Hindawi

International Transactions on Electrical Energy Systems

Volume 2022, Article ID 8734010, 17 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/8734010

Review Article
A Detailed Review of MMC Circuit Topologies and
Modelling Issues

Jahangir Badar Soomro , Faheem Akhtar, Rashid Hussain, Jamshed Ahmed Ansari ,
and Hafiz Mudassir Munir
Department of Electrical Engineering, Sukkur IBA University, Sukkur 65200, Pakistan

Correspondence should be addressed to Jahangir Badar Soomro; [email protected]

Received 28 December 2021; Accepted 2 February 2022; Published 4 March 2022

Academic Editor: Reza Hamidi

Copyright © 2022 Jahangir Badar Soomro et al. +is is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is
properly cited.
MMC is a promising technology for MTDC systems and would transform into the concept of Supergrids in the near future. +e
salient features of MMC are modularity, reduced dv/dt and di/dt stress on switches, voltage and power scalability, inherent fault
blocking capacity, transformerless operation, and improved power quality. However, there are some technical issues and
challenges to be critically analysed and addressed. +ere is room for development of novel and enhanced MMC based on SM
configurations to enable higher efficiency, improved power quality, compactness, and DC fault blocking capacity. Moreover,
development of efficient and accurate models is required for the studies of MTDC grids during steady-state and transient
conditions. Literature review suggests a need for studying and comparing different MMC modelling approaches because no
modelling technique can be best suited for all applications. +e main contribution of this paper is to provide a comprehensive
review of recent developments in MMC in terms of SM configurations. +is paper also presents an in-depth review of systematic
comparison of different models of MMC, which can enable appropriate selection of model based on target studies and desired
accuracy and efficiency. Finally, the associated research challenges and future trends are presented.

1. Introduction Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) project between Gotland and

the Swedish Mainland [6].
Over the years, there have always been heated disputes between Most countries worldwide have set an ambition to increase
the supporters of the DC and AC systems [1–3]. In the 1880s, renewable energy resources to meet energy targets and combat
electricity development experienced major inventions, and the climate change while increasing energy security [7]. European
war of currents between Nicholas Tesla and +omas Edison Union (EU) has set a target for the year 2050 to reduce 80–95%
started, which lasted several years [4]. +e earliest electrical of greenhouse gas emissions compared to 1990 levels [8, 9]. In
system was introduced by +omas Edison in 1882. His electrical this regard, European Wind Initiative (EWI) has decided to
system had DC generators driven by steam engines to supply replace 50% of its nonrenewable power sources with wind
Direct Current (DC) at 110 volts. However, in the late nine- power generations [9]. Since most renewable energy resources
teenth century, the war ended as AC won, and there had been a such as offshore wind farms are situated at remote locations, the
decline in DC systems. +e AC became dominant over DC due requirements for long-distance power transmission and asyn-
to the inventions of the induction motor and AC transformers. chronous interconnections are increasing [6]. HVDC is well-
AC transformers facilitated cost-effective transmission, and thus proven technology to meet these requirements and is a
High Voltage Alternating Current (HVAC) was considered the promising technology for future power systems [6, 10, 11].
most economical choice for decades [5]. DC has reemerged and MMC-HVDC for an offshore wind farm is shown in Figure 1.
been preferred over AC after the rapid advancements in the field HVDC can be used for asynchronous interconnec-
of power electronic devices and power converters. DC system tions such that technically mismatched systems with
rebooting started in 1954, when ABB accomplished the High different grid frequencies and voltage ratings can be
 itees, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2022/8734010 by Shah Abdul Latif University, Wiley Online Library on [07/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
2 International Transactions on Electrical Energy Systems

AC Grid 1 DC Cable

Transformer 1 Transformer 2 Transformer 3

MMC Station 1 MMC Station 2
Wind Farm

Figure 1: MMC-HVDC with the submarine cable for an offshore wind farm.

