrust performance of the engine.
The examples discussed below are:

 Engine Pressure Ratio

 Engine turbine discharge/Jet pipe pressure system
 High Bypass fan RPM (N1)

Engine Pressure Ratio

The engine pressure ratio (EPR) is a widely used thrust indicating system and is becoming
more popular than the RPM as an indication of thrust. The pressures sensed are usually
compressor inlet pressure (P1) and turbine outlet pressure (P6), by a series of pitot
pressure probes. A ratio of the two pressures are converted into an electrical signal by the
pressure ratio transmitter for transmittal to the flight deck indicator.

Although an EPR of say, 1.6 (typical for cruise) is not a direct indication of the thrust itself, since
other factors are involved (such as nozzle area), the ratio does vary linearly with thrust and can
therefore be used as a thrust "indicator".

The Pressure Ratio Transmitter consists of a series of bellows sensitive to the air pressure
tappings, which when processed into a ratio by mechanical means, is converted into an
electrical signal for indication in the flight deck by a voltmeter, or, a Desynn or an Autosyn
position indicator is used. Whichever system is used, it requires an electrical input.

Engine pressure ratio does vary with increased forward speed due to Ram Effect. Increased P1
will affect the P6/P1 ratio so that the ratio will decrease.

Note that High Bypass Fan engines variously define EPR as Fan Outlet Pressure to Fan Inlet
Pressure or Turbine Integrated Pressure plus Fan Outlet Pressure to Fan Inlet Pressure.

Engine Turbine Discharge / Jet Pipe Pressure

This indication of thrust utilizes a pitot probe to measure the dynamic pressure of the jet stream
aft of the turbine. The output will be in to a gauge that is calibrated in either:

 Lb/in2
 Inches of mercury (in Hg )
 Percentage of the maximum thrust

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 Pressure Sensors
The exact position of sensors varies from engine to engine

 For a Turbo Jet P6:P1 = EPR

 For a High Bypass Engine a variety of pressure sensors are used

e.g.

 RB 211 –535 Pf (Fan outlet pressure) : P1 (Fan inlet pressure)

 CFM 56 P6 + Pf : P1 (known as Integrated EPR)

Note: With increased forward speed EPR indication decreases due to the rise in P1. The
engine will normally have been set up to maintain a certain EPR (Cruise, climb, Max-T/O) and
as a result will increase fuel flow to provide extra RPM which will produce the extra thrust to
maintain the EPR value.

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 Figure 2.39: EPR system

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 RPM
Older engines simply used compressor RPM as the indication of thrust. The higher the RPM the
greater the thrust

High Bypass Fan RPM

In a high bypass engine the fan produces 80% of the thrust therefore it is reasonable to use N1
RPM as an analogy of thrust. The GE CF6 series engines are a good example of this. The RR
Trent uses EPR, but has N1 available as a back up.

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Oil Pressure, Quantity and Temperature Measurement and
Indication

Pressure Measurement
Oil pressure is electrically transmitted to an indicator on the instrument panel. Some
installations use a flag-type indicator, which indicates if the pressure is high, normal or low;
others use a dial-type gauge calibrated in pounds per square inch (PSI). EICAS and ECAM
display oil pressure and temperature on the appropriate engine page.

Electrical operation of each type is similar; oil pressure, acting on the transmitter, causes a
change in the electric current supplied to the indicator. The amount of change is proportional to
the pressure applied at the transmitter.

The transmitter may be of either the direct or the differential pressure type. The latter senses
the difference between engine feed and return oil pressures. The differential pressure type is
normally used on modern engines as it will take into account changes of altitude, which in a
direct reading gauge would affect the indication.

In addition to the pressure gauge operated by a transmitter, an oil pressure switch may be
provided to indicate absolute minimum allowable oil pressure.

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 Direct Reading Pressure Gauges

Bourdon Tube Principle

Figure 2.40: Bourdon tube principles

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Pressure Capsule

Figure 2.41: Aneroid pressure capsule

Pressure Bellows

Figure 2.42: Bellows Mechanism and Instrument

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 Figure 2.43: Differential Bellows with Indication Mechanism

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Remote Reading Pressure Instruments

Strain Gauges
These electric passive devices are used to detect forces. The resistance of strain-gauges varies
with the force applied to it. The metallic wire consists of a chrome-nickel alloy. The length and
the diameter of the conductor changes as a function of the force. Expanding force increases,
shortening force decreases the resistance.

These sensors are used for different applications. Structure monitoring, force sensors, pressure
transducers and weight measuring. Inside pressure sensors, the pressure affects is changed
into force.

Figure 2.44: Strain Gauge

Figure 2.45: Pressure Indication using Strain Gauge Bridge

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 Piezo-Resistive Sensors
P- or N- conducting elements are diffused into a pure silicon substrate. This so called piezo-
resistive effect changes the resistance with a much higher sensitivity than what a metallic strain
gauge does.

Semiconductor based sensors are in many different forms. The substrate of the pressure
sensor shown in Figure 2.46 has a dimension of 3.5 x 3.5 mm. Inside there is a bridge with 4
elements.

Figure 2.46: Piezo Resistive Element

Variable Frequency Signals

A variable frequency signal has a frequency which is controlled by a certain parameter. A
device with a variable output frequency makes such a signal. The frequency varies, under
control of the parameter, between a high and a low frequency. These limit frequencies are
different from device to device and depend on the design of the device.

A control voltage, a variable capacitor, and a variable resistor are, for example, parameters that
control the frequency.

Frequency counters, microprocessor system and special moving coil meters are all devices that
work with variable frequency signals.

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 Figure 2.47: Linear Parameter Output after Conversion

Figure 2.48 shows a very sensitive and accurate pressure transducer used inside airdata
computers. The oscillator coil assembly oscillates the diaphragm. Its resonant frequency
increases with the applied pressure against the vacuum reference inside the transducer.

The output frequency, proportional to the pressure, is easily changed inside the computer, into a
digital signal. The temperature sensing resistor compensates for influences of the ambient
temperature.

Non-Linear

Figure 2.48: Vibrating Diaphragm Transducer

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 Figure 2.49: Pressure to Digital Conversion

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Oil pressure Warning Light
Oil pressure is also monitored by an oil pressure switch (Figure 2.50) that puts a light on when
the oil pressure reaches a low level. The light is usually red and will be incorporated into the
aircraft warning systems to alert the pilot. On later aircraft the pressure switch may have two
pressure switched within it. A speed comparator will decide which switch to monitor. The idea
being that a low oil pressure of say 20 PSI is fine at low engine speed, however at higher
engine speeds the engine could be sustaining damage due to insufficient oil pressure even
though it is above 20 PSI. The second pressure element would be activated when the engine
speed was greater than say 80% and the oil pressure less than 50 PSI.

Figure 2.50: Low Oil Pressure warning

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Oil Quantity Measurement
Modern oil tank indicating systems utilise a sliding magnet around a series of reed switches. As
the oil level varies the magnet floats up and down the probe causing the reed switches to open
and close. Current to the indicator varies as a function of the resistances in the probe circuit

Figure 2.51: Oil quantity sensing system

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 Figure 2.52: Oil quantity sensing system

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Manifold Pressure and Boost Pressure Measurement and
Indication
Manifold pressure is measured on piston engines either in pounds per square inch or
sometimes centimetres of mercury. The reason for a boost gauge is to indicate the pressure of
the fuel/air mixture in the induction system of a supercharged engine in relation to the standard
atmospheric pressure which as we know is approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch (PSI).

The boost gauge gives a reading relative to standard sea level pressure. The boost gauge dial
is calibrated to show both positive and negative pressures. The pointer only registers zero
when the induction pressure is 14.7 PSI; if the pressure decreases to 12.7 then the boost gauge
will indicate -2.

The principle of the boost gauge is that of the aneroid capsule. The capsule is subjected to
induction pressure and as the capsule expands or contracts it operates a quadrant which in turn
drives the pointer. You can also note this sequence of events if you refer to Figure 2.53.

Figure 2.53: A typical boost pressure mechanism

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 Construction and Action
The bezels of boost gauges are coloured red to indicate that they are associated with the fuel
system. Fitted to the bezel is an adjustable lubber mark to indicate the maximum permissible
boost of the engine to which the gauge is connected. The lubber mark is located by a grub
screw in the bezel, or it may be locked by the bezel itself as it is tightened.

Induction pressure is fed to the mechanism via a union at the rear of the case, as shown in
Figure 2.54. The union houses a small gauge filter and a choke. The filter prevents foreign
matter getting into the instrument. The choke, a restricting orifice (hole) is to protect the
mechanism form pressure surges i.e. if the engine backfires.

Figure 2.54: A typical manifold pressure mechanism

Boost gauge mechanism very considerably in design, but their principle of operation remains
the same. Two representative types are described in the following paragraphs.

Figure 2.53 illustrates a typical boost gauge mechanism of the type which uses an airtight case;
Figure 2.54 is also of this type. Induction pressure is fed directly into the case from the union.
Although it is exhausted of air, a vacuum, the capsule is strong enough to resist collapsing due
to the surrounding pressure.

If there is an increase in pressure the capsule will contract and pull the connecting link down.
This in turn pulls on the cross arm rotating the lay shaft and quadrant in the direction of the
arrow. As the quadrant moves it actuates a pinion on the pointer spindle which in turn rotates
the pointer clockwise indicating a pressure increase. A decrease in pressure causes the
capsule to expand.

From this information trace the movement through and see if you can get the pointer to register
a negative reading.

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There are difficulties in maintaining the cases of boost gauges free from leakage. To overcome
this difficulty an instrument was developed so that the airtight case was not necessary. This
type of instrument is illustrated in Figure 2.55.

Figure 2.55: A typical boost pressure mechanism

The mechanism is formed by two flexible metal bellows, the outer ends of which are fixed to the
mechanism frame and the inner ends connected together by a distance piece. The Vacuum
Bellows in the diagram is exhausted of air, but a spring keeps it distended. The Pressure
Bellows is connected to the union at the rear of the instrument, i.e. induction pressure enters the
bellows, but not in the case, applying a force to the evacuated bellows via the connecting link.

When the engine is at rest and the induction pressure is at atmospheric pressure then the
Pressure Bellows will not exert any pressure on the Vacuum Bellows because the pressure
inside the Pressure Bellows is the same as that surrounding it, which is atmospheric. The
distance piece is therefore located by the evacuated bellows, which assumes a position where
the external force of atmosphere is balanced by the internal force from the spring.

When the engine is running the induction pressure causes the Pressure bellows to push, or pull,
the link, depending on whether is increasing or decreasing. The resultant movement rotates the
pointer on the distance piece.

The quadrant drives a pinion on the pointer spindle and moves the pointer over the scale. The
hair spring on the pointer spindle will take up any backlash between gears and link pins.
Although the bellows are subjected to atmospheric pressure externally, any change of
atmospheric pressure due to altitude will not affect the position of the bellows. This is because

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 both bellows are of the same surface area, i.e. the effect on one bellows is equally opposed by
the effect on the other.

Fuel Trap
In the boost gauge pipeline is a fuel trap which prevents fuel entering the gauge. It is fitted
when the gauge type is that in which induction pressure is fed directly to the instrument case. It
is not necessarily to fit one to the instrument case. It is not necessary to fit one to the non-
airtight instrument. Figure 2.56 illustrates a typical trap which is cylindrical with two unions on
top and a captive drain plug at the bottom. It must be mounted vertically with the union end
(marked top) uppermost. The pipe to the boost gauge is connected to the central union, the
other union being connected to the pipeline from the engine induction system.

Figure 2.56: A fuel trap

The fuel trap must be drained at periodic intervals as stated in the relevant Maintenance
Manual.

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Testing Boost Gauges

Zero Error
Obtain the local barometric pressure of the day from the meteorological office or the instrument
workshop. Convert is into the PSI equivalent then check that the boost gauge reading
coincides.

Leak Test
The actual leakage will vary with the type of boost gauge therefore refer to the relevant
Maintenance Manual for the correct tolerances. The method is as follows:

 Apply a positive pressure to the instrument union until the specified reading is obtained.
 Seal off and watch the pointer. If here is a leakage the pointer will return gradually.
 Make sure that this leak is not a bad seal from where you sealed off.

Any other calibration work should be referred to the instrument tradesman or workshop as they
will have the necessary test equipment for checking out the system or the gauge if you suspect
it of being faulty.

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Engine Torque Measurement and Indication
A torque indicating system is essential on all torque producing engines, such as turboprops and
turbo shafts. It is the primary performance instrument in the flight deck.

Torque may be presented in a number of ways, such as torque oil pressure (PSI), direct torque
(ft-lb), torque percent or a direct horsepower reading.

Most systems work on one or the other of the following principles;

1 The fact that as torque increases, the output shaft twists slightly with a magnitude which
is directly proportional to the torque being transmitted trough it. This angle of twist can
be measured by a number of ways, e.g.

 Hydro-Mechanical sensor
 Electronic sensors
 Strain Gauge sensors

Figure 2.57: Phase comparison torque indicator

2 A series of helical gears inside the reduction gearbox will produce an axial thrust
proportional to the torque that they transmit. This axial thrust can be used to pressurize
oil and the oil pressure is indicated in the flight deck. The gauge is calibrated in PSI.

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 Figure 2.58: Torque pressure indicator

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 Figure 2.59: Helical Gear Torque Meter

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 Vibration Indication Systems
A turbine engine has an extremely low vibration level and a change in vibration, due to an
impending or partial failure, may go unnoticed. Many engines are therefore fitted with vibration
indicators that continually monitor the vibration level of the engine.

Early vibration transducers were of the moving coil type and up to three could be located at
strategic locations around the engine (HP Compressor case, LP Turbine case etc). The units of
vibration for these systems were in terms of Relative Amplitude

Figure 2.60: Vibration indicating system

An alternative system consists of a piezo-electric crystal and a mass inside a casing. As the
engine vibrates, the mass will exert a force upon the crystal which will emit a small alternating
current of a frequency equal to the frequency of vibration. This is then amplified and displayed
in the flight deck via an ammeter.

