A BLEND OF ENGLISH LITERATURE & LINGUISTICS

ENGLISH—MADE EASY
Basic English language course for the students of University level.

Author
WAQAR MAHMOOD KHAN
M.Phil. Linguistics, B.S Hons. English, M.A Education, MOS
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AN EASY BOOK ON ENGLISH GRAMMAR & LITERATURE

1. WRITE A NOTE ON LANGUAGE HIERARCHY OF ENGLISH

Answer: Following is the Language hierarchy of English:

a. Letter d. Clause g. Essay
b. Word e. Sentence h. Discourse
c. Phrase f. Paragraph

2. WRITE A NOTE ON ‘SVO’ AS BASIC STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH.

Answer: Following is the basic SVO Structure of English:

S=Subject (doer of an action)
V=Verb (action, state or being/doing word)
O=Object (affected by the action)
For example: I love mangoes
I= Subject Love=verb Mangoes=Object

3. WHAT IS A NOUN?

Answer: A naming word that is basically the name of a person, place or a thing,
is termed as a Noun.
OR
Noun is a word that refers to a person, place, thing, event, substance, or
quality. For example: boy, girl, Aslam, gold, silver, sorrow, jury, army, etc.

4. WRITE A NOTE ON 5 KINDS OF NOUN.

Answer: Following are the five kinds of Noun:

a. Common Noun: It is basically the generic (general) or non-specific name
of a person, place or a thing.
Example: Boy, girl, city, province, country, school, college, university.
b. Proper Noun: It is the specific or particular name of a person, place or a
thing.
Example: Saleem, Ayaz, Ayesha, Islamabad, London, Punjab, Pakistan.
c. Material Noun: It is the naming word from which other things are made. A
Material noun has its own physical appearance and can be felt.
Example: Milk, wood, silver, aluminium, gold, cotton, plastic, diamond.
d. Abstract Noun: It is a word that does not have its own physical
appearance, but can be felt.
Example: Anger, happiness, grief, sorrow, frustration, freedom, honesty
e. Collective Noun: A collective noun refers to a collection of things taken as
a whole or a single entity.

Handouts by WAQAR MAHMOOD KHAN (M.Phil. Linguistics, B.S Hons. English, M.A Education)
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Example: Family, class, jury, committee, army, flock, cluster, group,

bunch.

5. WHAT IS A PRONOUN?

Answer: A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun to avoid repetition.

In other words, they usually substitute nouns.

Example: I, you, we, my, your, their, his, her, this, those, several, few.

6. WRITE A NOTE ON 8 KINDS OF PRONOUN.

Answer: Following are the 8 kinds of pronoun:

a. Personal Pronouns
The personal pronouns are I, you, he, she, it, we, they, and who. More often
than not (but not exclusively), they replace nouns representing people.

Example:
 We have done our job.
 I bought some books, but they weren't informative.

b. Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns are used to show possession, ownership or sense of
belonging. As they are used as adjectives, they are also termed as possessive
adjectives. My, your, his, her, its, our and their, are all possessive pronouns.
 Have you seen his book?
 Their house is quite old.
 My book is highly informative.

c. Reflexive Pronouns
A reflexive pronoun is the ‘Self form of a pronoun’. It ends with ‘self’ or with
‘selves’ and refers to another noun or pronoun in the sentence (usually
the subject of the sentence). The reflexive pronouns are
myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, yourselves and themselves.

Examples:
 They themselves came to the meeting.
 I did the work myself.
 She herself went to the hospital.
 We all enjoyed ourselves at the recreational trip to Murree.

Handouts by WAQAR MAHMOOD KHAN (M.Phil. Linguistics, B.S Hons. English, M.A Education)
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d. Demonstrative Pronouns

These pronouns are used to demonstrate, point out or indicate.

This, that, these and those are all demonstrative pronouns.

Examples:
 This is my pen.
 Those are your books.

e. Indefinite Pronouns:
Opposed to demonstrative pronouns, which point out specific items, indefinite
pronouns are used for non-specific or unclear things.
This is the largest group of pronouns.
All, some, any, several, anyone, nobody,each, both, few, either, none,one and n
o one are the most common.

Example:
 Someone might have come.
 Several students are missing
 I have nothing to declare except my genius. (Oscar Wilde).

f. Interrogative Pronouns
These pronouns are used in questions.
Who, which, what, where and how are all interrogative pronouns.

Example:
 Who told you not to go there?
 Which student won the prize?

g. Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns are used to add more or additional information to a
sentence. Which, that, who (including whom and whose) and where are all
relative pronouns.

Examples:
 The boy, whom you met yesterday, is my brother.
 The pen, which you brought last night, is quite expensive.
 The man who first saw the ball has now gone.
h. Reciprocal Pronouns
Reciprocal pronouns are used for actions or feelings that are reciprocated. The
two most common reciprocal pronouns are each other and one another.
Each other is used for two persons, whereas, one another for more than two.
Examples:
 They hate one another.
 They talk to each other like they're close friends.
 Both Saleem and Akram like each other.