interconnected [12, 13]. +is is one of the significant that it cannot be adequately interfaced with weak AC
advantages of HVDC as compared to HVAC. HVDC is networks such as offshore wind power plants [12].
preferred over HVAC in applications such as underwater +e real breakthrough came with the invention of IGBTs in
long-distance cable crossing, bulk power long-distance 1997, making VSC-MMC-HVDC technology superior to LCC
transmission, and underground long-distance cables technology. +e use of VSC-MMC as compared to LCC offers
[1, 14, 15]. the following advantages.
+ree power converter topologies have been histor-
(1) It can eliminate commutation failure problems due
ically used for HVDC projects. Initially, a line-commu-
to disturbance in AC network [23].
tated converter (LCC) was used; later on, voltage source
converter (VSC) was introduced; and currently, modular (2) It offers flexible and independent control of the
multilevel converter (MMC) is dominating the HVDC converter’s active and reactive power consumed or
technology [16, 126, 127]. In 1940s, only LCC was used generated.
commercially [12]. Before the 1970s, mercury arc valve (3) It can operate with delay and advanced power
was used in LCC, but after the 1970s, thyristor technology factor, and it is possible to sink and source reactive
was introduced in LCC. LCC-based HVDC systems power [24].
dominate the long-distance and bulk power transmission.
(4) It is possible to connect weak AC networks such as
Many LCC-based HVDC projects have been installed,
offshore wind power plants [25].
and few are under construction [6, 17]. LCCs have rel-
atively high line impedance and thus have the natural (5) Lower total harmonic distortions (THD) and im-
ability to slow down the rise of DC fault current, making proved power quality.
AC circuit breakers suitable to allow protection [18, 19]. (6) +e size of the filter is reduced, or no filter is
+is current limitation feature is missing in MMC with required.
half-bridge topology and VSC [18, 20]. +erefore, DC
(7) It offers black start capability, and there is no need
fault becomes a critical issue. Arm inductors in MMC and
for a transformer to assist the commutation process
transformer leakage inductance in VSC mainly limit DC
[26].
fault current. Moreover, DC circuit breakers, advanced
extruded DC cables, fault blocking submodules, MMC (8) +e dynamic behaviour allows AC fault ride-
topologies with fault ride-through capability, fault cur- through capability.
rent limiting devices, and MMC control strategies may be (9) It requires less space and has less footprint and
used to address critical DC faults in VSC-MMC weight of the converter than LCC. +erefore, off-
[4, 18, 21]. Another drawback of VSC-MMC-HVDC is shore wind power plants which need a DC cable
lower current and voltage rating compared to LCC, but in connection prefer VSC-MMC technology.
the last decade, these ratings have increased significantly (10) It can change current and power flow direction
[7]. Previously, LCCs had higher efficiency than VSC- without reversing the polarity. Power switches in
MMC, but with development in power electronic devices, VSC-MMC have bidirectional current carrying
MMC is arriving at efficiencies close to LCC converter. ability. +erefore, VSC-MMC technology is ideal
However, LCC technology is not preferred for future for implementing Multiterminal Direct Current
power systems due to several limitations such as the need (MTDC) power grids [27].
for fast communication, complex control system, use of
(11) DC power cables are lighter in weight and have
semiconductor devices that cannot be turned off au-
lower installation cost in VSC-MMC. VSC-MMC
tonomously, operating at lagging power factor, limited
uses fully controlled power semiconductor devices
reactive power control, and inability to use it in the
that can be autonomously turned on and off.
isolated system [6, 7]. Another major limitation of the
LCC-HVDC system is an inability to change the direction +e classification of voltage source power converters is
of current such that it needs to reverse voltage polarity to shown in Figure 2. Two-level VSC suffers from high switching
change power flow direction [22]. LCC can conduct losses as it generally requires a high switching frequency to
current in only one direction while blocking voltage in operate [28]. Two-level VSC suffers from poor power quality
both polarities. Moreover, the LCC type converter has and high total harmonic distortions. +erefore, it demands a
short-circuit ratio (SCR) of more than two which means large filter size; hence, filter losses are increased, and overall
 itees, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2022/8734010 by Shah Abdul Latif University, Wiley Online Library on [07/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
International Transactions on Electrical Energy Systems 3

High-Power
Voltage Source Converters

High-Power High-Power
Two Level Converter Multi-Level Converter

Integrated
Multi-Cell Converters
Multi-Level Converter

Neutral-Point Active Neutral Slacked Neutral

Flying Capacitor
Clamped Point Clamped Point Clamped
Converter
Converter

Nested Active Stacked H-Bridge Modular

Neutral Point Cascaded
Neutral-Point Neutral-Point Neutral Point Multi-Level
Piloted H-Bridge
Clamped Clamped Clamped Converter

Figure 2: Classification of high-power voltage source converters.

efficiency is compromised. It also suffers from electromagnetic lower THD without the need for any filter, fault tolerance
interference problem, high dv/dt and di/dt stress, and over- and inherent fault blocking capability, lower switching
voltages in power switches [29]. Moreover, two-level VSC frequency, and power losses. MMC has become the basic
cannot block DC fault current in the case of DC pole to pole building block of HVDC and MTDC systems with these
fault. +e integrated multilevel converters are not preferred, salient features. MMC-based HVDC system is shown in
requiring significant modification to increase operating and Figure 4.
output voltage levels. Moreover, these converters need to be MMC is one of the most promising technologies for
shut down during internal and external faults, resulting in huge MTDC grids. Over the past years, several studies have been
production loss in the industrial process. conducted to address technical issues and challenges for
To solve these critical issues, multicell VSC such as cascaded MMC-based MTDC grids. +is paper presents a compre-
H-bridge, neutral-point-clamped (NPC), and flying capacitor hensive review of the recent development of MMC topol-
(FC) topologies have been recommended in the literature re- ogies. +e other main contribution of this paper is to provide
view [4]. However, the main drawback of these topologies is the a detailed systematic review of MMC modelling techniques.
lack of modularity, such that a large number of series-connected Section 2 discusses MMC-based HVDC/MTDC projects
power switches are needed for HVDC applications. +erefore, worldwide. In Section 3, recent developments in MMC in
the cost and overall complexity of system design are increased. terms of the SM configurations are reviewed comprehen-
+e VSC technology is now in its fourth generation using sively. Section 4 presents an in-depth review of modelling
MMC, which was introduced by Lesnicar and Marquardt in issues and challenges of MMC for MTDC grids. Associated
2001 [1], as shown in Figure 3. research challenges and future trends are presented in
MMC has been recognised as invincible topology for Section 5. Section 6 concludes the paper’s outcomes.
high-power and medium/high-voltage applications [30]. +e
modularity and scalability features of MMC make it an 2. Developments of MMC-Based HVDC/MTDC
attractive topology for HVDC applications. Combining Systems Worldwide
smaller subsystems to make a large system is generally
known as modularity. In MMC, hundreds of converter cells At present, the debate is not about the selection between AC and
such as half-bridge and full-bridge cells are cascaded to DC but how to best integrate both systems. +e AC and DC
achieve desired voltage ratings. +e modularity of MMC systems can be best integrated using MTDC systems. +e
targeting HVDC application in depth is reviewed in [4]. +e successful implementation of point to point HVDC systems
MMC has several other benefits as compared to two-level suggested the concept of the MTDC system. MTDC system can
VSCs and different converter topologies such as reduced dv/ potentially improve the reliability of the AC and DC systems
dt and di/dt stress on switches, improved power quality and and enhance flexibility and economy of power by
 itees, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2022/8734010 by Shah Abdul Latif University, Wiley Online Library on [07/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
4 International Transactions on Electrical Energy Systems

Idc
+
iu,a iu,b iu,c

SM 1 SM 1 SM 1

SM 2 SM 2 SM 2
S1 D1
SM n iarm
SM n SM n C Vc
Va Ia
VSM S2 D2
Ls Ls Ls
Vb Ib
Vdc
Figure: HBSM topology [43]
Vc Ic Ls Ls Ls

SM 1 SM 1 SM 1

SM 2 SM 2 SM 2

SM n SM n SM n

il,a il,b il,c

-

Figure 3: +ree-phase MMC-HVDC with HBSM topology.