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 Figure 2.61: Piezo Electric Vibration Transducer

More modern systems have a pair of piezoelectric crystals contained within the same housing.
This provides for dual channel redundancy. Each transducer detects a broadband vibration
signal that reflects all the vibrations in the engine. This broadband signal is processed by a
micro-processor and the frequency of the rotating spools (N1, N2 and for RR engines N3) so that
the amplitude of vibration of these major assemblies can be displayed, usually on EICAS or
ECAM.

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 Figure 2.62: Vibration indicating system

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 Figure 2.63: Vibration indicating system

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European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA)

Module 14
Licence Category B2

Propulsion

14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

 Intentionally Blank

3.2 Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

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 Copyright Notice
© Copyright. All worldwide rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any other means whatsoever: i.e.
photocopy, electronic, mechanical recording or otherwise without the prior written permission
Turkish Technic Inc.

Knowledge Levels — Category A, B1, B2, B3 and C Aircraft Maintenance

Licence
Basic knowledge for categories A, B1, B2 and B3 are indicated by the allocation of knowledge levels indicators (1,
2 or 3) against each applicable subject. Category C applicants must meet either the category B1 or the category B2
basic knowledge levels.
The knowledge level indicators are defined as follows:

LEVEL 1
 A familiarisation with the principal elements of the subject.
Objectives:
 The applicant should be familiar with the basic elements of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a simple description of the whole subject, using common words and
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use typical terms.

LEVEL 2
 A general knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 An ability to apply that knowledge.
Objectives:
 The applicant should be able to understand the theoretical fundamentals of the subject.
 The applicant should be able to give a general description of the subject using, as appropriate, typical
examples.
 The applicant should be able to use mathematical formulae in conjunction with physical laws describing the
subject.
 The applicant should be able to read and understand sketches, drawings and schematics describing the
subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using detailed procedures.

LEVEL 3
 A detailed knowledge of the theoretical and practical aspects of the subject.
 A capacity to combine and apply the separate elements of knowledge in a logical and comprehensive
manner.
Objectives:
 The applicant should know the theory of the subject and interrelationships with other subjects.
 The applicant should be able to give a detailed description of the subject using theoretical fundamentals
and specific examples.
 The applicant should understand and be able to use mathematical formulae related to the subject.
 The applicant should be able to read, understand and prepare sketches, simple drawings and schematics
describing the subject.
 The applicant should be able to apply his knowledge in a practical manner using manufacturer's
instructions.
 The applicant should be able to interpret results from various sources and measurements and apply
corrective action where appropriate.

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3.4 Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

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 Table of Contents

Module 14.3 - Starting and Ignition Systems _____________________________________ 9

Turbine Engine Starting and Ignition ___________________________________________ 9
Turbine Engine Start Sequence ______________________________________________ 9
Cranking the Engine ______________________________________________________ 9
Self-Sustaining Speed ____________________________________________________ 10
Idle RPM ______________________________________________________________ 11
Precautions ____________________________________________________________ 11
Start Control ____________________________________________________________ 11
Turbine Engine Starters ___________________________________________________ 13
Starter Motor Requirements ________________________________________________ 13
Cranking and Fuel Flow ___________________________________________________ 13
Starter Cut-Off Before Self-Sustaining Speed __________________________________ 13
Turbine Engine Electric Starters ____________________________________________ 15
Starter Generator Systems ________________________________________________ 19
Turbine Engine Air Starters ________________________________________________ 21
A Turbine Engine Start System Example _____________________________________ 29
A300 Starting System ____________________________________________________ 29
Procedure _____________________________________________________________ 29
The control panel ________________________________________________________ 29
Turbine Engine Start Fault Terminology ______________________________________ 33
Turbine Engine Ignition Systems ____________________________________________ 35
Overview ______________________________________________________________ 35
Use of Ignition __________________________________________________________ 36
A Typical DC Turbine Engine Ignition Unit _____________________________________ 37
AC Versus DC Input Systems ______________________________________________ 40
Turbine Engine Igniter Plugs _______________________________________________ 41
Spark Igniters ___________________________________________________________ 41
Constrained or Constricted Air Gap Type _____________________________________ 41
Surface Discharge Igniter Plug _____________________________________________ 43
Glow Plugs_____________________________________________________________ 44
Cleaning, Inspection and Testing ____________________________________________ 46
Fitment and Removal _____________________________________________________ 47
Handling of Turbine Engine Ignition Units and Igniter Plugs _____________________ 49
A Turbine Engine Ignition System Example ___________________________________ 51
Boeing 757 Starter System ________________________________________________ 51
Piston Engine Starting and Ignition ___________________________________________ 55
Piston Engine High Tension (HT) Ignition Systems _____________________________ 55
The Primary or Low Tension (LT) Circuit ______________________________________ 56
The Secondary or High Tension (HT) Circuit ___________________________________ 56

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 Ignition Harness _________________________________________________________ 57
Operation of the Combined Circuits __________________________________________ 59
Piston Engine Magnetos ___________________________________________________ 61
Magneto Operation ______________________________________________________ 61
Ignition Switches ________________________________________________________ 64
The Piston Engine Contact Breaker (CB) _____________________________________ 65
The Piston Engine Distributor ______________________________________________ 68
Magneto Venting ________________________________________________________ 69
Magneto Speeds ________________________________________________________ 70
The Four Pole Magnet ____________________________________________________ 71
The Dual Magneto _______________________________________________________ 72
The Rotating Armature Magneto ____________________________________________ 73
Magneto Mounting and Drives ______________________________________________ 74
Piston Engine Ignition Leads (HT) ___________________________________________ 77
Construction____________________________________________________________ 77
Testing ________________________________________________________________ 77
Piston Engine Spark Plugs _________________________________________________ 83
Construction____________________________________________________________ 83
Inspection and Servicing of Sparking Plugs ____________________________________ 86
Storage _______________________________________________________________ 88
Plug Fitting _____________________________________________________________ 88
Ground Checking ________________________________________________________ 89
Auxiliary Ignition Systems _________________________________________________ 91
Impulse Starters _________________________________________________________ 91
Piston Engine Booster Coils _______________________________________________ 93
Piston Engine Ignition Timing ______________________________________________ 97
General _______________________________________________________________ 97
Engine Speed __________________________________________________________ 99
Manifold Pressure _______________________________________________________ 99
Mixture Strength_________________________________________________________ 99
Automatic Timing Control_________________________________________________ 100
Magneto Timing (Bendix) _________________________________________________ 100
The “E” (Efficiency) Gap _________________________________________________ 101
Timing Magneto to Engine ________________________________________________ 104
Piston Engine Starters ___________________________________________________ 105
Types of Starter ________________________________________________________ 105
Manual Cranking Inertia Starter ____________________________________________ 105
Electrical Inertia Starters _________________________________________________ 107
Combination Inertia Starters ______________________________________________ 107
Direct Cranking Starters__________________________________________________ 108
Solenoid or Pre-engaged _________________________________________________ 109
Electric Starter Circuit ___________________________________________________ 110
Bendix Drive___________________________________________________________ 112
Starter Relay __________________________________________________________ 113
Bonding / Earthing Straps ________________________________________________ 114
Troubleshooting and Maintenance __________________________________________ 115

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 Module 14.3 Enabling Objectives and Certification Statement
Certification Statement
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA Regulation (EU) No. 1321/2014 Annex III
(Part-66) Appendix I, and the associated Knowledge Levels as specified below:
Licence
Part-66
Objective Category
Reference
B2
Starting and Ignition Systems 14.3 2
Operation of engine start systems and components;
Ignition systems and components;
Maintenance safety requirements

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 Module 14.3 - Starting and Ignition Systems

Turbine Engine Starting and Ignition

Turbine Engine Start Sequence
Cranking the Engine
Two separate systems are required to start a gas turbine engine, a means to rotate the
compressor/turbine assembly and a method of igniting the air/fuel mixture in the combustion
chamber. Ideally the process is automatic after the fuel supply is turned on and the starting
circuit brought into operation.

The starter motor is capable of cranking the engine to a speed slightly higher than that at which
sufficient gas flow is generated to enable the engine to accelerate under its own power.

At an early stage in the cranking operation, the igniter plugs in the engine combustion chamber
are supplied with electrical power, followed by the injection of fuel when fuel pressure has built
up sufficiently to produce an atomized spray.

Light-up normally occurs at this point and the engine assisted by the starter motor; accelerates
to self-sustaining speed.

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Self-Sustaining Speed
This is the speed at which the energy developed by the engine is sufficient to provide for
continuous operation of the engine without the starting device.

Figure 3.1: Typical engine start sequence

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 Idle RPM
This speed is slightly above self-sustaining and is often referred to in the form of a percentage
of compressor speed, and on the ground is about 60% of the high pressure compressor, i.e.
60% N2 or N3. Note that on modern systems idle rpm is a throttle position (normally fully aft).
Idle RPM varies with altitude and can be increased under certain flight conditions, for example
on the approach or with anti icing switched on.

Precautions
If engine acceleration is retarded, the possibility of a light-up occurring reduces at low engine
speed, and would result in overfuelling and a high turbine gas temperature. The power supply
to the starter should always be checked before starting, and must not be less than the minimum
figure quoted in the aircraft Maintenance Manual. Facing the aircraft into wind will assist with
engine acceleration, particularly in the case of turbo-prop aircraft, the propellers of which are
normally provided with a special fine blade angle for starting and ground running.

There are many different methods used to crank the engine to self-sustaining speed,
depending on the operational requirements of the particular aircraft.

Where speed of starting is of the utmost importance, on fighter aircraft for instance, a cartridge
or mono-fuel turbine starter can be fitted. These devices are not used on civil aircraft however,
due to the high cost and the handling difficulties involved.

Start Control
The start master switch does not just switch the starting system ‘ON’. On some aircraft will
prepare the aircraft electrical system for the start operation i.e. starter motors require a very
high current for starting which is usually too much for a single Transformer rectifier (TRU), so it
will parallel the DC systems. To ensure that a start is not carried out on a single TRU, it will
place all the AC power systems onto one generator, so if it fails the start is aborted. It will also
ensure that the engine gauging systems are all powered for the start in all conditions.

Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems 3.11

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.00 - 31 March 2016
 Figure 3.2: Typical starting control system

3.12 Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

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Rev.00 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Turbine Engine Starters
The two main methods used on transport aircraft are:

 Electric starters – fitted to Turbo-Prop and small turbo jet engines

 Air starters – fitted to large turbo jet and turbo fan engines

Starter Motor Requirements

The starter motor must produce a high torque and transmits it to the engine rotating assembly in
a manner that provides smooth acceleration from rest up to a speed at which the gas flow
through the engine provides sufficient power for the engine turbine to take over.

Cranking and Fuel Flow

As soon as the starter has accelerated the compressor sufficiently to establish an airflow
through the engine, the ignition is turned on, followed by the fuel. The exact sequence of the
starting procedure is important since there must be sufficient airflow through the engine to
support combustion before the fuel/air mixture is ignited. At low engine cranking speeds, the
fuel flow rate is not sufficient to enable the engine to accelerate, and for this reason the starter
continues to crank the engine until after self-accelerating speed has been attained.

Starter Cut-Off Before Self-Sustaining Speed

If assistance from the starter were cut off below the self-accelerating speed, the engine would
either fail to accelerate to idle speed, or might even decelerate because it could not produce
sufficient energy to sustain rotation or to accelerate during the initial phase of the starting cycle.

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3.14 Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

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Rev.00 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Turbine Engine Electric Starters
Direct Cranking Gas Turbine Starters
Direct cranking electric starting systems are similar to those used on reciprocating engines.
Starter- generator starting systems are also similar to direct cranking electrical systems.
Electrically, the two systems may be identical, but the starter generator is permanently engaged
with the engine shaft through the necessary drive gears, while the direct cranking starter must
employ some means of disengaging the starter from the shaft after the engine has started.

On some direct cranking starters used on gas turbine engines no overload release clutch or
gear reduction mechanism is used. This is because of the low torque and high speed
requirement for starting gas turbine engines.

Starter Engagement

Starter Jaw -A common method of coupling the starter drive to the engine is by means of a jaw
on the starter, which moves axially into engagement with a similar jaw on the engine gearbox
during initial starter rotation. Axial movement of this jaw is effected either by helical splines on
the starter drive shaft, as shown below, or by the pressure of a solenoid operated push rod in
the starter motor

Figure 3.3:Electrical Starter Motor

Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems 3.15

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.00 - 31 March 2016
Sprag Clutch-Alternative methods of engagement are the ratchet drive and sprag clutch, in
which the ratchet pawls or sprags rotate with the engine. Engagement and disengagement are
effected centrifugally, engagement by the engine taking place whenever its speed falls below
idling.

Figure 3.4: Typical sprag clutch

Figure 3.5: Another type of sprag clutch

3.16 Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

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Rev.00 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Low Voltage Starting System
Operation of the starting cycle is normally controlled by either of two methods. On some aircraft
the high initial starter current is used to engage an overspeed relay and hold-in solenoid; when
the engine begins to accelerate under its own power, the starter current decreases and the
hold-in solenoid breaks the circuit automatically.

In the low voltage system shown opposite, the hold-in solenoid is called the main relay.

The electrical supply may be of a low or high voltage, and it is passed through a system of
relays and resistances to allow the full voltage to be progressively built up as the starter gains
speed. It also provides the power for operation of the ignition system. The electrical supply is
automatically cancelled when the starter load is reduced after the engine has satisfactorily
started, or when the time cycle is completed.

Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems 3.17

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.00 - 31 March 2016
 Figure 3.6: Low Voltage Starting System

3.18 Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

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Rev.00 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Starter Generator Systems
Many gas turbine aircraft are equipped with starter generator systems. These starting systems
use a combination starter generator which operates as a starter motor to drive the engine during
starting, and, after the engine has reached a self-sustaining speed, operates as a generator to
supply the electrical system power.

The starter generator unit, shown below, is basically a shunt generator with an additional heavy
series winding. This series winding is electrically connected to produce a strong field and a
resulting high torque for starting.