Handouts by WAQAR MAHMOOD KHAN (M.Phil. Linguistics, B.S Hons. English, M.A Education)
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7. WHAT IS AN ADJECTIVE?

Answer: An adjective is a word that qualifies or modifies a noun and

occasionally pronouns.

Example: beautiful, sweet, ugly, bright, tall, short, long, adorable, adventurous.

8. WRITE
A NOTE ON 3
DEGREES OF ADJECTIVES.
Answer: You might know that
adjectives are words that modify a
noun or a pronoun; therefore
adjectives are called modifiers in
English. Sometimes modifiers are
used to compare two or more people,
things, actions, or qualities. This is
called three degrees of adjectives.
Three Degrees of Adjectives
1. The Positive Degree
The positive degree of an adjective makes no comparison.
 A tall building.
 She runs fast.
 This is a beautiful car.
2. The Comparative Degree
The comparative degree compares two people, things, actives or qualities.
 A taller building than this one.
 She runs faster than I do.
 This car is more beautiful than yours.
3. The Superlative Degree
The superlative degree compares a person, thing, activity or quality with the
group.
 The tallest building in the town.
 She is the fastest runner among the students.
 This is the most beautiful car I have ever seen.

9. WHAT IS A VERB?

Answer: The word ‘verb’ derived from the Latin word ‘verbum‘.
A verb is a doing word that shows an action, being, an event or a state. A
sentence may either have a main verb, a helping verb or both. In other words, a
verb is a word that informs about an action, an existence of something or an
occurrence. The verb is the main word in a sentence. No sentence can be
completed without a verb.

10. WRITE A NOTE ON PRINCIPAL OR MAIN VERB.

Handouts by WAQAR MAHMOOD KHAN (M.Phil. Linguistics, B.S Hons. English, M.A Education)
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Answer: The main verb is also called the lexical verb or the principal verb. This
term refers to the important verb in the sentence, the one that typically shows
the action or state of being of the subject. Main verbs can stand alone, or they
can be used with a helping verb, also called an auxiliary verb.
A Principal Verb is further classified into two types:
a. Transitive Verbs.
b. Intransitive Verbs.

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs: A verb that has Object of its own is called
transitive verb. Transitive verbs take a direct object while intransitive verbs do
not. Transitive verbs require direct objects to receive their action. Intransitive
verbs, however, can express action without a direct object, and as a result, they
can end a sentence without the sentence sounding incomplete.

Examples:

Transitive Verbs:
 I love my country Pakistan.
 They attended the meeting.
 Saleem fed the cat.
 Akhtar loves eating apples.
 We play football.

Intransitive Verbs:
 The wind blew.
 We played.
 The keys disappeared.
 The women cried bitterly.
 He ran fast.

11. WRITE A NOTE ON AUXILIARY OR HELPING VERBS.

Answer: A helping verb is a verb that precedes the main verb in a sentence. A
helping verb is also called an “auxiliary verb,” and words may or may not
separate a helping verb from the main verb. The main purpose of a helping verb
is to assist the main verb by providing it with a clearer meaning.
Helping verbs are important since they are needed to make up the structure of
a sentence. They are used to help the main verb.
Auxiliary Verbs: Helping verbs that add meaning to the clause where they are
being used are called auxiliary verbs (note that the terms helping verb and
auxiliary verb are often interchangeable). They are used to express tense or to
add emphasis. The three common auxiliary verbs have multiple forms: (P.T.O)

Handouts by WAQAR MAHMOOD KHAN (M.Phil. Linguistics, B.S Hons. English, M.A Education)
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 To be: am, is, are,  can  shall

was, were, be,  could  should
been  may  must
 To have: have, has,  might  ought to
had  will
 To do: do, does, did  would
Be, do, and have can be either stand alone or auxiliary verbs.
 I am having another piece of bread.
 Mom is preparing lunch for us now.
 I do not know about the matter.
 I have been running for more than an hour.
 Saleem was given the grand prize.

12. WRITE A NOTE ON GERUND AND INFINITIVES

Answer:
Gerund – A verb in its present participle form (-ing) which acts as a noun in a
sentence. It is also called as a verbal noun.
For example – "Smoking is injurious to health."

Infinitive – A verb in its base form preceded by the word "to".

Or ‘To+First Form of verb= Infinitive’
For example – "Stop to smoke as it is quite injurious."

In the example sentences above, both forms can be used, but the meanings are
not the same. "Smoking is injurious to health." means to quit the action of
smoking. "Stop to smoke." means stop an activity in progress for the purpose of
starting the action of smoking.