AC Grid 1 AC Grid 2

Transformer 1 Transformer 2
MMC Station 1 MMC Station 2

Figure 4: MMC-based HVDC system.

interconnecting multiple converters through the DC trans- MMC-based MTDC systems. MMC characteristics such as
mission network [31]. MTDC systems can be classified into control flexibility, DC fault blocking capacity, and power
three types: radial connected MTDC system, meshed or ring switching losses are decided by the type of SM configuration.
MTDC system, and series-connected MTDC system [6]. +e +e cell is the basic building block of any MMC to-
converter station is connected to a single DC line in radial pology. Generally, MMC can be implemented using uni-
MTDC grids. Each converter station is connected to more than polar cells (half bridge), symmetrical bipolar cells (full
one DC line in meshed MTDC system, whereas all the converter bridge), and asymmetrical bipolar cells (hybrid cells)
stations are connected in series for the series-connected MTDC [35–39]. +e unipolar cell can generate two-level output
system. +e proliferation of HVDC systems has opened the voltages such as HB and can generate multilevel output
opportunity for interconnecting different HVDC systems voltage such as neutral-point-clamped (NPC) cells [1, 4].
forming HVDC Supergrids [32]. Plains and Eastern Clean Line Unipolar cells such as HB have a simpler structure, fewer
project proposes North American Supergrid (NAS) concept, switches, reduced switching losses, higher efficiency, and
integrating 52-node HVDC connection throughout the 48 lower cost, as shown in Figure 5(a).
states [33, 34]. +e future of this technology is expected to be However, unipolar cells have characteristics and limi-
possible developments of continental and intercontinental tations similar to those of HB, such that they cannot block
Supergrids. Continental Supergrids can be considered futuristic fault currents during short-circuit DC pole to pole fault [4].
and are expected to happen in 15 years from today. Continental +e equivalent circuit of the HBMMC during a DC short-
Euro-African Supergrid is under consideration, which can circuit fault is shown in Figure 6. +erefore, MMC based on
benefit the European grid by taking advantage of solar potential unipolar cells must have additional protections against such
in North Africa. +e future transformation of HVDC systems is faults.
reviewed in detail by [7]. Table 1 provides details of a few of the +e variant of HBSM topology referred to as self-bal-
projects installed worldwide. ancing submodule (SBSM) is presented in [40, 41]. It can
automatically balance the capacitor voltage without any need
3. Developments of MMC Circuit Topologies for a voltage balance algorithm. +is topology consists of
HBSM with an inductor and a diode, as shown in
MMC is the basic building block of MTDC grids. New Figure 5(b). Another variant of HBSM known as a clamp-
enhanced MMC topologies need to be explored to develop single submodule (CSSM) is proposed in [42]. +is topology
 itees, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2022/8734010 by Shah Abdul Latif University, Wiley Online Library on [07/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
International Transactions on Electrical Energy Systems 5

Table 1: MMC-based HVDC/MTDC projects installed worldwide.

Rated capacity Rated DC No. of
S. no. Project name and country Commissioning year
(MW) voltage (kV) terminals
1 Zhoushan, China [1] 1000 ±200 5 2014
2 Nanao, China [1] 200 ±160 3 2015
2020 (under
3 Zhangbei, China [1] 3000 ±500 4
construction)
4 Trans Bay Cable, USA [1] 400 ±200 2 2010
5 Nanhui, China [1] 18 ±30 2 2011
6 BorWin3, Germany [1] 900 ±320 2 2019
7 Chongqing-Hubei, China [1] 2500 ±420 2 2016
8 Luxi, China [1] 1000 ±350 2 2016
9 HelWin2, Germany [1] 690 ±320 2 2015
10 Xiamen China [1] 1000 ±320 2 2015
COBRAcable, between Denmark (Endrup) and
11 700 ±320 2 2019
Netherlands (Eemshaven) [16]
North Sea Link [16] (between Norway and the
12 1400 ±525 2 2021
United Kingdom)
13 Caithness, Scotland [124] 1200 ±320 3 2018
14 BorWin1, Germany [16] 400 ±150 2 2011
15 BorWin2, Germany [16] 800 ±300 2 2015
16 DolWin1, Germany [16] 800 ±320 2 2015
17 DolWin2, Germany [16] 916 ±320 2 2016
18 DolWin3, Germany [16] 900 ±320 2 2017
19 HelWin1, Germany [16] 576 ±250 2 2015
20 HelWin2, Germany [16] 690 ±320 2 2015
21 SylWin, Germany [16] 864 ±320 2 2015
INELFE, Santa Llogaia (Spain) and Baixas (France)
22 2000 ±320 2 2015
[16]
Skagerrak Pole 4, Tjele (Denmark) and Kristiansand
23 700 ±500 2 2014
(Norway) [16]
Expected to complete in
24 Sydvastlanken [5], Sweden and Norway 1440 ±300 2
2021
25 Dalian City, China [122] 1000 ±320 2 Under construction
Expected to complete in
26 AWC, USA [125] 700 ±320 3
2021
27 ULTRANET, Germany [125] 2000 ±380 3 2019