Figure 3.7: Starter Generator

Starter generator units are desirable from an economical standpoint, since one unit performs
the functions of both starter and generator. Additionally, the total weight of starting system
components is reduced, and fewer spare parts are required.

Operation
The unit is similar to a direct cranking starter since all of the windings used during starting are in
series with the source. While acting as a starter, the unit makes no practical use of its shunt
field. A source of 24 volts and 1500 amperes is usually required for starting.

Installation
On a typical aircraft installation, one starter generator is mounted on each engine gearbox.
During starting, the starter generator unit functions as a DC starter motor until the engine has
reached a predetermined self-sustaining speed. Aircraft equipped with two 24 volt batteries can
supply the electrical load required for starting by operating the batteries in a series
configuration.

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3.20 Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

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Rev.00 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Turbine Engine Air Starters

Air Turbine Starter

For large gas turbine engines, starter motors are mainly Air Turbine types. The power from the
turbine assembly is transmitted through a reduction gear and sprag clutch engagement
mechanism, to drive the engine rotating assembly. The engagement mechanism will allow the
starter to 'run down' after an engine start.

Starting air is supplied via the aircraft ducting to a selected engine.

The distribution of air is normally achieved by electrically operated valves, switch controlled,
from the flight deck.

Air for starting may be obtained from various sources, as follows:-

a ground supply truck,

 an auxiliary power unit

 an engine compressor tapping, from an existing running engine

Figure 3.8: Air Starter System Layout – Boeing 757

Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems 3.21

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.00 - 31 March 2016
Air turbine starters are designed to provide a high starting torque from a small, lightweight
source. A typical air turbine starter weighs from one quarter to one-half as much as an electric
starter capable of starting the same engine. It is also capable of developing twice as much
torque as the electric starter.

The typical air turbine starter illustrated overleaf consists of an axial flow turbine, which turns a
drive coupling through a reduction gear train and a starter clutch mechanism.

Air Starter Operation

Introducing air of sufficient volume and pressure into the starter inlet operates the starter. The
air passes into the starter turbine housing, where it is directed against the rotor blades by the
nozzle vanes, causing the turbine rotor to turn. As the rotor turns, it drives the reduction gear
train and clutch arrangement, which includes the rotor pinion, planet gears and carrier, sprag
clutch assembly, output shaft assembly, and drive coupling.

Sprag Clutch Operation

The sprag clutch assembly engages automatically as soon as the rotor starts to turn, but '
disengages as soon as the drive coupling turns more rapidly than the rotor side. When the
starter reaches this over-run speed, the action of the sprag clutch allows the gear train to coast
to a halt. The output shaft assembly and drive coupling continue to turn as long as the engine is
running.

Starter Shut-Off
A rotor switch actuator, mounted in the turbine rotor hub, is set to open the turbine switch when
the starter reaches cut-out speed. Opening the turbine switch interrupts an electrical signal to
the pressure-regulating valve. This closes the valve and shuts off the air supply to the starter.

As the starter speeds up towards an over-speed, the ball weights centrifuge out forcing up the
bell housing breaking the micro-switch.

Figure 3.9: Starter speed switch operation

Starter Construction
The turbine housing contains the turbine rotor, the rotor switch actuator, and the nozzle
components, which direct the inlet air against the rotor blades. The turbine housing
incorporates a turbine rotor containment ring designed to dissipate the energy of blade
fragments and direct their discharge at low energy through the exhaust duct in the event of rotor
failure due to excessive turbine overspeed.

3.22 Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

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Rev.00 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Figure 3.10: A turbine air starter

The ring gear housing which is internal, contains the rotor assembly. The switch housing
contains the turbine switch and bracket assembly.

Also contained in the transmission housing are the reduction gears, the clutch components, the
flyweight cut out switch and the drive coupling as shown below.

Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems 3.23

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.00 - 31 March 2016
 Figure 3.11: Air Starter

Figure 3.12: Air Starter Installation

The transmission housing also provides a reservoir for the lubricating oil. Oil is added to the
transmission housing sump through a port at the top of the starter. This port is closed by a vent
plug containing a ball valve, which allows the sump to be vented to the atmosphere during
normal flight, but prevents loss of oil during inverted flight. The housing also incorporates two

3.24 Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

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Rev.00 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 oil-level holes, which are used to check the oil quantity. A magnetic drain plug in the
transmission drain opening attracts any ferrous particles, which may be in the oil.

Starter Attachment
To facilitate starter installation and removal, a mounting adapter is bolted to the mounting pad
on the engine. Quick-detach clamps join the starter to the mounting adapter and inlet duct.
Thus, the starter is easily removed for maintenance or overhaul by disconnecting the electrical
line, loosening the clamps, and carefully disengaging the drive coupling from the engine starter
drive as the starter is withdrawn.

Air Starter Valve

The air for starting is directed through a combination pressure-regulating and shut-off valve in
the starter inlet ducting. This valve regulates the pressure of the starter operating air and shuts
off the air supply when the maximum allowable starter speed has been reached.

The pressure-regulating and shut-off valve consists of two sub-assemblies:-

 the pressure-regulating valve,

 the pressure-regulating valve control.

Pressure Regulating and Shut-Off Valve Operation

The regulating valve assembly consists of a valve housing containing a butterfly-type valve. The
shaft of the butterfly valve is connected through a cam arrangement to a servo piston. When
the piston is actuated, its motion on the cam causes the rotation of the butterfly valve. The
slope of the cam track is designed to provide a small initial travel and high initial torque when
the starter is actuated. The cam track slope also provides a more stable action by increasing
the time the valve is open.

System Control
The control assembly is mounted on the regulating valve housing and consists of a control
housing in which a solenoid is used to stop the action of the control crank in the 'off' position.
The control crank links a pilot valve, which meters pressure to the servo piston, with the bellows
connected by an air line to the pressure sensing port on the starter.

Initiation
Turning on the starter switch energizes the regulating valve solenoid. The solenoid retracts and
allows the control crank to rotate to the 'open' position. The control crank is then rotated by the
control rod spring moving the control rod against the closed end of the bellows. Since the
regulating valve is closed and downstream pressure is negligible, the bellows can be fully
extended by the bellows spring.

As the control crank rotates to the open position, it causes the pilot valve rod to open the pilot
valve allowing upstream air, which is supplied to the pilot valve through a suitable filter and
restriction in the housing, to flow into the servo piston chamber. The drain side of the pilot
valve, which bleeds the servo chamber to the atmosphere, is now closed by the pilot valve rod
and the servo piston moves inboard.

Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems 3.25

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.00 - 31 March 2016
This linear motion of the servo piston is translated to rotary motion of the valve shaft by the
rotating cam, thus opening the regulating valve. As the valve opens, downstream pressure
increases. This pressure is bled back to the bellows through the pressure-sensing line and
compresses the bellows. This action moves the control rod, thereby turning the control crank
and moving the pilot valve rod gradually away from the servo chamber to vent to the
atmosphere.

When downstream (regulated) pressure reaches a preset value, the amount of air flowing into
the servo through the restriction equals the amount of air being bled to the atmosphere through
the servo bleed and the system is in a state of equilibrium.

Rotation
When the valve is open, the regulated air passing through the inlet housing of the starter
impinges on the turbine, causing it to turn.

Starter Cut-Out
When starting speed is reached, a set of flyweights in a centrifugal cut-out switch actuates a
plunger which breaks the ground circuit of the solenoid.

Valve Closed
When the ground circuit is broken and the solenoid is de-energized, the pilot valve is forced
back to the 'off' position, opening the servo chamber to the atmosphere. This action allows the
actuator spring to move the regulating valve to the 'closed' position.

When the air to the starter is terminated, the outboard clutch gear, driven by the engine, will
begin to turn faster than the inboard clutch gear, and the inboard clutch gear, actuated by the
return spring, will disengage the outboard clutch gear, allowing the rotor to coast to a halt. The
outboard clutch shaft will continue to turn with the engine.

Manual Starting
Sometimes the solenoid on the start valve becomes unserviceable, so provision is made to
enable the aircraft to be started manually. This can be by manually depressing the solenoid
valve or turning the butterfly itself.

3.26 Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

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Rev.00 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Figure 3.13: Starter control valve

Figure 3.14:Starter Control Valve installation and schematic

Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems 3.27

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.00 - 31 March 2016
Manual Start Procedure
The following procedure is typical of a manual start.

1. Gain access to the affected start valve.

2. Upon command from the flight deck, operate manual override handle to OPEN.

WARNING: WHEN MANUALLY OPERATING THE START VALVE, HAND AND ARM
COVERS MUST BE WORN. HOT AIR EXHAUSTING FROM STARTER COULD RESULT
IN INJURY TO PERSONNEL.

3. After engine has started and upon the command from the flight deck, operate the manual
override handle to CLOSED.

Starter Running Limitations

All air starters have run time limitations to prevent overheating. The limits are very generous for
even considerable dry cranking operation. For example 5 minutes on then 10 minutes off is one
example, but they all vary and the AMM should be consulted for a particular type.

3.28 Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

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Rev.00 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 A Turbine Engine Start System Example

A300 Starting System

The following example of an engine start is taken from the training manuals for an A300-134
fitted with GE 6-50 engines.

Procedure
The engines are equipped with air starters.
The air to start the engine is provided by:-
 The APU, the ground connectors, or the other engine, if it is already running.

The starting system has provision for:-

 Engine start.
 Engine crank.
 Continuous ignition.

Figure 3.15: A300 starting system – overview

The control panel

The control panel is located on the overhead panel.
Figure 3.16 shows the start panel with, at the top, the ignition selector which controls the two
ignition systems of each engine. The selector has three positions: CRANK in the vertical
position, then ground START ignition A or B when turned to the left and continuous RELIGHT
when turned to the right.
At the bottom of the panel is the master switch with ARM and START/ABORT positions.
Finally on each side, one yellow push-to-start button for each engine with its corresponding start
valve position light, which is blue and is marked OPEN.
The ignition system is supplied by two different electrical circuits.

Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems 3.29

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.00 - 31 March 2016
 Figure 3.16: Engine start panel
115 VAC is used to energise the exciter and is controlled through the HP fuel shut off valve
lever, the ignition selector and the ignition relay.
The ignition relay is energised by 28 VDC when the master switch is in the ARM position and
the start button is pushed.
Starting is achieved in the following manner:-
Set the ignition selector to A or B.
Set the master switch to “ARM”.
This arms the ignition circuit and closes the air conditioning system if it is open. The amber
lights in the push-to-start buttons will illuminate during this transit.
When the air conditioning valves are closed, the lights in the push-to-start buttons extinguish
and the operator can push the start button which will latch. This increases the APU rpm to
100% to provide sufficient air for starting.
It also arms the ignition circuit and finally, provided that pneumatic power is available, it opens
the start valve and the blue OPEN light illuminates.

3.30 Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

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Rev.00 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Figure 3.17: When the Start Button is pressed, the APU goes to 100%

Figure 3.18: At 10% N2 the HP fuel valve is opened

When engine N2 reaches 10% the HP Fuel Shut-off Valve must be opened.
This supplies fuel to the engine and energises the ignition exciters. The engine should light up
and EGT should increase.
When N2 reaches 45% the engine will be self-sustaining so the ignition is switched off, the push-
to-start button pops out and the APU demand goes back to normal.
Engine rpm should now increase to Ground Idle, which is approximately 65% N2 and 24% N1.

Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems 3.31

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.00 - 31 March 2016
 Figure 3.19: At 45% the start sequence is cancelled

3.32 Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

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Rev.00 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Turbine Engine Start Fault Terminology
Here are some common phrases, often seen in technical log reports

Hung Start Engine lights up and reaches self sustaining speed, but then the rpm is
slow or fails to reach IDLE rpm, TGT on or near limit.

Likely cause is the FCU.

Wet Start Excess fuel causing failure to light up. If start occurs, high TGT and
TORCHING.

Hot Start Maximum start TGT exceeded - likely cause, low starter supplies electrical
and/or air.

Abortive Start Engine does not light up within specified period. No increase in TGT. No
increase in speed above motoring rpm - likely causes, no fuel or no
ignition.

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3.34 Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

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 Turbine Engine Ignition Systems

Overview
The purpose of the ignition system is to provide a means of initiating or sustaining combustion
within the engine, an identical system is fitted to each engine. The system requirements are :-

 Satisfactory engine starting

 Relight at altitude when necessary
 Continuous operation during critical flight conditions

High Energy (HE) ignition is used for starting all jet engines and a dual system is always fitted.
Each system has an igniter unit connected to its own igniter plug, the two plugs being situated in
different positions in the combustion chamber (usually at the 4 and 8 o'clock positions).

Ignition units are rated in "joules". A high value output (e.g. 12 joules) is necessary to ensure
that the engine will "relight" at high altitudes and is sometimes necessary for starting (especially
with engines fitted with a vaporising tube type nozzle). However, in certain flight conditions,
such as icing or take-off in heavy rain or snow, it may be necessary to have the ignition system
operating continuous to give an automatic relight should a "flame-out" occur. For this
condition, a low output (e.g. 3 to 6 joules) would be used because it results in a longer life of
both the igniter system and the plug. See diagram overleaf showing a typical large aircraft
ignition system.

Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems 3.35

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.00 - 31 March 2016
Use of Ignition
Many systems incorporate two circuits within the same casing - one a low energy continuous
duty circuit, the othera high energy intermittent duty circuit. Both plugs may be fired from the
intermittent duty circuits, but there is a second circuit which fires just one plug on a lower energy
output.

Continuous duty - is used for periods of flying in icing conditions or during heavy rain or snow.
The cockpit switches would be positioned to the left or right positions to protect against flame-
out. The energy output of this system is not sufficient to cause "light-up" in the air or on the
ground, but will merely help to sustain ignition in bad flying conditions.

Intermittent duty - is used for initial "light-up" on the ground or to "re-light" should a flame-out
occur at altitude. If the switch is placed in the "START" position, the intermittent duty circuit is
activated and the starter system is activated. In this position the "VALVE OPEN" light will
illuminate to show that the starter motor is being fed with supply air. If the switch were placed in
the "FLT START" position, the intermittent duty circuit is activated, but since the engine will be
windmilling, it does not require a starter motor, and hence this system remains off.