13. WRITE A NOTE ON ADVERBS. ALSO GIVE EXAMPLES.

Answer: An adverb is a part of speech that modifies verbs, adjectives, and other
adverbs. Most often, adverbs modify verbs. When adverbs modify verbs, they
describe the verb; much like an adjective modifies or describes a noun.

Examples: early, late, yesterday, fast, quickly, greatly, wonderfully,

magnificently, joyfully, quietly, wrongly, rarely.

14. WRITE A NOTE ADVERBS OF MANNER,PLACE & TIME

Answer:
Adverbs of Manner
Adverbs of manner express how something happens. In most cases for adverbs
of manner, we can take an adjective and simply add -ly to form an adverb. For
example, if you take the sentence – “The cat is quick (adjective).”

Handouts by WAQAR MAHMOOD KHAN (M.Phil. Linguistics, B.S Hons. English, M.A Education)
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Instead of describing a noun, an adverb describes or modifies a verb. In this

case, the noun is the word ‘cat’. Because adverbs describe verbs, we need to
add a verb in the sentence. For example, we can use the verb “to run” in this
form – “The cat runs quickly.”
Adverbs of manner tell us the way or how to do something. However, not all
adverbs end with -ly. For example, the words ‘fast’ and ‘well’ describe verbs but
do not end in -ly.

ADVERBS OF MANNER EXAMPLES:

 The cheetah runs quickly.
 She plays the music softly.
 The horse moved fast.
 He does the work well.

Adverbs of Place
Adverbs of Place describe “where” an action takes place. In addition, we
usually find adverbs of place after the main verb.
For example, “indoors”, “next week” and “still” all describe where something
happens. Again, we often find these adverbs of place after a verb in a sentence.

ADVERBS OF PLACE EXAMPLES:

 You will have to go outside.
 When the teacher entered the classroom, they sat down.
 I searched everywhere but I couldn’t find him.
 He walks downstairs to meet his elder brother.

Adverbs of Time:
As with all adverbs, they tell us more about the verb. For adverbs of time, they
tell us when the verb happened or will happen. For example, “afterwards”,
“every day” and “recently’ are adverbs of time and describe “when”.
On the other hand, adverbs of time can describe the duration of an event
occurs. Also, it can show when an action is complete.

ADVERBS OF TIME EXAMPLES:

 We’ll go to the Eid Milan party tomorrow.
 Yesterday, we played in the cricket tournament.
 She’ll eventually finished self-study and went to the university.
 They ate chips and watched cartoon all day.

15. DEFINE PREPOSITION & ITS TYPES WITH EXAMPLES

Answer: Preposition is a word used to link nouns, pronouns, or phrases to other

words within a sentence. They act to connect the people, objects, time and
locations of a sentence. Prepositions are usually short words, and they are
normally placed directly in front of nouns.
Examples: in, on, under, at, across, beyond, above, below, to, towards
Handouts by WAQAR MAHMOOD KHAN (M.Phil. Linguistics, B.S Hons. English, M.A Education)
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Type of Prepositions
Prepositions of Time
Basic examples of time prepositions include: at, on, in, before and after. They
are used to help indicate when something happened, happens or will happen. It
can get a little confusing though, as many different prepositions can be used.
Prepositions of time examples in the following sentences are in bold for easy
identification.
For example:
 Aslam was born on January 4th, 2009.
 He was born in 2004.
 He came at exactly 2 am.
 I was born after the Great War ended.

Prepositions of Place
To confuse matters a bit, the most common prepositions to indicate time – on,
at, in – are also the most common prepositions to indicate position. However,
the rules are a little clearer as place prepositions are a more rigid concept than
time prepositions. Prepositions of place examples in the following sentences
are in bold and underlined for easy identification.

 The cat is on the table.

 The biscuits are there in the small cabinet.
 We can meet at the restaurant.

Prepositions of Agent
These indicate someone or something that does an action on the subject of the
sentence. The action is always a passive verb. The Prepositions of Agent are:
 by
 with

Examples:
 He was hit by a ball.
 This book is written by Shahid.
 The jug is filled with water.

16. DEFINE INTERJECTION WITH EXAMPLES

Answer: An interjection is a part of speech that shows an expression, emotion,

or sudden action. Many interjections are followed by an exclamation mark.
Examples:
 Wow! What a wonderful shot.
 Bravo! Keep it up!
 Hurrah! I’ve won the match.
 Hey! What wring is with you?
 Good afternoon!
Handouts by WAQAR MAHMOOD KHAN (M.Phil. Linguistics, B.S Hons. English, M.A Education)
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 Alas! They have failed.

 What should I do O God Aghast!