improves resilience to DC fault and suppresses the fault VC1 + VC2, VC1/VC2, and zero. All the switches are turned off
current. CSSM has two kinds of configuration, as shown in during DC short-circuit fault. However, CDSM may not be
Figures 5(c) and 5(d), and is made up of HBSM incorporated preferred due to increased losses as all the switches are
with a transistor and a diode. In case of a DC short-circuit turned on during normal operation. FB and five-level cross-
fault, all transistors are turned off to avoid fault current. connected cells are referred to as symmetrical bipolar cells,
Otherwise, during normal operation, S3 is turned on. An- as shown in Figures 7(c) and 7(d), respectively. +ey pro-
other approach to improve DC fault blocking capacity is to duce an equal number of positive and negative voltages such
use thyristors with the HBSM as proposed in [43]. A single that FB produces three levels (VC, 0, −VC) and five-level
thyristor or double thyristor may be used with HBSM, as cross-connected submodule (CCSM) produces five levels
shown in Figures 5(e) and 5(f ). +e fault current flows (2VC, VC, 0, −2VC, −VC). Five-level cross-connected SM
through thyristors in DC pole to pole fault. However, during consists of two HBSMs connected back to back via two
normal operations, thyristors are turned off. +e proposed IGBTs with antiparallel diodes [46]. It can generate five
variants of HBSM may be preferred over FBSM due to their levels: ±(VC1 + VC2), ±VC1/±VC2, and zero. +e DC fault
lower cost and less switching losses. Storage capacitor has a current may be avoided by turning off crossed transistors S5
large impact on the overall footprint and weight of the MMC and S6 at the cost of increased power losses. MMCs realised
converter. +erefore stacked switch capacitor, as shown in with symmetrical bipolar cells offer similar attributes and
Figure 7(a), having three capacitors C1, C2, and C3 used as advantages to those of FB such as greater control flexibility
an energy buffers, is proposed in [44]. +is topology has a and DC fault ride-through at the cost of higher switching
40% reduced volume as compared to HBSM. A clamp- losses than unipolar and asymmetrical bipolar cells.
double submodule (CDSM) contains two similar HBSMs Moreover, they offer bipolar DC voltage operation; hence,
connected by two extra diodes and an IGBT, as shown in power reversal is possible either by the DC voltage or by the
Figure 7(b) [45]. It can produce three-level voltage: current [47].
 itees, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2022/8734010 by Shah Abdul Latif University, Wiley Online Library on [07/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
6 International Transactions on Electrical Energy Systems

C1 C1 D4 C1

VSM VSM VSM

D4

(a) (b) (c)

VSM C1 C1

C1 VSM VSM

(d) (e) (f )

Figure 5: Two-level submodule topologies: (a) half-bridge submodule (HBSM); (b) self-balancing submodule (SBSM); (c) clamp-single
submodule (CSSM) type I; (d) CSSM type II; (e) single-thyristor HBSM; (f ) double thyristor.

Figure 6: +e equivalent circuit of the MMC during a DC side short-circuit fault.

+erefore, the main motivation is to use MMC with capacitors is relatively small (1.5 KV–3 KV) [51]. +is ap-
bipolar symmetrical cells along with the LCC in futuristic proach is adopted in many MMC-based HVDC projects
MTDC grids. Asymmetrical bipolar cells, also known as worldwide and offers better AC and DC power quality.
hybrid cells, are a mixed combination of FB and HB cells Moreover, filter requirements are eliminated, and reliable
[48]. +ey generate an unequal number of positive and operation is ensured by bypassing faulty cells. Fundamental
negative voltage levels and combine the inherent benefits switching frequency techniques such as nearest voltage level
and features of both unipolar and bipolar cells [49, 50]. modulation (NLM) are recommended for this approach,
+erefore, they offer resilience to DC short-circuit fault and hence having lower switching losses. However, such an
improved efficiency. Mixed cell MMC (MC-MMC) uses approach increases the overall complexity of the system, and
asymmetrical bipolar cells [39]. Comparison of different cell implementation of the PWM controller becomes difficult.
configurations in terms of voltage levels, switching losses, +e second approach requires a reduced number of sub-
and DC fault blocking capacity is provided in Table 2. modules per arm, with each cell rating ranging between
+ere are two established realisations of MMC in lit- 16 KV and 20 KV [52]. +e second approach looks attractive
erature. +e first approach prefers a larger number of as it reduces the overall complexity and size of the converter
submodules per arm, where the rating of switches and but at the cost of compromised AC and DC power quality
 itees, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2022/8734010 by Shah Abdul Latif University, Wiley Online Library on [07/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
International Transactions on Electrical Energy Systems 7

S1 T1 T5 T6 T3
D2 S3
+ +
C1 VSM UC1 UC2
– –
T2
C1 S2 T4
S4
C2 D1
VSM

C3

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 7: Multilevel submodule topologies: (a) stacked switched capacitor submodule (SSCSM); (b) clamp-double submodule (CDSM);
(c) full-bridge structure (FBSM); (d) five-level cross-connected submodule (CCSM).

Table 2: Comparison of various SM circuits.