With the older types of intermittent system, the intermittent duty circuits have a time limit on their
operation. A typical time limit would be two minutes ON, with a three to twenty minutes OFF for
cooling.

3.36 Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

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Rev.00 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 A Typical DC Turbine Engine Ignition Unit

Figure 3.20:Trembler type DC Ignition Unit and Circuit

Above is a typical DC trembler switch operated unit. Its operation is as follows;

The trembler mechanism is simply a switch which vibrates and hence opens and closes about
200 times a second, thereby pulsating DC current flows through the primary coil. This trembler
sometimes works off the natural vibrations of the aircraft, but usually is a mechanism containing
a "normally closed switch, which is opened as soon as current flows through it, by a solenoid
(similar to an electric bell).

As the contacts open and close rapidly, there would be a tendency for a spark to ark across the
points. This is reduced by the primary capacitor which provides a path of least resistance for
the current to flow.

Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems 3.37

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The secondary coil of the induction coil contains many more windings than the primary coil, so
a large current is induced in the coil. The electrons flowing from the secondary coil begin to
build up on the left hand side of the reservoir capacitor. The rectifier stops these electrons
flowing the opposite way round the circuit to the right hand side of the reservoir capacitor.

After about half a second of repeated cycles, there will be enough charge in the reservoir
capacitor to jump the discharge gap. All the charge in the reservoir capacitor will jump the gap
at once and so the igniter plug receives a large amount of current at once, which it conveys to
the earth circuit. The choke is fitted to extend the duration of the discharge slightly, especially if
there is more current than is required by the igniter plug at any one time. The cycle is repeated
about twice a second.

The discharge resistors are fitted to ensure that any stored energy in the capacitor is
dissipated within one minute of the system being switched off. The safety resistor provides an
alternative path for the discharge current if the igniter plug is disconnected but the system is still
switched on.

More modern circuits have the trembler mechanism replaced by a transistorised "chopper
circuit" which simply generates a pulsating DC supply.

3.38 Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

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Rev.00 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Figure 3.21: A Typical DC Transistorized Unit

Figure 3.22: A Typical AC Ignition Unit

Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems 3.39

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.00 - 31 March 2016
The operation of an AC circuit is identical to a DC circuit except that the trembler switch
mechanism (or transistorised chopper circuit) is replaced with 115 V AC supply.

AC Versus DC Input Systems

The AC Input system has the following advantages over the DC systems:-

The DC input system relies upon the aircraft battery for operation, whereas the AC input system
relies upon some auxiliary power such as the APU or a Ground Power Unit. Therefore, an
aircraft fitted with a DC input system is self sufficient as far as starting is concerned.

The AC input system is said to have a better "extreme climate" reliability than the DC input
system.

The operational cycle of a typical intermittent duty cycle, the AC system is 10 minutes on, 20
minutes off (for cooling). A DC system heats up more rapidly, and a typical operational cycle of
a system with the same Joule rating as the AC system mentioned above might be 2 minutes on,
3 to 20 minutes off.

The DC system remains in popular use, especially when no auxiliary power unit is installed and
a battery input voltage is all that is available for starting.

3.40 Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

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Rev.00 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Turbine Engine Igniter Plugs

Spark Igniters

Constrained or Constricted Air Gap Type

Constrained Air Gap Igniter Plugs for Gas Turbine Engines differ considerably from spark plugs
for reciprocating engines. The gap at the igniter plug tip is much wider and the electrode is
designed to withstand a much higher intensity spark. The igniter plug is also less susceptible to
fouling because the high energy spark removes carbon and other deposits every time the plug
fires. The construction material is also different because the igniter plug is made of very high
quality, nickel-chromium alloy for its corrosion resistance and low coefficient of heat
expansion. The threads in many cases are also silver plated to prevent seizing. For this
reason, it is many times more expensive than an automobile spark plug.

Many varieties of igniter plugs are available, but usually only

one will suit the needs of a particular engine. The igniter
plug tip must protrude properly into the combustion chamber
and on some fully ducted fan engines, the plug must be long
enough to mount on the outer case, pass through the fan
duct, and penetrate the combustion chamber.

Igniters for High and Low Energy systems are not

interchangeable, and care should be taken to ensure that the
manufacturers recommended plug is fitted.

Figure 3.23: Air Gap Type igniter

Cooling - The shell at the hot end of the igniter is generally air cooled to keep it 5000F to
6000F cooler than the surrounding gas temperature.

Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems 3.41

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.00 - 31 March 2016
 Figure 3.24:High Energy Constrained Gap Igniter

3.42 Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

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Rev.00 – 31 March 2016 Training Purpose Only © Copyright 2016
 Surface Discharge Igniter Plug
The surface discharge igniter plug has the end of the insulator formed by the semi-conductor
pellet which permits an electrical leakage from the central high tension electrode to the body.
This ionises the surface of the pellet to provide a low resistance path for the energy stored in
the capacitor. The discharge takes the form of a high energy flashover from the electrode to the
body and only requires a potential difference of approximately 2000 volts for operation.

Figure 3.25:Surface Discharge Igniter Plug

Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems 3.43

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© Copyright 2016 Training Purpose Only Rev.00 - 31 March 2016
Glow Plugs
Some smaller engines are fitted with a glow plug type igniter rather than a spark igniter. This
glow plug is a resistance coil of a very high heat value and is particularly effective for extremely
low temperature starting.

The glow plug is supplied with 28VDC at approximately 10 amps to heat the coil to a yellow hot
condition. The coil is very similar in appearance to an automobile cigarette lighter. Air directed
up through the coil mixes with fuel sprayed from the main fuel nozzle. This is designed to occur
when the main nozzle is not completely atomizing its discharge at low flow conditions during
start-up. The influence of the airflow on the fuel acts as to create a "hot streak" or blow torch
type ignition.

Figure 3.26:Glow Plug

3.44 Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

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 Figure 3.27:Ignition Plug Firing End Summary

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Cleaning, Inspection and Testing

Cleaning
High energy constrained gap type plugs are usually cleaned using a solvent and soft non-
metallic brush. Never use abrasive grit blasting, as this will damage the ceramic insulator. Low
energy surface discharge plugs are usually only cleaned on their outer surface, as the semi-
conductor material in the tip is easily damaged, this is regardless of carbon build up.
Glow plugs can be cleaned if carbon build up is seen across the coil with a solvent to loosen the
carbon deposit then a soft non metallic brush can be used to remove particles

Inspection
Inspection of igniter plugs consists of visual inspection and, for the high voltage type, a gap
check using a gap wear gauge. The AMM will define the amount of permissible wear and
carbon build up.

Testing
A Functional check of igniters is carried out in situ by isolating the fuel and starter circuit and
selecting the igniters on. Standing outside the jet pipe a distinct crack can be heard. The spark
rate (normally 60- 100 sparks per minute) can also be checked. Glow plugs are tested by
connecting the plug to the power lead and observing the plug end turn bright yellow within 15-20
seconds.

3.46 Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

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 Fitment and Removal
The depth at which an igniter plug is fitted to a combustor is critical. Too deep and the plug will
be burnt, not deep enough and the spark will not ignite the fuel. To ensure the correct depth the
combustor is normally depth gauged from the boss on the engine outer casing into the
combustor liner. Spacers or gaskets are then fitted to the igniter plug to reflect the depth gauge
measurement. The depth gauge is a ‘special to type’ combustor tool. Refer to the applicable
AMM for details.

Figure 3.28: Igniter plug in situ

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3.48 Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

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 Handling of Turbine Engine Ignition Units and Igniter Plugs
 Ensure that the ignition switch is turned off before performing any maintenance on the
system.
 To remove an igniter plug, disconnect the HE ignition unit input lead and wait for the
prescribed amount of time (usually 1 minute) to allow any residual charge to dissipate
through the safety resistors. Then disconnect the igniter lead and ground the centre
electrode to the engine to discharge any current stored in the plug, the igniter plug is now
safe to remove.
 Ensure proper disposal of unserviceable igniter plugs. If they are the type that contain
aluminium oxide and beryllium oxide, a toxic insulating material, the usual method is to
place plugs in a sealed container and bury them at a designated disposal sight.
 Exercise great caution in handling sealed ignition units. Some contain radioactive
material (caesium-barium 137) on the air gap points. This material is used to calibrate
the discharge point to a pre-set voltage.
 If an igniter plug is dropped it should be discarded since internal damage can occur that
may not be detectable by testing or examination.
 Always use a new gasket where the plug is reinstalled. The gasket is essential in
providing a good conductive current path to ground.

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3.50 Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

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 A Turbine Engine Ignition System Example
Boeing 757 Starter System

Figure 3.29: Boeing 757 Start Panel

The ignition system initiates or sustains combustion of the fuel air mixture in the annular
combustion chamber.

Ignition is available when the engine start switch in the overhead panel (P5) is placed in GND,
AUTO, CONT, or FLT position and the fuel control switch in the centre console (P10) is placed
in RUN or RICH

Each engine has two independent high ( (10-joule) and low (4 joule) energy ignition units, each
feeding one igniter plug. High energy output is used for starting and relighting and low energy
for continuous ignition.

A single rotary ignition select switch, with three positions 1-BOTH-2 enables either or both
ignition UNITS to be selected.

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Control Sequence
115 volts AC is provided by the respective Left or Right AC buses to power igniters No. 1 on the
left and right engines white the standby bus normally powers igniters No. 2. The power sense
relay automatically selects standby power for igniter No. 1 in case main bus power is not
available.

The fire switch must be in normal and the fuel control switch (P10) must be in the RUN or RICH
position.

Normal Sequence
The ignition select switch selects the ignition system to be used.

When the engine start switch is selected to the GND position it energizes the starter solenoid
and a holding coil which maintains the GND position until N3 reaches 47%. Above 47%, N3 the
engine start switch springs to AUTO.

With the switch in the AUTO position ignition is provided when the Flaps are not up, when the
engine anti-ice is on or when a signal is received from the Transient Pressure Unit (TPU)

FLT provides ignition for in-flight starts and CONT ignition is used during turbulent conditions or
takeoffs and landings, if AUTO is not selected.

High Energy Ignition Units Control

Whether the output of either 10- or 4-joules is applied, is determined by the position of the
engine start switch or whether or not a signal is received the transient pressure unit.

Normal power sources for the ignition units are the 115 volt ac buses. Interruption of power from
the normal bus sources causes automatic switching to the standby bus.

3.52 Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

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 Figure 3.30: HEIU Electrical Circuit

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3.54 Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

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 Piston Engine Starting and Ignition

Piston Engine High Tension (HT) Ignition Systems

The majority of ignition systems employ on piston engines are of the high tension (HT) type, so
named because they are designed to produce a very high voltage output form a low voltage
input. These HT systems are classified into battery (coil) ignition and magneto ignition, but aero
engines with few exceptions employ magnetos.

The component common to both systems is a transformer, sometimes referred to as an

induction coil or armature, a device which uses the principle of electromagnetic induction to
produce the very high voltage spark needed to jump the gap of a spark plug.

Before we discuss the application of armatures let us recall some electromagnetic basic
principles:-

 A current flowing in a conductor generates a magnetic field around that conductor, the
strength of the field depending on the strength of the current.

 Moving a conductor across the lines of force in a magnetic field induces a voltage in
that conductor. If the conductor is part of a closed circuit, a current will flow.

 A change of magnetism acting on a coil of wire will induce a current in that wire. The
strength of the current depends on:-

1. the strength of the magnetic field

2. the rate of change of magnetism

3. the number of turns of wire in the coil

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The Primary or Low Tension (LT) Circuit

A typical primary circuit is shown in Figure 3.31

Figure 3.31: Primary Circuit

One end of the primary winding is earthed and the other end has three components connected
in parallel to it before they too are earthed. These are:-

 The contact breaker (CB). An engine operated switch which breaks the current flow in
the primary circuit when it is at its highest.

 The capacitor. This aids the rapid collapse of the primary’s magnetic field. It also
reduces arcing at, and burning of, the CB points when they are opened and the current
tries to continue to flow across the gap.

 The pilot operated switch. Known as ignition, magneto or mag. Switch. When this
switch is closed or OFF, the primary circuit is completely earthed, and opening of the
circuit – the magneto is ‘dead’.

Unlike most other electrical switches, these operate in the opposite sense. When the contacts
are closed, the switch is off.

The Secondary or High Tension (HT) Circuit

Figure 3.3, shows the HT circuit superimposed on the LT circuit. The HT circuit consists of a
secondary winding, a distributor and sparking plugs.

The conductor (core) is made form a number of twisted strands of either ‘tinned copper’ or, as is
the current practice, ‘stainless steel’. Its diameter is small because it carries a very low current.

3.56 Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

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 The large diameter of the cable arises from the thickness of its insulation material plus a tough
outer material or braided metal sleeving for additional protection against abrasion and other
hazards.

The individual leads are routed between the distributor and the sparking plug via support
grommets, clips, and sometimes additional protective shielding. The ends of the leads are fitted
with metal connectors to suit the distributor and plugs respectively. Also each end has an
identifying sleeve which is an essential aid to maintenance.

Ignition Harness
On many engines, and not necessarily on the larger ones, the ignition leads from one magneto
are enclosed for most of their length in a rigid metal conduit. This is contoured to suit the
engine layout, radial or in-line (Figure 3.32) and has at one end, or somewhere along its length,
a large diameter flexible conduit. This terminates in an end fitting which enables all leads’ ends
to be secured in their right sockets on the distributor.

Adjacent to each of the plugs associated with the magnet, smaller flexible conduits are led from
outlets in the rigid conduit and terminate in metal plug connectors. We now have an ignition
harness assembly which is secured to the engine by bolts or studs passing through lugs which
are brazed or welded to the rigid conduit.

Figure 3.32: Typical Ignition Harness

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The advantage of such an assembly, are:

 Servicing is quicker; all leads are attached to the engine as one unit.
 Other engine components are most accessible.
 The leads have greater protection from damage.
 They are protected from moisture and deterioration.
 There is a saving in weight.
 Positive screening.

Screening (Shielding)
During normal operation of the ignition system, the variations in HT current flow and the arching
in the distributor and sparking plugs, produce unwanted magnetic fields. These can result in
serious interference with radio and other equipment.

The rigid conduit may be of made from ‘brass’, ‘aluminium alloy’ or ‘corrosive resistant steel’.
The flexible conduits and the metal protection of single leads are made form close mesh,
braided, tinned copper or tinned phosphor bronze.

The harness, as well as protecting the HT leads, serves another important purpose. The
materials of the harness are all electronically conducting and are grounded to the engine and
airframe. By conducting the unwanted magnetic lines of force to earth the ignition harness cuts
down electrical interference with radio and other electrically sensitive systems in the aircraft.

When the radio and other systems are protected in this manner the ignition harness is said to
be a shield. Without this shielding or screening radio communication would become virtually
impossible.

The screening components are in good electrical connection and are earthed (grounded)
between sparking plug body and cylinder head; the magneto mounting and the engine case;
and, in some cases, by bonding strips connected between the rigid conduit and the engine in
addition to its main fasteners.

The use of separate HT leads requires every lead to have its own braided metal sleeve over the
whole length and, on large engines, the total weight of the screening material is fairly high.

Because of the routing of the leads, the braiding is more vulnerable to damage during operation
and maintenance. This can result in ‘leaks’ in the screening.

Low Tension (LT) or Switch Leads

The construction of these items is basically similar to that of the HT leads but because they
carry a low voltage of higher current, the cable core is often larger in diameter and the insulation
is less thick. For screening and protection purposes they have an outer covering of metal braid.
Suitable connectors couple the ends to the ignition switch and the magneto contact breaker.

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 Servicing and Testing of Ignition Leads and Harnesses
There are certain servicing and testing procedures which are common to all ignition systems.
They are carried out as scheduled servicing at intervals recommended by the manufacturer
and/or specified by the aviation authority under which the aircraft is flown. Quite often, in the
case of an ignition fault, some of these inspections and tests have to be employed during the
process of rectification. They fall broadly under these headings:

 Visual inspection.
 Continuity testing.
 Insulation testing.

Visual Inspection
There always precedes the testing of any component or system. For our purpose we shall
consider an installation harness and the items we would look for during the visual inspection
would include:-

 Loose cables, sleeves, and connectors at distributor block and sparking plugs,
 Insecurity of attachment bolts and screws,
 Perishing of insulation – indicated by hardening and cracking,
 Damage to metal braiding, rigid conduit, plug and distributor connectors,
 Oil soakage, which is indicated by swollen and softened insulation. (This is generally
more relevant to unscreened separate leads.)

The electrical tests – which follow the visual inspection – would require the plug leads and
distributor block to be disconnected. This will give the opportunity to complete the harness
check by examining:-

 The plug nut for freedom of rotation deformation and thread damage, and the plug
terminal components for good condition,
 The distributor block for cracks and signs of tracking and the security and effectiveness
of the lead connections to the block.

Operation of the Combined Circuits

The secondary winding has one end connected to the primary coil and, thus when the CB points
are closed, direct to earth. The other end connects to a distributor. This component, usually an
integral part of the magneto, directs the HT pulses to each cylinder in turn in the correct firing
order.

With the CB points closed and a current flowing in the primary circuit, opening of the points
causes the magnetic field to collapse inwards to the centre of the armature. The lines of force
move across the secondary winding and induce a voltage in that circuit. Because the CB points
are open and have thus broken the connection to earth the secondary circuit is completed
through the primary/secondary junction, the primary coil; and then to earth.

Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems 3.59

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 Figure 3.33: Combined Circuits

3.60 Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems

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 Piston Engine Magnetos
Magneto Operation
Every magneto has a rotating component for varying the magnetic flux flowing through the
armature. The type of magneto takes its names from the form of its rotating member.

 Rotating Armature - in which the armature rotates in the field between the poles of a
stationary horseshoe magnet. The contact breaker and capacitor are fixed to the
armature and also revolve. This type had certain disadvantages.

 Rotating Magnet - in which a permanent magnet rotates between extensions of the

armature core known as pole pieces. All of the other components are stationery. This is
now the most widely used type of magneto.

A basic two pole magnet is used here to describe the operation of the magneto. (Figure 3.34.)

Figure 3.34: Magneto Operation

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Refer to Figure 3.34 and assume that the magnet is rotating clockwise.

(a) The magnet is fully aligned with the pole pieces (sometimes called the ‘full register
position’) and there is maximum flux flow from the N pole through the armature core
to the S pole and the magnetic field around the armature is at a maximum.

(b) The magnet has now turned through 90 degrees (to the ‘neutral position’), the lines of
force are short circuited through the pole pieces and the armature magnetic field is
zero.

(c) As the magnet rotates through the neutral position, its poles begin to align with the
pole pieces, and flux flow commences through the core but in the opposite direction –
a flux reversal has taken place. The core flux increases as the magnet turns until, at
the next full register position, it again is at a maximum.

It is evident that a further 180 degrees of rotation will have produced two flux reversals for one
revolution of the magnet. These flux reversals are very important because it is at this point in
the operation that the maximum primary current is going to be achieved.

Figure 3.35: Flux change

Consider Figure 3.35.

As the magnet revolves, the core flux changes, as does the magnetic field around the primary
winding . It is not the magnitude of the flux but the rate at which it changes that determines the
voltage induced in the primary winding. The maximum rate of exchange occurs when the
magnet’s neutral position is just passed – the point where flux reversal occurs (Figure 3.35 –
point A). This is where the primary current is at its highest and is the instant when the CB points
are opened to break the circuit thus causing the magnetic field to collapse across the secondary
winding.

The voltage induced in the secondary depends on:-

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  The strength of the field created by the primary current which in turn depends on the
strength of the magnet,
 the speed of rotation and
 the number of turn in the primary winding.

Figure 3.36: Magneto coil and magnet

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Ignition Switches
The type of switch used varies with the manufacturer and the numbers of engines on the
aircraft, and they are prominently mounted on the instrument panel in a position convenient for
the engine operator (Figure 3.37).

Figure 3.37: Ignition Switches

Generally, for one engine, they take the form of either two separate toggle switches in one
housing or a single rotary switch. The toggle switches may be identified L and R for the ignition
systems they control but, unlike other electrical switches, are ON when the toggle is up. The
rotary switch has four positions which are clearly marked OFF-L-R-BOTH.

Besides controlling their associated ignition systems, they are used during system checks when
starting and running the engine.

Modern aeroplane engines are required by to have a dual ignition system - that is, two separate
magnetos to supply the electric current to the two spark plugs contained in each cylinder. One
magneto system supplies the current to one set of plugs; the second magneto system supplies
the current to the other set of plugs. For that reason the ignition switch has four positions:

OFF, L, R, and BOTH With the switch in the "L" or "R" position, only one magneto is supplying
current and only one set of spark plugs in each cylinder is firing. With the switch in the BOTH
position, both magnetos are supplying current and both spark plugs are firing.

When the switches are in any position but OFF, the magnetos are ‘live’. They are also
dangerous, especially for some time after engine shut down when the engine is warm and fuel
vapours may be present. This is why a propeller is never moved by hand until a physical check
is made of the magneto switch positions.

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 The Piston Engine Contact Breaker (CB)
This assembly, which is the most highly stressed of the ignition system, consists of a pair of
contacts mounted on a base plate. One is fixed and earthed (grounded) to the magneto body.
The other is moveable, insulated from the magneto and connected to the primary winding by the
leaf spring which holds the contacts together. The points are tipped with platinum to resist
pitting, burning and the mechanical hammering of continuous fast operation.

A cam is keyed to the magnet shaft and, on our magneto it is going to have two lobes because
with two flux reversals per revolution we will need two CB points separations. The CB assembly
is mounted adjacent to the cam to enable the lobes as they rotate to contact a non metallic
block positioned so that it separates the points against the pressure of the leaf spring. This
separation occurs just after the neutral position of the magnet.

Further rotation of the cam allows the points to close. This occurs in the approximate full
register position of the magnet and from there until the next cam lobe comes round, the block is
clear of the cam profile.

To ensure sufficient time for the primary current to be built up, the points need to be closed for
as long as possible during the cam’s rotation after contact has been made. This period is
measured in degrees of cam rotation and is often identified as the ‘dwell angle’. Two factors
govern this period. One is the profile of the cam which is the manufacturer’s responsibility. The
other is the gap between the points when full separation has taken place – and this could be
your responsibility. The maker specifies the size of this gap and provides for its adjustment by
means of the assembly’s base plate adjustment screws. This is something we shall deal with
when considering the maintenance requirements of magnetos.

You may meet two types of CB (See Figure 3.38). The pivoted type (a) is widely used on all
piston engines and will be found on aero engines. The pivotless type (b) is common to
magnetos of American origin. In both types an oiled felt pad is employed to lubricate the
surface of the cam.

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 Figure 3.38: Contact Breakers

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 The differences between the types lie in the applications of the leaf spring and the non metallic
block.

On the pivoted CB it is fitted in the rocker arm and is often called the ‘fibre heel’. In the
pivotless type it is employed as a cam follower frequently with its own spring.

Consider a 6-cylinder engine rotating at 3,000 RPM the CB has to operate 9,000 times a minute
or 150 times a second. The resulting stress on the spring and the points’ faces is very high.

Module 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems 3.67

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The Piston Engine Distributor
This assembly comprises two items, the rotor and the block, both of which are made of non-
conducting material. Set within the rotor is a metal conducting path from the centre to a
projecting metal lug, sometimes called the brush. Moulded around the block and standing
proud in a common plane, are as many equally spaced metal segments as there are cylinders
the engine. When assembled, the lug of the rotor brush lies in the same plane as the segments
and when rotated it passes, but does not touch, each of these segments in turn. Each of the
segments is connected to a socket on the outside of the block and it is from these that the HT is
led by cables to the sparking plugs.

With the magneto functioning, the rotor, during one revolution, has distributed a spark to every
cylinder of the engine. During that time, the crankshaft of a 4-cylinder engine has had to
complete two revolutions. Because the distributor drives comes from the crankshaft this means
that the rotor always rotates at half engine speed.

The distributor components of a simple 2-pole magneto are shown in Figure 3.8. The rotor arm
is secured to the centre of a gear wheel which meshes with another gear mounted in the
magnet’s shaft. The ratio of these gears is chosen so that whatever the speed of the magnet
shaft with respect to the engine, the rotor turns at half engine speed. This is why the rotor gear
wheel is often called the ‘half speed wheel’.

Figure 3.39: Magneto

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 Figure 3.40: Simple 2-Pole Magneto

In the centre of the rotor arm is a spring loaded carbon brush. This is in contact with a broad
leaf spring on the armature to which the secondary winding is connected. Whenever a voltage
is induced in the secondary the rotor brush is opposite one of the segments in the block with a
small (0.20 mm) gap between them. The secondary current flows via the carbon brush through
the rotor arm, jumps the small gap and reaches earth via the HT lead and sparking plug gap.

Magneto Venting
The magneto and its components cannot be hermetically sealed for internal cleanliness
because they are subjected to temperature and pressure changes in flight, hence they become
prone to the effects of condensation. If the interior of the magneto becomes wet there is the
possibility that the high voltage current arching across the rotor/block gap could be misdirected
to another segment or the magneto case. This is ‘flashover’ and often leaves a fine carbon track
as the spark evaporates the moisture and burns dirt particles lying on the non-conducting
surface of the distributor. The carbon track remains as a continuous cause of misfiring and
power loss.

The normal arching which takes place across the distributor components results in unavoidable
erosion of their surfaces. In the presence of moisture, arching also produces corrosive gases
which attack the metal and leave high resistance deposits.

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To reduce these effects, all magnetos are vented and drained. The venting has to take into
account the possibility of inflammable vapours being present in the confines of the engine
cowling. Protection from fire due to magneto sparking is achieved by covering the vents with
fine mesh gauze discs. These allow air through the magneto and at the same time act as flame
traps on the Davy lamp principle.

Magneto Speeds
Every cylinder of a four-stroke engine requires a spark for every two revolutions of the
crankshaft. The greater the number of cylinders the faster the magneto must revolve. If we
look at our two-pole magnet magneto (two sparks per rev.) we shall see how and why there are
speed limitations on its use.

Consider this example formula:-

No. of cylinders
Magneto speed = x engine speed
Sparks per rev. of magneto

Our magneto on a four cylinder engine would need to be driven at:

4
= x engine speed
2x2

= 1 x engine speed

for a six cylinder engine:

6
= x engine speed
2x2

= 1.5 x engine speed

If we consider both these engines running at a speed of say 2,400 RPM, their magneto speeds
respectively would be 2,400 and 3,600 RPM.

In practical terms this means that a two sparks/rev. magneto is suitable only for engines of up to
6 cylinders because, with a greater number of cylinders the magneto rotational speeds are too
high. If we assume a 6 cylinder engine take off speed of 3,200 RPM. the magneto would be
rotating at 4,800. Very much higher speeds would be both mechanically and electrically too
stressful.

To cater for larger engines we need a magneto capable of providing more sparks per revolution.
How this is achieved is the subject of the next section.

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 The Four Pole Magnet
A four pole magnet is shown in Figure 3.41.

Figure 3.41: 4-Pole Magneto

A cylindrical magnet and a pair of two fingered pole pieces are clamped together on a non-
magnetic steel shaft. The polarities of the magnet are transferred to the pole pieces so that the
pole fingers alternate N and S every 90 degrees. The terms ‘full register’ and ‘neutral’ still apply
to the magnet positions relative to the pole pieces but they now occur at 45 degree intervals.
We now have four flux reversals (sparks) for one revolution of the magnet assembly and,
correspondingly, we will require four lobes on the cam.

If you now apply the magneto speed formula you can confirm that for engines larger than 6
cylinders, the magneto speeds are much more practical. For even larger engines a pair of four
fingered pole pieces is employed to produce 8 sparks per rev.