SM circuit Voltage levels DC short-circuit fault ride-through capability Power losses
Half-bridge SM 0, VC No Low
Full-bridge SM 0, ±VC Yes High
Five-level cross-connected SM 0, VC1, VC2, ±(VC1 + VC2) Yes Moderate
Clamp-double SM 0, VC1, VC2, (VC1 + VC2) Yes Moderate
+ree-level neutral-point-clamped cells 0, VC2, (VC1 + VC2) No Moderate
+ree-level flying capacitor 0, VC1, VC2, (VC1 − VC2) No Low

[53]. Moreover, the second approach causes significant been combined [64, 65]. Hybrid VSC combines soft switched
errors in common-mode voltages, resulting in high-fre- H-bridge converters, MMC cells, and H-bridge converters
quency ripples in DC side voltage and current, and hence consisting of series IGBTs to meet voltage rating require-
requires DC filters [54]. Furthermore, it introduces poor ments at the fundamental frequency.
output AC power quality and relatively high-frequency MMC cells used in hybrid VSC are mainly used for wave-
circulating components in arm currents. Hence, an AC side shaping function and can only handle a part of the main line
filter and relatively large arm inductors are required to current. +erefore, the limitation of hybrid VSC is a lower
enhance power quality and suppress circulating currents. rating. +e motivation for this combination of converters is
Another limitation of the second approach is that most to reduce power losses and reduce harmonics while ensuring
manufacturers lack the expertise of driving medium-voltage compact design. Due to MMC cells’ presence, the need for a
cells. filter at the AC side may be eliminated. Moreover, MMC
Besides, MMC is being implemented using either cells (FB) may not produce enough negative voltages to
symmetrical or asymmetrical cells. Further optimisation can block fault current in the case of DC pole to pole fault. In the
also be done by mixing different types of cells, resulting in last year, 2020, enhanced MMC (EMMC) having reduced
hybrid multilevel converters [55]. Industry and academia number of submodules and THD was proposed as shown in
have proposed hybrid converter topologies in the last two Figure 9 [66–68]. +e proposed hybrid topology utilises both
decades to improve specific aspects of MMC performance HB cells of medium-voltage and FB cells of low voltage. +e
such as DC fault blocking capability, footprint, and efficiency conventional MMC generates N+1 levels for N submodules
[56–61]. Hybrid converters are classified into two groups. per arm, whereas recently modified NLM control has been
+e first group, called MC-MMC, is the most invincible proposed for HBMMC to achieve 2N + 1 levels [69–72]. +e
topology [62]. It holds salient features of conventional modified NLM control method has been further extended in
MMC, such as modularity and bypassed operation of faulty an article to achieve 4N + 1 levels for HBMMC [71].
cells, to ensure continuous operation. Besides these benefits, Modified NLM may be further investigated and applied to
it also offers custom-made features such as bespoke control FBMMC and other cell arrangements to generate 4N + 1
flexibility and DC fault ride-through capability at the cost of levels. It should be noted that EMMC is the most attractive
increased switching losses. +e second group, referred to as topology and produces 2NHB·NFB + 1 levels [66–68].
alternate arm converter and hybrid cascaded two-level It is concluded that conventional MMC requires 400 HB
converter, use symmetrical cells (FB cells) and integrate cells to produce 401 levels, whereas EMMC uses 40 HB
director switches operating at very low frequency [63–65]. medium-voltage cells and 5 FB low-voltage cells to generate
+ey offer fault blocking capacity, bipolar DC voltage op- 401 levels. +erefore, EMMC improves power quality at the
eration, and switching losses similar to HBMMC. However, AC and DC sides and reduces power circuit and control
the second group lack modularity and reduced power complexity compared to conventional MMC. It should be
quality. +erefore, a filter may be required. noted that the proposed EMMC does not have DC fault
Some researchers have proposed hybrid VSC, as shown blocking capacity as negative voltage produced by FB cells is
in Figure 8, where both two-level converter and MMC have not sufficient for blocking DC fault currents [68]. DC fault
 itees, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2022/8734010 by Shah Abdul Latif University, Wiley Online Library on [07/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
8 International Transactions on Electrical Energy Systems

VG
H-bridge a Ldc
Serries string of Cell
ic
devices Cell
Vs is
← Transformer
Rs Ls Turn ratio Cell
Vc

←
1:r
H-bridge b Cell
Cell Vdc VG

Cell
H-bridge c
← Cell
PAC
Cell

Cell

Figure 8: Short-term measures of resilience.

Upper HB Chain
Link

Upper FB Chain
Link

Lower HB Chain
Link

Lower FB Chain
Link

Figure 9: EMMC topology.

ride-through capability and control flexibility are decided by 4. Modelling Issues and Challenges of MMC for
the ratio of FB cells to HB cells. Considering this ratio as an MTDC Grids
important factor, an extension of EMMC referred to as
EMMC0 has been proposed in [66]. EMMC0 produces 401 MMC-based MTDC projects are growing faster worldwide
levels, consisting of 30 high-voltage chain links (HB) and 100 [6]. It must be noted that the dynamics of the HVDC system
low-voltage chain links (FB). EMMC0 can be a viable al- are totally different due to the presence of DC circuit
ternative to EMMC and possesses DC fault ride-through breakers and converters compared to HVAC. Power con-
capability. High-level summary is presented in Table 3. In verters in MTDC have a time response that can be several
future, there is room to explore enhanced and new MMC orders of magnitude faster than that of its counterpart
topologies for MTDC grids. synchronous generator in HVAC due to lack of mechanical
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International Transactions on Electrical Energy Systems 9

Table 3: Comparison of HBMMC, EMMC, MC-MMC, and EMMC0.

EMMC MC-MMC MC-MMC
HBMMC 40 HBMMC EMMC0 NHVCL � 30
Performance index NHVCL � 30 NHVCL � 30 NHVCL � 300
cells 400 cells NLVCL � 100
NLVCL � 5 NLVCL � 10 NLVCL � 100
Number of voltage
41 401 401 41 401 401
levels per arm
Power circuit and
Low High Moderate Medium Medium Moderate
control complexity
DC voltage and current
Low High Moderate Medium Medium Moderate
ripples
AC fault ride-through Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
DC fault ride-through No No No Yes Yes Yes

inertia and customised control abilities. Power converters Moreover, another limitation of DSMs is that intensive
are operating at a high switching frequency, and therefore knowledge about MMC topology (down to component
they are characterised by discontinuous dynamic equations, level) is needed, and such information can only be provided
which are difficult to analyse and model. +erefore, MMC- by the converter manufacturer [73]. To overcome these
based MTDC systems’ modelling needs to be reevaluated to limitations of DSMs, simplified and more efficient yet
accurately replicate the actual system behaviour. It should be reasonably accurate models are proposed by researchers to
noted that modelling issues and challenges will vary for accelerate EMT simulation.
different topologies of MMC discussed in Section 2. +e As per CIGRE technical report, modelling approaches
dynamic behaviour of the MTDC system is discussed in are classified into seven types [79, 80]. Type 1 is called full
[5, 6, 73]. physics-based models, where both switches and diodes are
Power system software has been classified into three represented by either differential equations or an equivalent
types: electromagnetic transient (EMT) simulation tech- circuit, as shown in Figure 10(a) [81]. +e full physics-based
niques, electromechanical stability programs, and steady- model for MMC is infeasible for grid studies due to the
state power flow programs. Switching is the fundamental increased computational burden and simulation times. Type
operation of power converters and causes transients in the 2 is referred to as the full detailed model. +ese models are
system. +erefore, EMT type solvers are recommended for based on simplified nonlinear IGBT models [80, 82, 83].
simulations of power converters such as MMC [24, 74]. IGBTs are replicated using an ideal controlled switch, and
Steady-state power flow programs are preferred to study two nonideal diodes are represented using nonlinear re-
systems after all transients have damped out. Electrome- sistance, as shown in Figure 10(b) [81].
chanical stability programs are used to simulate very Type 2 can represent every possible state of HBSMs and
complex power systems, in which phasors represent AC FBSMs but cannot calculate switching losses. Only type 1 can
power systems. be used for estimating converter losses. Type 3 model is
Despite several proposed MMC modelling techniques, based on simplified switchable resistances. +e only dif-
the literature lacks an in-depth comparison of these models. ference between type 2 and type 3 models is how power
+erefore, adequate MMC modelling techniques should be semiconductor devices are replicated. In type 3, two resistors
selected based on specific simulation objectives. Modelling represent IGBTs and diodes: a tiny resistor (mΩ) for turn-on
of large scale MTDC system using unipolar, bipolar, and state and one large value resistor (MΩ) for turn-off state.
asymmetrical cells as SMs in MMC, with hundreds of cells, Type 3 considers only the turn-on and turn-off state but not
hundreds of levels, and thousands of IGBTs, is referred to as the transient state [80, 81]. +erefore, simulation times are
detailed switch modelling [75–77]. Detailed switch models reduced compared to type 2, yet a large number of electrical
(DSMs) represent actual converter behaviour, switching nodes complicate the EMT solver. EMT equivalent repre-
dynamics, and electromagnetic transients [78]. +erefore, sentation for lumped elements of type 3 is represented as
they are the most accurate and used as reference models for shown in Figure 10(c) and is known as detailed ideal model
comparison with other models. However, thousands of (DIM) [81]. +ese three types of models use the nodal
IGBTs in MMC–MTDC models increase the computational admittance method on the EMTsimulation tool. Types 2 and
burden and require small integration steps to replicate fast 3 are primarily used for targeted applications and studies
switching operations accurately. DSMs best fit the targeted such as a reference model to validate simplified models and
applications and studies at the component levels, such as analyse faults in SMs in MMC.
component (switches) optimisation, electromagnetic com- Few researchers have proposed an isolated submodule
putability (EMC) validation, switching and conduction (ISM) model that uses a modified nodal admittance method
losses calculation, blocked states, power MMC start-up [84–86]. +is approach models each SM as a separate
procedures, and internal converter faults. Due to increased subsystem and thus requires an individual system matrix, as
simulation times and high computation burden for EMT shown in Figure 10(d) [81]. +erefore, computational effi-
solver, these models are not applicable for large power ciency is improved and enables parallel processing of sub-
system studies such as MMC-based MTDC networks. modules (SMs) instead of solving one large matrix as in the
 itees, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2022/8734010 by Shah Abdul Latif University, Wiley Online Library on [07/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
10 International Transactions on Electrical Energy Systems

Emitter Gate + VCE – 2 SM1(φ± )

Rb Llk i(φ+)(t) GT1(1)(t)
+
C (Collector) C E 1 iCEQ(j)(t-Δt )
Icgs GCEQ
Cgs Icdg Ic VCE iSM(1)(t)
– G GT2(1)(t) SM Capacitor
– – Ic 3
+ C (Gate) IGBT
e
Imut I – + gd 2i
+ cds + Cdjs I E (Emitter)
Logic VCE GT1(j)(t) SMj(φ±)
MOS
base 2i-1
b GCEQ
Ie Ib iSM(j)(t) iCEQ(j)(t-Δt)
g GT2(j)(t)
Iccer 2i+1
– – + –
Iss Ibss 2N G SMN(φ± )
T1(1)(t)
Ceb
+ + –
Ccer + 2N-1
GCEQ
iSM(N)(t) iCEQ(N)(t-Δt )
2N+1 GT2(N)(t)
Rb
GIEQ iCEQ(1)(t-Δt )
–
Llk Arm Reactance L
+
Is1
Collector
(a) (b) (c)

ISM(1)(t) GT1(1)(t)
GCEQ iCEQ(j)(t-Δt )
iφ± Iφ+
Vsm1(φ±) GT2(1)(t)