Note that a four pole magnet would be of little use on a small engine as it would turn at half the
speed of our 2-pole magnet and thus reduce the strength of both the primary field and the
sparks at the plugs.

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The Dual Magneto
You may meet the type on some installations, it is sometimes called a Duplex magneto (Figure
3.42).

Figure 3.42: Dual Magneto

It incorporates two magnetos in one housing by having one rotating magnet and cam common
to two sets of coils and contact breakers. On large engines, the two distributors are mounted on
the engine separate from the magneto, each with its own drive. For small engines the magneto
casing houses the two distributors as well, and their respective outlet sockets are placed one on
each side of the casing.

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 The Rotating Armature Magneto
This type of magneto is one you could well meet on older aircraft. It has the armature
conductors revolving in the static field of a horseshoe magnet as opposed to the stationary
conductors and varying field of the rotating magnet type. Although a widely used and trusted
component it has certain disadvantages and limitations. It is illustrated in Figure 3.43.

Figure 3.43: Rotating Armature Magneto

 It produces 2 sparks/rev. and cannot be altered, hence it is suitable only for small
engines.
 The windings, capacitor and CB all revolve and are therefore affected by centrifugal
forces.
 The HT has to be picked up from a slip ring on the rotor by a carbon and transferred to
the distributor via a second brush.

Apart from its basic generating difference the operation and maintenance of an ignition system
employing this type of magneto is the same as for the rotating magnet type.

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Magneto Mounting and Drives
Magnetos are situated at the rear of the engine “either flange” or “platform mounted” with their
position and method of drive being dependent on engine type. A layout which is common to
horizontally opposed engines is shown in Figure 3.44. The magnetos are coupled to a common
drive shaft which is supported by bearings in the engine casing, with suitable gearing from the
crankshaft ensuring correct magneto speeds.

Figure 3.44: Mountings and Drives

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 Each side of the casing has a machined face (or pad) and the magnetos each have a flange
with curved slots 180 degrees apart. The magneto is fitted with the slots engaging two studs in
the pad and secured by nuts and some locking device.

The magnetos on a radial engine could be found fitted as in Figure 3.44 (b)). They are platform
mounted and the drives are part of the gear train which powers all the accessories fitted to the
casing.

Each of the diagrams in Figure 3.44 show a coupling fitted to transmit the drive to the magneto
shaft. On a flange mounted magneto the coupling is of a simple splined or serrated type.
However, for a platform mounted magneto, the coupling must transmit drive and be flexible to
allow for small misalignments between magneto and drive shafts. It must also be capable of the
same fine angular adjustment that the slotted flange magneto allows.

For the purpose of meeting the running engine’s ignition requirements both magnetos on the
engine are the same. Practically however, some differences exist between them.

 Refer again to Figure 3.44 (a) and note that the magnetos rotate in opposite directions
as a result of the common drive. Because the maximum rate of change of flux occurs
just after the magnet’s neutral position and the internal settings of the magneto must
accommodate this, the magnetos must be identified Left and Right. This might not be
relevant to Figure 3.44 (b) because the gear train could result in both magnetos turning
in the same direction.

 There are certain ways of assisting a magneto to provide a strong spark for starting and
quite often it is applied to only one magneto of the pair. This difference could apply to
both (a) and (b) of Figure 3.44 so that even if both magnetos rotated in the same
direction as in (b), they would still have to be identified L and R.

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 Figure 3.45: Mountings and Drives

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 Piston Engine Ignition Leads (HT)

Construction
These consist of an insulated single core cable capable of carrying over 12,000 volts.
Construction varies with the manufacturer and the age of the design, but is generally as in
Figure 3.46.

Figure 3.46: Ignition Cable construction

Testing

Continuity Test
Good electrical contact (continuity) is essential throughout any conductor or circuit and its
connections, to ensure minimum resistance to current flow. Any resistance due to poor contact
(and conductor damage) may be detected with the aid of a battery and lamp connected in series
with the conductor.

For general maintenance purposes the battery and lamp (typically 4.5 volts and 0.4 amps) are
housed in a protective casing with a press button, terminals, and two leads for connection to the
conductor under test. As a piece of test kit it might be called a lamp and battery, continuity
tester, or, it could be part of a magneto synchronizer.

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The Test Procedure
Join the two lead ends, press the button and check the brilliance of the lamp. This is a functional
and battery check.

Insulation Testing
The insulation efficiency of all electrical equipment is checked at regular intervals by measuring
the resistance of the insulation to the passage of current. Because this resistance is affected by
the voltage applied to the insulator, a sufficiently high voltage would cause the insulator to break
down. This is the basis on which the testing is carried out.

Resistance measurement is usually performed with a test voltage that is very much higher than
the normal voltage of the circuit being tested. If the resistance value is high on test, it follows
that there can be little risk of failure under normal working conditions.

In its simplest form an insulation resistance tester consists of a source of constant high voltage
and a protected sensitive meter to indicate the current flowing when these two are connected
with the circuit under test. This current is normally very small – microamps or a few milliamps.
Now, because of the constant voltage, the resistance of the circuit has a direct relationship with
the current flowing (Ohm’s Law) so the manufacturer calibrates the meter scale in megohms.
This makes for more accurate determination of circuit condition.

The voltage source of insulation resistance testers is commonly a hand operated generator.
The steady output voltage obtainable depends on the make and type of tester and can be
typically 250, 500, or 1,000 volts. This covers most test requirements. Regardless of make,
they are often called a ‘Megger’ from a trade name of long standing. Figure 3.47 illustrates
such a tester.

Figure 3.47: Typical Megger

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 For our ignition HT circuit, which can have a working load of over 7,000 volts, more specialised
equipment is required. We are looking for 12,000 volts or more depending on the engine
manufacturer’s test requirements. This may be obtained either from a hand operated generator
or from the electrical mains in conjunction with transformers.

An often used item of equipment is known as the ‘HT Ignition Tester’. It supplies 12,000 volts
from a hand generator when it is rotated at 300 RPM. The meter is calibrated in megohms and
often is divided into green and red sectors with the colour change at the 2 megohm point on the
scale. A safety push button is included in the circuit to protect the meter movement. Two test
leads, approximately 2-meters long, made from HT cable and identified EARTH and HT,
complete the equipment.

Figure 3.48: HT Ignition Tester

The Test Procedure

We are assuming that our continuity test was satisfactory and that the plug leads and distributor
block are still disconnected. The HT tester just described is on a firm base close to the harness
assembly.

 Starting with No. 1 cylinder, connect the tester’s HT lead to the core of the plug and lead
to be tested and the EARTH lead to the metal harness.

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  Rotate the generator handle slowly and check for sparking, which may be seen or heard,
or hunting of the meter needle. Any of these normally indicate insulation breakdown but
first check for the closeness of the HT lead connection to earth.
 If there are no such indications, continue slow handle rotation and depress the button. If
the meter needle swings hard over or hunts violently, a short circuit or intermittent
breakdown is the cause.
 If the needle shows neither of these signs, increase handle speed gradually to maximum,
with the button still depressed, and note the reading.

This type of HT tester was designed for a minimum acceptable reading of 2 megohms, a figure
which is fairly common in HT lead testing. If the needle has settled in the red sector, the lead is
notionally unacceptable but before any decisions are made, all the plug leads should be tested
in cylinder number order and a note made of the reading for each lead. The Test is then
repeated for each lead and the two sets of readings compared. It is standard practice to take at
least two readings in any test procedure.

Ideally, insulation resistance would be at infinity but the high test voltages, the age and usage of
the harness, and the pressure of moisture all tend to reduce the resistance of the insulation.
Hence the apparent low pass figure of 2 megohms.

Because an engine manufacturer could require a specific test equipment and/or a different
minimum resistance for his HT components, the Manual must always be checked before the
test is begun.

This basic insulation resistance is perfectly satisfactory when applied to separate HT leads.
When these are under test, any lead which is consistently below limits must be changed in
accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions, and, after changing, is tested for continuity and
insulation. The replacement lead may be supplied as an assembly ready for fitting, or it may
have to be made up from a length of cable and end fittings (Figure 3.49).

Figure 3.49: Individual cable assembly

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 If one or two leads are below the minimum resistance, they must be renewed. This is a more
difficult task because they have to be withdrawn from the conduit after a new lead length has
been soldered to the old. Check the Manual for the procedure and detailed information on the
assembly of end fittings. Of course, the two tests are required on completion.

If, during harness and lead testing a large number of readings are below limits, don’t condemn
the leads immediately, check that:-

 The procedure was carried out correctly,

 The harness/leads were not subjected to excessive humidity. If so, remove it/them to a
dry environment, or connect up, run the engine, and test again,
 The tester is serviceable, (try it on known serviceable and unserviceable equipment),
 There were no significant running defects reported before the inspection.

If after these checks more than two leads are still below the limits, change the harness.

 Connect one tester lead to the cable core and the other to the braid.
 Mare sure that the magneto switch is ON. IF it were OFF we would have a dead short
across the tester’s output leads because the switch contacts would be closed.
 Turn the handle slowly at first to check for shorting or insulation breakdown, then
increase to the recommended maximum and note the needle position on the scale. The
acceptable minimum is 10 megohms.

Because of the potential for faulty switches or leads to cause a complete cut-off in an ignition
system, the inspection and testing must be conducted with great care.

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 Piston Engine Spark Plugs

Construction
There are many shapes and sizes of aero engine spark plug and they are all of a similar
construction. A typical modern plug is illustrated in Figure 3.50.

Figure 3.50: Sparking plug

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Plug Body
This is made from high tensile steel, sometimes plated to resist corrosion and with a standard
hexagon to accept a standard socket or plug spanner.

Body Thread
This is a close tolerance thread which fits into the cylinder head. The diameter is expressed in
millimetres, e.g. 12 mm, 14 mm or 18 mm.

Sealing Washer
This ensures a gas tight air for the thread, and is often made of copper.

Screen
This an extension of the body which completes the screening of the HT lead.

Connector Thread
This accepts the sleeve nut which secures the HT lead to the plug.

Earth Electrode
One or more project towards the centre electrode from the plug nose. They may be of nickel
alloy but more likely of platinum or iridium.

Figure 3.51: Spark plug types

Central Electrode
This is designed to allow for thermal expansion. It conducts the HT pulse from the contact inside
the sleeve to the plug nose. The lower end is often of a nickel alloy. Sometimes it incorporates
a resistor to help reduce electrode erosion and ignition interference spikes.

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 Ceramic Insulator
This is secured and sealed into the body during manufacture. It supports and insulates the
central electrode. It is extended at the outer end to insulate the plug lead from the surrounding
metal sleeve. Ceramics are very brittle heat resisting materials.

Another detail not apparent in Figure 3.51 is the ‘reach’ of the plug. This is the distance from
the underside of the sealing washer to the plug nose. It ensures that the electrodes are in the
best position for igniting the mixture within the combustion chamber.

Figure 3.52: Spark plug reach

Some older types of plug may be met with which are classified are ‘detachable’. That is, the
screen sleeve is removable from the body for cleaning purposes. The sleeve insulation material
could be mica or a ceramic.

You will also come across the term ‘heat range’ in association with spark plugs. This is a
measure of a plug’s ability to transfer heat from the centre electrode and insulator to the plug
body and the cylinder head. The plug must operate at a temperature high enough to burn off
the fouling deposits which form at the nose end yet not so high that it can cause pre-ignition.
The length of the insulator nose determines this heat range. If it is long, and the contact area
which conducts heat between insulator and body is short, we have a ‘hot’ plug – usually
associated with moderate speed, low compression engines. Conversely, a short nose and
longer contact are results in a ‘cold’ plug which is more suitable for hotter engines. Figure 3.20
shows a fairly hot plug.

All these factors vary with the manufacturer of the plug and its application, so only the type of
sparking plug approved for an engine or range of engines may be fitted. The engine Manual will
specify the plug and its identification always appears on the plug body.

The total number of plugs on an engine is generally known as a ‘set’ and those associated with
one magneto are frequently called a ‘half set’.

The servicing of plugs is always carried out strictly in accordance with the manufacturer’s
instructions. Assuming no unscheduled removals the set will have a life of a specific number of
flying hours – a period which normally coincides with a point in the engine’s maintenance cycle.
They would then be removed for servicing in a properly equipped plug bay. A fully serviced
and certified set is fitted to the engine and their functioning checked when the engine is run.

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Inspection and Servicing of Sparking Plugs
What follows are the details of plug maintenance as applicable to the non-detachable plug
shown in Figure 3.18, and more will be found in the references at the end of the booklet. There
are seven stages and they must be carried out in the correct sequence.

 Inspection
 De-greasing.
 Cleaning.
 Second inspection.
 Spark gap setting.
 Testing.
 Storage.

Inspection
A visual inspection for obvious damage, distortion, cracked insulators, faulty electrodes,
corrosion, etc. Any of these faults will cause the plug to be rejected.

De-greasing
Using an approved solvent but without total immersion. It is not he same as cleaning.

Cleaning
Can only be carried out on a totally grease-free plug, and it is confined to the nose. There are
three methods; each requiring specialized equipment:

 sandblasting,
 chemical cleaning,
 vibratory cleaning.

The one use will depend on the manufacturer’s recommendation.

After this procedure the nose interior is checked and the sleeve insulator cleaned.

Second Inspection
This is for the defects noted in the initial inspection and specifically for electrode looseness and
erosion. Any defects or excessive erosion will cause the plug to be rejected.

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 Spark Gap Setting
The gap must be measured and compared with the figure specified in the Manual, before the
plug is subjected to an electrical test. Depending on the electrode configuration, the gap is
measured with either a feeler gauge or a wire go/no go gauge. Except for radial electrodes, the
gap is carefully adjusted on the earth electrode only until it is within limits. In service, plug
gaps always tend to get larger so the practice is to aim for the bottom limit and thus keep the
gap within limits for a longer running time. If a radial electrode’s gap is greater than the upper
limit, the gap is rejected because the gap cannot be reduced.

Figure 3.53: Spark gap setting

Testing
All plugs must pass an insulation test before being cleared for service. The test which is
different from the employed for HT leads, is carried out on one of the types of spark plug tester
which are available.

The plug is screwed fully into a small pressure chamber and a voltage – higher that the
maximum output of a magneto – is applied to the centre electrodes. If the plug insulation is
sound a constant stream of sparks traverses the plug gap. Irregular sparking would increase
faulty insulation. The small chamber is then pressurized with air at 550 kN/m2 (80 PSI) and HT
re-applied. Sparking should again be continuous if the plug is to pass its test. Some
manufacturers might specify a different chamber pressure because of the effect of their
particular electrode gap. This last sentence and the test procedure itself require some
explanation.

There is a relationship between the size of a spark gap, the voltage applied to it and the air
pressure surrounding the gap. At a constant pressure, the voltage required to jump a spark gap

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must be increased if the gap is widened. If the pressure is increased around the gap, then, to
maintain correct sparking again the voltage must be increased – because the electrical
resistance of air increases with pressure.

The available voltage from the tester has a high maximum value. In the first part of the test – at
atmospheric pressure – the voltage required to give steady sparking is comparatively low (not
all the available energy is being used) and the insulation is not fully tested. When the gap is
under pressure, however, the insulation has the maximum voltage applied across it and any
insulation defects will become evident. The majority of plugs have a very similar gap size and
the test pressure quoted earlier is satisfactory for the test. Any gaps which differ much form this
would require a different chamber pressure to get the same test benefit from the fixed HT
output. For example, larger gap – lower pressure.

In one type of tester the plug aperture is at the bottom of the pressure chamber. This enables a
second test to be carried out – mainly on detachable plugs – the gas leakage test. A container
of white spirits is placed under the plug so that the body/screen joint is immersed. A pressure of
700 kN/m2 (100 PSI) is applied to the chamber and any leakage will show as bubbles in the
fluid. This would cause rejection of the plug.

Storage
If any of the original set of plugs were rejected during servicing they must be replaced with
satisfactory plugs of the same type. The whole set is then protected from corrosion and may
be stored for a short time, in a cupboard which is heated to avoid condensation.

Long term storage or transit requires the plugs to be packed individually with an identification
label in clear plastic tubes from which the air is evacuated before sealing. They are packed in a
strong box with identification and certified serviceable labels on the outside.

Plug Fitting
This is a regular maintenance operation which, like plug removal is only carried out on a cool
engine. This avoids damage to plugs or cylinder head inserts which could occur if these
components were hot.

Pre-Fitting Tasks

 Clean inhibitor from nose, wipe screen insulator, dry the plug and check the gap.
 Ensure a serviceable and correct type of sealing washer is fitted.
 Apply anti-seize compound (e.g. graphite grease) lightly to body threats, avoiding
electrodes and washer face. Avoid contamination before fitting.
 Ensure cylinder head thread is clean.

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 When Fitting

 Screw plug into cylinder head by hand until washer contacts the head face. If this is not
possible, confirm the cleanliness of the insert thread.
 With an appropriate spanner and torque wrench, tighten the plug to the loading specified
in the manual. To ensure that no side loads are placed on the plug, support the spanner
end of the wrench.
 When all plugs are fitted, clean the lead ends and their nut threads and ensure that the
screen are still clean. With led end pressed into the plug, fit the nut to the sleeve and
tighten with fingers only – this soon detects any cross threading. Ensure the lead elbow
does not twist when a properly fitting spanner is used for the final tightening.
 Tighten with fingers only – this soon detects any cross threading. Ensure the lead elbow
does not twist when a properly fitting spanner is used for the final tightening.

Further Considerations:

 Fitting a plug to a hot engine results in torque loading altering as the engine cools.
 Over-torquing a plug can cause plug and/or insert damage.
 Under-tightening a plug can result in loose plugs, gas leakage, and engine inefficiency.
 A plug dropped onto a hard surface must not be fitted, even if visual examination shows
no defects. Return it for proper inspection – the insulator could be cracked.
 Never use open ended spanners for plug removal or fitting.
 In the rare event that the plug has to be changed and no torque wrench is available, a
properly fitting socket or box spanner is used. For balanced leverage a tommy bar is
required of a length dependent on the plug size.

Ground Checking
A ground run is essential before the majority of engine maintenance may be certified as having
been properly carried out. Details of the ground running procedures and precautions
appropriate to an engine will be found in the Maintenance Manual and these must always be
observed. Because engines vary in these requirements, I’m going to describe a fairly standard
procedure, which is applicable to an un-supercharged engine with a fixed pitch propeller. By
adhering to the sequence of operations, the functioning of newly installed plugs will be fully
checked as will the associated ignition components.

The first check is made after the engine has been started and is warming up at the
recommended RPM:

 Switch one magneto OFF. The engine should continue running but with a small drop in
RPM. Switch magneto ON.
 Switch the other magneto OFF and the effect should be the same as for the first
magneto. Switch magneto ON.
 Switch both magnetos OFF briefly, then back ON. The engine should cut dead then pick
up. Never leaves the switches OFF for too long. It causes an accumulation of unburnt
mixture which could explode dangerously when the magnetos are eventually switched
ON.

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Having checked both the magnetos are operating and can be earthed, and the switches are
functioning satisfactorily, we will now have to carry out what is known as a magneto check. This
ensures that the sparking plugs will function under the high pressure and temperature
conditions of full throttle operation.

When the minimum operating temperatures of oil and cylinder head are reached, the procedure
is as follows:

 The throttle is steadily opened to maximum and when the engine RPM has stabilised, it
is noted.
 One magneto is switched OFF, the RPM will decrease and when stabilized, the drop is
noted and the switch returned to ON.
 When the RPM is again stable the same procedure is followed for the other magneto.

Operating on one magneto causes a loss in power and RPM. The manufacturer sets a limit on
the amount of drop in RPM that may be accepted and if the check results are outside these
limits, investigation is called for. Sometimes an excessive drop may be cleared by further
engine running. If this is unsuccessful one or more plugs may be suspect and because it is very
difficult to identify a particular faulty plug, the half set would need to be changed and the engine
run again.

If the magneto drop persists further investigation is called for. Perhaps it is an engine and not an
ignition fault which is the cause. The condition of removed plugs can often provide clues to the
fault, even after a short ground run. The reference at he end of the booklet detail many
indications which are obtained from the colour and type of deposit found on the insulator and
electrodes.

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 Auxiliary Ignition Systems
The magneto is basically a generator driven by the engine producing a high voltage current that
provides the spark at the plugs.

The correct operation of the magneto relies upon engine rotational speed. The magneto will
produce a strong spark at normal engine speeds, but during engine starting operations the
engines in not turning over fast enough to produce the necessary strong spark for ignition. This
problem is overcome by the use of auxiliary ignition systems.

There are two types of auxiliary ignition system. They are:-

 Impulse starters for low power engines,

 Booster coils for high power engines.

Impulse Starters
Impulse starters are associated with low powered engines that are normally started by hand.
By referring to Figure 3.18 you will see that the unit is a spring loaded coupling through which
the engine drives a magneto. The coupling is divided into the halves, it is driven by the engine
through a strong spiral spring to the magneto half of the coupling.

As the engine is turned to start, the magneto turns with the engine until just before the magneto
contact breaker points are about to open. At this point a pawl falls against a stop on the
magneto end plate and prevents further magneto rotation. As the engine continues to turn the
spiral spring winds up until, just after TDC, a cam on the engine coupling releases the pawl.
The spring then unwinds rapidly and flicks the magneto round fast enough to produce a spark,
which is so far retarded that there is no danger of a kick-back form the propeller. As the engine
speeds increases, centrifugal forces hold the balanced pawls out of engagement and will only
engage again on engine shut down.

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 Figure 3.54: Impulse starting

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 Piston Engine Booster Coils
Booster coils can be divided into two categories, they are:-

 High tension coils

 Low tension coils.

High Tension (HT) Coil

A high tension booster coil consists of an entirely separate induction coil with its primary
windings energized from the aircraft batter, or ground power unit, when the circuit is made by
pressing the booster coil switch, or engine starter switch.

Figure 3.55 shows that an armature and an electrically operated switch are also part of the
booster coil. The armature, as in the magneto, has a soft iron core on which are wound primary
and secondary windings. The electrically operated switch controls the primary circuit. The
moveable contact of the switch is secured to a leaf spring which tends to hold the contacts
closed. The hook of a flexible steel plate, upon which is mounted a soft iron pad, is caught
under the leaf spring.

Figure 3.55: Booster coil circuit

The primary contacts are normally closed so that when the primary circuit is energized from the
external power, the iron core becomes magnetized. The magnetized core immediately attracts
the iron pad, causing the hook to open the contact points and break the primary circuit. This

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causes the magnetic field to collapse across the secondary winding. A high tension electrical
impulse is produced as a result and is fed to the trailing brush of the engine magneto distributor
rotor. In this state the armature losses its magnetism thus allowing the leaf spring to close the
contact points.

As the contact points close, the primary circuit is again energized and the cycle is repeated and
continues to be repeated until the external power is switched off. Thus an endless stream of
high tension impulses is fed to the distributor of the main magneto and on to the sparking plugs.
A capacitor is fitted across the contact points to reduce arching at the points.

The unit is designed to supply a continual stream of high tension electrical pulses, each capable
of producing a spark at the sparking plug. These impulses are directed to the cylinders in the
correct firing order through the additional trailing brush on the engine magneto distributor rotor.

Low Tension (LT) Coil

The low tension booster coil is supplied with current form the aircraft system, when the booster
coil or starter switch is pressed. The system is basically similar to the high tension system, but
the separate starter brush on the magneto is not required. A typical example of a low tension
booster coil circuit is illustrated in Figure 3.56.

Figure 3.56: Dual Magneto

The primary contacts are normally closed so that, when the primary circuit is energized from the
external power, the iron core becomes magnetized, attracts the iron pad, and breaks the circuit.
The resultant collapse of the magnetic field induces a voltage into the secondary winding that
charges the second capacitor. The movement made by the iron pad and leaf spring when
breaking the primary circuit also closes the secondary contacts. The energy in the secondary
capacitor then discharges into the primary circuit of the magneto. This primary current flow
causes a high tension voltage to be induced into the secondary windings of the magneto and a
spark is produced at the sparking plug.

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 Figure 3.57: Bendix Ignition System

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 Piston Engine Ignition Timing

General
Ignition timing is used to determine the correct position of the piston for ignition of the fuel/air
mixture. Ignition of the fuel/air gases takes place just before top dead centre (TDC). As the
flame spreads through the combustion chamber, the intense heat raises the pressure within the
cylinder to a peak value which is reached about 10º past TDC. This pressure forces the piston
down. This is known as the power stroke of the four stroke cycle. It is therefore most important
that the spark plug delivers the spark at the moment of the cycle.

If peak pressure is reached before the point of ignition, very little torque is produced and heavy
loads are placed upon the crankshaft bearings, because of the acute angle of the crank web. If
peak pressure is reached after this point, not only has gas pressure been lost, because of the
increase in volume above the piston, but the actual working stroke (power) has been reduced.

To help ensure that ignition takes place at the correct time, most engines have timing reference
marks incorporated into the engine crankcase. These reference marks can be in the form of a
notch arrow, or plain line. The rotating crankshaft, or propeller flange, will have a corresponding
mark, indicating TDC and also a mark indicating the correct position of the piston (normally
No. 1 piston) for ignition to occur.

When the two reference marks are aligned, this is known as ignition timing, and can be
expressed as x degrees before TDC. The actual position before TDC will be determined by the
manufacturer, after many rigorous tests to ensure that the ignition timing produces the
maximum output from the engine. Examples of ignition timing marks are illustrated in Figure
3.58.

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 Figure 3.58: Ignition timing marks

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 There are various methods of checking ignition timing. Sophisticated equipment is available, in
the form of electronic timing indicators, mechanical indicators, etc. A simple method in use is
the timing light system which will give the exact instant when the contact breakers open.

A lamp and battery may be used to give a visual indication. The primary side of the contact
breaker points is disconnected or otherwise insulated, and the two leads from the lamp and
batter are then connected to either side of the breaker points so that the contact breaker forms
a switch in the lamp and batter circuit. With the contacts closed, the lamp will light and, at the
moment of opening, the light will go out. This type of test gives not only a visual indication, but
an audible indication as well (the contacts click as they open).

The magneto and distributor can be finely adjusted to ensure that the contact breakers are just
opening at the correct time, i.e. when the reference marks on the engine and crankshaft line up.

When considering ignition timing, other factors must be taken into account, they are:-

 Engine speed,
 Manifold pressure,
 Mixture strength.

Engine Speed
The faster an engine runs, the greater is the arc of crank pin travel during the time taken for the
charge to burn. Therefore, with an increase in engine speed, the timing needs to be
progressively advanced. With a reduction in engine speed the timing should be retarded.

Manifold Pressure
The greater the pressure of a gas, the faster it burns. Thus, the cylinder charge of an engine
running at high boost burns quicker than a charge at low manifold pressure. To stop this peak
pressure position moving as manifold pressure is increased, the ignition timing should be
progressively retarded.

Mixture Strength
A correct mixture burns faster than either a weak or a rich mixture. Any variation from the
correct mixture strength requires an advancement of ignition timing.

There is, however, a tendency for these factors to cancel out (e.g. high engine speed generally
means high manifold pressure and rich mixture), but the cancellation is not exact. On low
powered engine, the gain from making slight adjustments to the ignition timing during engine
running is usually too small to be considered. On the larger engines, however, where the gain
can be approachable, ignition timing may be varied to suit all these conditions, and this variation
can be achieved by an automatic timing adjuster.

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Automatic Timing Control
An example of an automatic timing adjuster is illustrated in Figure 3.59.

Figure 3.59: Dual Magneto

The automatic timing adjuster operates the ignition timing changes as a function of engine
RPM. The driven member is keyed to the magneto driving shaft, and the driving flange is
secured to studs in the driving member. Two driving dogs formed on the gear face of the driving
flange transmit the drive from the engine.