GT1(j)(t)
+ ISM(j)(t)
Varm(φ±) GCEQ iCEQ(j)(t-Δt )
– Iφ+ Vsmj(φ± ) GT2(j)(t)

GLEQ
GT1(1)(t)
ISM(N)(t)
GCEQ iCEQ(N)(t-Δt )
iEQ(t-Δt )
Iφ+ VsmN(φ± ) GT2(N)(t)

Varm(φ± )(t)=∑N
j=1 VsmJ(φ±)

(d)

Figure 10: CIGRE modelling approaches: (a) physics-based model for IGBT; (b) full detailed model; (c) detailed ideal model; (d) ISM-
equivalent representation of an arm.

previous three types. However, due to the large number of burden. +erefore, this modelling approach is the perfect
SMs used and fast switching frequency, the aforementioned choice for accurate time simulation (hardware in the loop
model is unsuitable for real-time simulations. Individual simulation) [89, 90]. However, the accuracy of this model
SMs can be accessed in this modelling approach, and may be a little compromised compared to detailed models,
therefore it is feasible to analyse internal faults. but errors are insignificant for most dynamic studies. Type 4
Type 4, known as detailed equivalent circuit models modelling is recommended for targeted applications such as
(ECM), is used further to reduce the computational burden dynamic and steady-state analysis on the AC and DC side,
and number of electrical nodes, thereby increasing simu- modelling and tuning low-level controllers such as capacitor
lation speed [87, 88]. Based on this approach, the arm balancing algorithms (CBA), and validating average models.
+evenin equivalent model (EIM) is proposed in [87, 88]. It Some of the researchers have proposed switching
offers a fast simulation method by modelling all SMs in an function model (SFM) [91–94]. SFM replicates the switching
arm by its equivalent, +evenin or Norton. +is modelling behaviour using binary functions. +e research work in
approach uses algebraic relations to represent the internal [91–93] has more computational burden as it uses state-
dynamics of an arm instead of the computationally intensive space formulation and is infeasible for fault analysis in the
nodal admittance method. Based on this approach, equiv- HVDC system. In [94], binary functions are proposed to
alent representations of N SMs of MMC arm are shown in simulate the individual operation of SMs with better sim-
Figure 11(a). Inserted and bypassed states of all SMs is ulation speed and efficiency. +e work in [95–97] has im-
simulated using equivalent +evenin or Norton subsystem, proved the SFM by including blocked states of the converter.
whereas blocked states are represented using extra diodes [81, 97] have realised SFM using generalised blocks from
and switches. It should be noted that the proposed model has simulation software, as shown in Figure 11(b). SFM allows
a reduced number of nodes and a reduced computational easier implementation as compared to +evenin equivalent
 itees, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2022/8734010 by Shah Abdul Latif University, Wiley Online Library on [07/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
International Transactions on Electrical Energy Systems 11

representation. Moreover, similar to type 4, SFM enables DIM is compared with hardware setup in [24, 51, 121]. As a
parallel computation and is feasible for real-time result, it has been found that hardware setup validates the
simulations. DIM and has reasonable accuracy. +erefore, the DIM has
Type 4 model, isolated SM model, and SFM are suitable been used as a reference to validate other models in
for system-level studies, for analysis of large-signal behav- [112–114]. +e isolated SM model has been compared in
iour of the MMC, SM level control, and PWM schemes. [115]. +e detailed model and EIM have been compared
However, type 5 and type 6, referred to as average value against different transient scenarios in [116–118]. +e var-
model (AVM) and simplified AVM, respectively, may be iant of EIM has been compared against the hardware setup
recommended for targeted applications such as network- in [54]. SFM and AVM have been validated against DM or
level studies, load flow analysis, design of protection relays, EIM in the research work by [99, 119]. EIM, SFM, and AVM
stability studies, large-signal analysis of MMC, dynamic are validated against DIM in [81] against different cases such
analysis such as external faults, and designing and tuning as active and reactive power reversal, AC side faults, and DC
high-level controllers such as DC voltage control. AVM side faults. As a result, it is concluded that with 14 SMs per
(types 5 and 6) further simplifies MMC representation as arm of MMC, SFM and EIM offer 20 times faster simulation
converter dynamics are replicated by neglecting switching speed than DIM. In contrast, AVM has reduced compu-
effects in individual SMs, as shown in Figure 12 [98]. In tational burden comparatively, and the computational
AVM, the average response of IGBTs, converters, and burden does not increase with increasing the number of
control is simulated by simplified functions and controlled SMs. Moreover, all three models offer good accuracy as
voltage and current sources [14]. It should be noted that compared to DIM. However, AVM is found infeasible for
AVM has comparatively better simulation efficiency and internal dynamic studies of the converter. AVM has com-
reduced computational burden and uses larger integration promised accuracy compared to detailed ECM, especially
time steps than all aforementioned models. +e distributed under blocked mode. +erefore, a fast, efficient model re-
arm capacitors of MMC are represented by a lumped ca- ferred to as the arm equivalence model (AEM) is proposed
pacitor such that the dynamics of all SMs are the same and all [120]. AEM gives identical results compared to detailed
the capacitor voltages are equal [81]. +erefore, they are not ECM in both deblocked and blocked mode for dynamic
suitable for studying the internal dynamics of a converter studies. Similar to AVM, simulation speed does not depend
like SMs faults, switching, and conduction losses. +e re- on the number of SMs in AEM. However, AEM is 45%
search work presented in [99–110] uses the AVM of MMC. slower than AVM [120]. Hybrid cascaded multilevel con-
In [98], 21-level HBMMC-based HVDC system is used verters (HCMCs) are emerging converter technologies for
to compare three modelling techniques: DSM, detailed HVDC/MTDC systems. Several fast and efficient AVMs
ECM, and reduced-order ECM using PSCAD. It has been have been proposed recently for HCMCs and validated
observed that reduced-order ECM is more efficient and against detailed equivalent models for dynamic transients in
faster. A novel AVM for 401-level MMC-HVDC has been [121]. Moreover, a combined model that allows users to
proposed in [14]; it is at least 371 times more efficient and select between the AVMs and detailed equivalent models
faster than a detailed model without compromising the depending on simulation objectives is suggested. Table 4
accuracy. +e performance of both models is validated when presents high-level summary of all aforementioned models.
integrated into a 400 kV transmission system in Europe MMC model evaluation in decreasing complexity is shown
between France and Spain under different scenarios such as in Figure 13 [24].
active power flow reversal and AC and DC faults. [24]
compares four models for MMC—namely, full detailed 5. Future Trends and Challenges
model (type 2), ECM (type 4), and SFM and AVM (type 5)—
for different practical scenarios such as AC and DC faults, Several enhanced and attractive MMC circuit configurations
power reference change, and converter start-up. Full DM, have been suggested. However, there is room for the de-
ECM, and SFM provide identical results in the case of velopment of novel MMC topologies that allow better ef-
converter start-up, but the AVM is infeasible for converter ficiency, better power quality, bespoke control range,
start-up study. Finally, it has been concluded that full DM is reduced volume, and DC fault resilience. Additionally, it will
the most accurate reference model but suffers from the be essential to ensure that the proposed MMC topologies are
highest computational burden. ECM and SFM offer identical highly reliable and work according to installed requirements.
results to those of full DM in all scenarios and has less Transformerless MMC topologies are desirable and are
computational burden as detailed modelling of IGBTs can be topics of future research. +e transformerless MMC to-
avoided. AVM has a good trade-off between accuracy and pologies significantly reduce overall cost, weight, volume,
efficiency. AVM offers almost identical results in all sce- system complexity, and losses. Compact MMCs with re-
narios with a reduced computational burden, but it is in- duced volume and weight are preferred in some applications
feasible for converter start-up studies. In [111], simplified such as offshore wind. +erefore, researchers explore ad-
arm +evenin equivalent model for hybrid MMCs has been vanced MMC configurations that should have reduced
proposed and validated against DM for steady-state and volume and weight.
transient conditions (AC and DC faults). It has been ob- Researchers are also exploring state of the art (advanced)
served that the simplified model of hybrid HBMMC and materials for power semiconductor devices to improve
FBMMC offers accurate and 50 times faster simulation time. converter efficiency and reduce switching losses. Mature
 itees, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2022/8734010 by Shah Abdul Latif University, Wiley Online Library on [07/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
12 International Transactions on Electrical Energy Systems