The automatic advance of ignition timing is obtained through two weighted arms inserted
between the driving and driven members. The arms are pivoted on the driving member and,
when engine speed is increased, they move outwards under centrifugal force. This movement
is governed by a roller attached to each arm, each roller following the profile of a cam riveted to
the driven member. Thus, outward movement of the arms causes the driven member to rotate
relative to the driving member, advancing the timing. Reduction in speed lowers the centrifugal
force, and outward movement of the arms is opposed by compression springs. The roller
moves down the profile of the cam retarding the ignition.

This is a simple but effective method of controlling the ignition timing; it automatically advances
and retards the ignition timing.

Magneto Timing (Bendix)

To ensure a spark occurs at the spark plug at the exact number of degrees before T.D.C.
stipulated by the manufacturer, the magneto must be carefully timed to the engine whilst fitting.

Prior to fitting, the magneto must be internally timed ensure it gives maximum efficiency so
giving the strongest spark possible.

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 The “E” (Efficiency) Gap
This is the angular distance between neutral and points opening. The flux change in a rotating
magneto does not occur at the neutral point, as it would if rotated slowly by hand. This is due to
the fact that the poles of the electro magnet, created by the current flow in the primary windings,
oppose the motion that causes the initial current flow, (Lenz’s Law). Because the poles are of
opposite polarity they attract and draw the flux lines of the rotating magnet the long route
through the coil, creating great stress. This stress is relieved at some 10o after the neutral point
by the opening of the contact breaker. This causes a tremendous flux change from collapse to
full register in the opposite direction. This in turn induces a very high voltage into the secondary
windings of the coil which discharge across the spark plug electrodes.

The contract breaker points are a mechanical earthing switch operated by a cam on the engine
driven magneto shaft.

Setting the “E” Gap

A scale, pointer and Magneto Synchronizer are required for this operation.

The cover must be removed from the contact breaker points and the plastic plug removed from
the timing window to expose the driving gear.

 Rotate the magneto in the normal direction of rotation until the red chamfered tooth is in
the centre of the timing hole. Turn magneto backwards slightly until the neutral (magnetic
lock) point is felt. (Figure 3.60).

 The scale should be attached to the screw holes of the contact breaker cover and the
pointer attached to the cam screw. Set the pointer to zero on the scale.

 Connect the magneto synchronizer to the magneto, positive lead (Red) to points terminal
and negative lead (Black) to the magneto body.

 Switch on the synchronizer and carefully rotate the magneto in the direction of rotation
until synchronizer light comes on.

 Read off the number of degrees indicated by the pointer, this should be within the limits
laid down in the service manual (Figure 3.61).

 If the angle is incorrect, loosen the screws holding the points and with the pointer held at
the prescribed “E” gap setting, move the points until the light just comes up. Tighten
screws and recheck.

 Turn the magneto until the points are fully open and check the gap with feeler gauges,
(0.012” to 0.024”) typical. If not within limits, change the adjustment enough to bring it in.
Then recheck “E” gap to make sure this is still within its tolerance. (Figure 3.62).

 On retard breaker magnetos, turn magneto back to the point of main breaker opening.

 Reposition pointer at zero degrees.

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 Figure 3.60: Timing marks positions

 Turn magneto in normal direction until the pointer is over the required number of degrees
(as marked in the centre of breaker compartment).

 Connect timing light across retard breaker and adjust contacts to open at this point.

 Turn magneto in normal direction until cam follower is on high point of cam and measure
gap.

 If gap is not 0.012” to 0.024” readjust breaker and verify that contacts will open at retard
angle. A tolerance of +2˚/-0˚ is allowed.

 Replace breaker assembly if both “E” gap and points gap tolerance cannot be obtained.

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 Figure 3.61: Setting the “E” Gap Figure 3.62: Checking Point Clearance

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Timing Magneto to Engine

Set the Engine

Remove one spark plug form number one cylinder and place a thumb over the spark plug hole.
Rotate the engine in the normal direction of rotation until the compression stroke is reached.
Continue turning until the spark advance timing marks are aligned. (Refer to service manual for
particular aircraft). (Figure 3.60)

Set the Magneto

Rotate the magneto drive shaft in the normal direction of rotation until the red chamfered tooth
is in the centre of the timing hole. Turn the magneto backwards slightly until the neutral point is
felt.

Ensure that the gear does not rotate from this position. Fit gasket and install the magneto to the
engine. Secure with washers and nuts, finger tight.

Connect the synchronizer, positive lead to points terminal, negative led to a clean unpainted of
the engine. Switch on.

Rotate the magneto on its mounting flange to a point where the light comes on, then slowly turn
it in the opposite direction until the light goes out. Rotate the magneto back slowly in the normal
direction of rotation until the light just comes on. Tighten nuts to specified torque.

Synchronisation
Turn the engine back to about 30o before TDC to avoid picking up impulse coupling. Couple the
synchronizer to both magnetos and switch on.

Slowly turn the engine in the normal direction of rotation and check that the timing lights come
on exactly together and that the timing marks are in alignment.

If the timing is incorrect reposition magneto/s and check again.

Refit cover over contact breaker and plastic plug to timing pole.

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 Piston Engine Starters

Types of Starter
Piston engine starters can be divided into two types:-

 Inertia starters,
 Direct cranking electrical starters.

Manual Cranking Inertia Starter

Although the inertia type starter is fairly old in design it was very effective. It has been mainly
superseded by direct electrical starters, however, there are still a few types of aircraft with
inertia systems.

Figure 3.63 shows a typical example of this type.

Figure 3.63: Inertia Starter

In Figure 3.63, the electrical motor drives the flywheel via a centrifugal clutch. Whilst the
flywheel is being turned by the electric motor the hand crank connection also turns. When hand
cranking, the centrifugal clutch is disengaged from the flywheel and allows cranking to continue
without affecting the electrical motor.

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 Figure 3.64: Inertia Starter circuit

Figure 3.65: Inertia Starter hand crank

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 The cranking handle receptacle will normally be found on the engine cowling together with the
engaging lever pull rod.

Electrical Inertia Starters

This type of starter uses the same principle as the manual cranking inertia starter, however in
this case an electrical motor has replaced the crank handle, although the manual engagement
operation is retained. The flywheel is accelerated up to speed by the electrical motor, and
engagement to the crank of the engine is similar to the method shown in Figure 3.63.

Combination Inertia Starters

Another type of inertia starter is a combination of both electrical and manual types, and
sometimes known as the combination hand and electrical starter.

Manual Engagement
As illustrated in Figure 3.66, you will see that this method of engagement is similar to the
manual inertia type, in respect of its being operated by a hand cable. By pulling the cable the
engaging lever moves the clutch. The starter ring gear and the drive pinion are stationary, thus
allowing easy meshing of the gears. Once the gears are fully meshed, a further movement of
the engaging lever energises a switch on the electric motor causing the motor, through the
motor gear, the drive pinion and the starter gear ring, to rotate the engine.

Figure 3.66: Combination Inertia Starter

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Once the engine has fired, the overrunning clutch disengages the pinion drive from the electric
motor and as the engaging lever is released the drive pinion is disengaged from the starter gear
ring by the action of the return spring.

Correct adjustment of the engaging lever and cable is essential. The drive pinion must be
engaged with the starter gear ring before the electrical motor rotates. An adjusting screw for
switch operation is provided on the engaging lever assembly.

Direct Cranking Starters

Most current small reciprocating engines employ the direct cranking method of engine starting.
This system comprises of two components, the:-

 Electric motor
 Gear section.

The major difference from the inertia system, is that the direct cranking method eliminates the
need for a flywheel assembly, this is because the engine is cranked directly by the electrical
motor.

Although an electric motor is used on all occasions the method of starter engagement can vary
from one starter to another. The three basic methods of engagement are:-

 Manual,
 Solenoid or pre-engaged.
 Bendix drive.

We will look at each in turn and see how starter engagement is effected.

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 Solenoid or Pre-engaged
A pre-engaged starter is shown in Figure 3.67, the method of operation is similar to that for the
manual method, but in place of the hand operated engaging lever, an electric solenoid operating
the engaging lever is fitted.

Figure 3.67: Inertia Starter hand crank

Turning the engage start switch to ‘on’ energises the solenoid, which then pulls the engaging
lever to the left. Because this lever is pivoted about its centre, it will cause the drive pinion to
move to the right to engage the starter gear ring. Once engaged, the plunger in the solenoid
bridges the motor contacts and power is directed to the electric motor, which will then turn the
starter ring via the drive pinion.

Both of the two methods so far mentioned, will normally be found on light aircraft with fairly
small reciprocating engines.

Larger type engines require a slightly different type of starter arrangement, although this is still a
direct cranking method, the type used for this purpose is the Bendix drive starter.

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Electric Starter Circuit
A simple engine starter circuit is shown in Figure 3.68.

Figure 3.68: Electric Starter circuit

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 As you can see, the main components within this system are:-

 A battery switch,
 A starter switch,
 A starter relay
 An electrical starter.

If we look at the source of electrical power, we can see that this originated from either external
ground power plug or an aircraft battery. The source of ground power can either be a series of
separate batteries or a ground power unit (GPU); the source of ground power is connected to
the DC busbar of the aircraft to prevent using the aircraft battery. However at this point, power
is only supplied to the DC busbar and down to the starter relay.

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Bendix Drive
With this type of starter, the method of engagement is automatic utilizing a drive known as a
Bendix drive. The armature shaft turns when electrical power is applied to the starter motor,
and because of its inertia, the pinion is thrown along the helical splined drive shaft until it
engages with the starter ring and turns the engine (see Figure 3.69)

Figure 3.69: Electric Starter circuit

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 On start up the engine rotates faster than the starter pinion so the ring gear moves the pinion
back along the shaft (along the helical splines) and disengages the drive pinion form the starter
gear ring. The anti-drift spring ensures that the drive pinion is kept away from the rotating
starter gear ring when the engine is running and the starter de-energised. The drive spring
transmits torque from the starter motor to the drive during the starting sequence.

The starter will not rotate until the starter relay is closed on the receipt of an electrical signal
from the starter switch.

Starter Relay
The main electrical cables that lead from the batter to the starter are heavy duty, and can carry
a current flow in some cases in excess of 300 amps, depending on the starting torque of the
engine. It would be impractical to take these heavy cables into the cockpit to the starter switch,
as this would add weight to the system and create a large circuit voltage drop.

By using a starter relay, only lightly loaded cables need to be routed into the starter switch. The
cables still receive a DC supply, but operate a remote relay that closes the contacts on the
heavy duty cables, thus allowing power directly from the DC bus to the starter.

Illustrated in Figure 3.70 is a typical example of a starter relay. Here we can see a low current
control circuit operating or energising a solenoid coil that pulls down a moveable contractor,
thus closing the contacts on the high power circuit allowing power through to the starter. Once
the starting cycle has been completed, the low current circuit is switched off, and the now de-
energised coil, assisted by the spring, allows the contractors to open, thus preventing current
flowing into the starter.

Figure 3.70: Starter relay

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However, experience has shown that relay contactors have been known to jam in the closed
position. This has led to minor fires, overheating of starter cables, and burning out of starter
motors. To overcome this problem, Aviation Authorities recommend some other means of
disabling the starter circuit in the event of a relay being jammed in the closed position.

This usually takes the form of:

 either a manually operated starter isolation switch in series with the starter relay
contacts, or
 providing two starter relays in series.

Bonding / Earthing Straps

Up to this point we have discussed the simple circuit in terms of starter rotation. However we all
know that in most cases of airframe is used as a negative return in a typical electrical system.
For the starter to operate effectively, it must be bonded to the aircraft structure. This is
achieved by the use of an earth or bonding strap. We can see this illustrated in Figure 3.71.

In practice, bonding leads are kept to a minimum; this is normally achieved by connecting the
leads from the body of the starter to an adjacent point on the airframe. The bolts that attach the
starter to the engine are not considered to be an adequate bond.

Selection of the correct material for earth straps is important; the use of an innocent material
could lead to localized corrosion due to electrolytic action at the earth joint. The most common
type of earth strap in use is made of aluminium alloy, although copper can be used to earth arts
made of stainless steel, copper, brass or bronze.

To ensure effective low resistance connections are made, non-conducting surfaces, paint and
anodizing films should be removed before the connection of the earthing strap. High
resistances at earthing points will generate poor starting qualities in the starter system, resulting
in the overheating of cables and starter motors.

Figure 3.71: Electric Starter circuit

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 It must be noted, however, that surfaces that have been reduced to bare metal must have some
form of protective coating applied after the earth joint has been made. This is normally
achieved by the use of a blue colour paint that covers the affected area but also acts as an
earthing point identifier.

Troubleshooting and Maintenance

This information must be regarded s general in presentation, and does not reflect any particular
type of engine. Reference should always be made to the aircraft Maintenance Manual for the
inspection and maintenance of engine starter systems.

Failure of the starter system to operate correctly can be attributed to any of the following:

 Electric power source, i.e. battery condition

 Starter control switch
 Starter relay
 Electrical wiring circuit
 Starter motor – mechanical or electrical failure or poor earthing strap.

We will consider each in turn and see how the system can be tested and remedial action carried
out.

The battery must be fully charged to ensure a good rotation of the starter motor when using the
starter relay is indicative of a low voltage battery. A slow turning starter also indicates a low
charged battery. The obvious remedy for this situation is to replace the battery, of if the aircraft
has the facility, to connect an external electrical supply.

Where the starter control switch, starter solenoid and electrical circuit are concerned, any
investigation into the integrity of these components and wiring should be carried out by a
qualified Engineer. If all the components and the circuits prove to be satisfactory, then the fault
will like in the starter motor itself.

The most common fault in electrical starters is that of worn brushes, or dirty commuters within
the starter motor. Starter brushes are normally replaced when they are half worn, and condition
of the brushes is checked during periodic maintenance checks.

Dirty commutators can be cleaned carefully with very fine grade of sandpaper or stone, taking
great care not to damage the insulation on the commutator. The best action, however, is to
send the motor to an overhaul agency for a complete overhaul to be carried out.

Electric components and electrical circuit wiring are not the only sources or starter malfunctions.
Mechanical components can wear, and adjustments can be out of limits.

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