i(±)(t) iblk (±)(t)

D1
REQ2
iArm REQ1
+–
± +

Vins(t)
± Vblk(t) D2
vArm T3 +
VEQ1
–

(a) (b)

Figure 11: Modelling approaches: (a) arm +evenin equivalent; (b) arm switching function model (SFM) using generic EMT blocks.

Cinsu
+
1/2Vdc
-
Larm
iu
vo
i1
+
1/2Vdc
- Larm

Cinsul

Figure 12: +e averaged model of the MMC.

Table 4: CIGRE modelling approaches for MMC: summary.

Model type Semiconductor representation Solution method Targeted applications
Detailed model (CIGRE Full physics or nonlinear diodes Switching losses, component optimisation,
Nodal admittance method
types 1 and 2 [81]) with parasitic elements and EMC studies
Detailed ideal model Control and protection system design.
(DIM) (CIGRE type 3 Bi-value resistors Nodal admittance method Internal and external faults, simplified model
[81]) validation
Isolated submodule Control and protection system design.
Bi-value resistors Nodal admittance method
(ISM) model [81] Internal and external faults
+evenin equivalent Algebraic relations to Control and protection system design.
model (EIM) (CIGRE Bi-value resistors model operation of all SMs External faults only. Suitable for real-time
type 4) [81] individually simulations with parallel computation
Algebraic relations to Control and protection system design.
Switching function
Switching functions (0 and 1) model operation of all SMs External faults only. Suitable for real-time
model (SFM) [81]
individually simulations with parallel computation
Switching harmonics Algebraic relations with Load flow analyses, design of protection relays
Average model (AVM)
incorporated through discrete single average equivalent and stability studies. Simulation of terminal
[81]
value of insertion index module dynamics for external faults

wideband gap devices such as silicon carbide (SiC), gallium systems due to increased cost and losses [122]. +is
nitride (GaN), and diamond power devices may be used to problem encouraged researchers to research DC circuit
enhance converter efficiency and reliability, thereby re- breakers (CBs). However, using only DC CBs is also not a
ducing switching losses and cooling system requirements. cost-effective solution for fault interruption because, in
Another critical challenge is the resilience to DC meshed MTDC networks, more DC CBs are required
short-circuit fault in the MTDC grids. HBMMC is the [123]. +erefore, coordination of MMCs with DC CBs
dominant topology due to its simpler structure, higher seems the best approach for future protection systems of
efficiency, and lower cost but cannot block DC fault MMC-based MTDC systems. +e literature review sug-
currents. FBMMC and other symmetrical bipolar cells gests that coordination strategies proposed need im-
have DC side fault blocking capacity. Still, these SMs are provement due to higher switching losses and cost [6, 98].
not considered cost-effective for commercial MTDC +erefore, there is plenty of room for the development of
 itees, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2022/8734010 by Shah Abdul Latif University, Wiley Online Library on [07/01/2025]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
International Transactions on Electrical Energy Systems 13

Model 4

Model 3
Model 2
Model 1

Figure 13: MMC model evaluation in decreasing complexity.

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