17. GIVE A BASIC INTRODUCTION TO CLAUSES & ITS TWO TYPES

Answer: Clause
A clause is a group of words consisting of a subject (often just a single noun)
and a predicate (sometimes just a single verb).Clauses are of two types i.e.
Dependent and Independent clauses. All independent clauses are complete
sentences in English
Example:
The boy ran through the courtyard.
Subject: The boy
Predicate: ran through the courtyard
An independent clause is a group of words that can stand on its own as a
sentence: it has a subject, a verb, and is a complete thought.
Examples:
 He ran. (Notice that while this sentence only contains two words, it
is still a complete sentence because it contains a one word subject
and a one word predicate that is also a complete thought.)
 He ran fast.
 I was late to work.
 The paper does not specify which type of format it must be in.
 The instructor spent the class period reviewing the difference
between independent and dependent clauses.
A dependent clause is a group of words that also contains a subject and
a verb, but it is not a complete thought. Because it is not a complete
thought, a dependent clause cannot stand on its own as a sentence; it is
dependent on being attached to an independent clause to form a
sentence.
Examples:
 Because I woke up late this morning… (what happened?)
 When we arrived in class… (what occurred?)
 If my neighbour does not pay his rent on time… (what will
happen?)
Dependent clauses can often be identified by words called dependent
markers, which are usually subordinating conjunctions. If a clause
begins with one of these words, it is dependent and needs to be attached
to an independent clause. (Common dependent markers: after, as,
although, because, before, even though, if, once, rather than, since, that,
though, unless, until, when, whenever, whereas, while, among others.)

18. WHAT IS A CONJUNCTION? DISCUSS ITS TYPES WITH EXAMPLES

Answer: A conjunction is a part of speech that is a joiner or connector for

words, phrases or clauses in a particular sentence.
Handouts by WAQAR MAHMOOD KHAN (M.Phil. Linguistics, B.S Hons. English, M.A Education)
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There are three basic types of conjunctions, which we'll discuss in

detail below.
Coordinating Conjunctions:
Coordinating conjunctions are one-word connectors that sit
between the two words, clauses or phrases they're connecting.
There are seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, nor, for,
so, yet.
These conjunctions join equal parts. For instance, this could
mean joining two nouns (bread and butter), or it could mean
joining two clauses
 Aleena forgot her breakfast, so her mom brought it.
Correlative Conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are words that join forces with other words to make
connections. So, they come in pairs, such as both/and, either/or, neither/nor,
not only/but also. As with coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions
also join equal parts.
For instance, there might be a phrase after each half of the conjunction, as in
'Mom's keys were neither on the table nor under the sofa.' Or there might be an
adjective after each half of the conjunction, as in
'Ahmad's new coat was both warm and stylish.’

Subordinating Conjunctions
A subordinating conjunction is used to link a subordinate clause (also known as
a dependent clause) to the main clause (also known as an independent clause).
In each example below, the main clause is in bold, and the subordinating
conjunction is shaded.

 She left early because Saleem arrived late.

 Keep your hand on the wound until the nurse asks you to take it off.

A List of Common Subordinating Conjunctions

Here is a list of common subordinating conjunctions:

after in order that though

although in the event that until
as just in case when
as soon as now that whenever
because once where
before only if whereas
by the time provided that wherever
even if rather than whether
even though since whether or not
every time so that while
if than why
in case that

Handouts by WAQAR MAHMOOD KHAN (M.Phil. Linguistics, B.S Hons. English, M.A Education)
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19. WHAT IS AN ARTICLE?

DIFFERENTIATE DEFINITE & INDEFINITE ARTICLES.
Answer: Articles are actually adjectives because they describe the nouns that
they precede. In English, there are only three articles: the, a, and an. However,
the three are not interchangeable; rather, they are used in specific instances.

Indefinite articles (a and an)

In English, a and an are indefinite articles, which means that they don't refer to
anything definite or specific. If someone were to say, "Give me an apple," you
might be inclined to run out and pick one from the tree outside, or you may
even run to the store and buy one. By using the word an, the speaker has let
you know that he or she is looking for any apple rather than a specific one.
The same can be said for the article a. If someone told you there's a dog on the
road, you would probably want to go out and save it before a car came by.
Furthermore, you would know it's not your best friend's dog because the
speaker chose to use the word a rather than call the pooch by name. Hence, it's
understood that the dog on the road is one of the millions of dogs in the world
and is therefore not specific.

How do I know which one to use?

That's a very good question. Fortunately, the answer is quite simple. It's
about listening to the words you're using. The rule for indefinite article usage is
as follows:
 Use a before nouns (or adjectives) that start with a consonant sound.
 Use an before nouns (or adjectives) that start with a vowel sound.
Example: Please give the dog a cookie.
(The noun cookie starts with a consonant sound, so a must be used.)
Example: Please give the dog a delicious cookie.

That's an old car. (In this case, the word after the article is old, which starts
with a vowel sound. Consequently, we must use an.)
Remember that you're listening here. This isn't about the letter c or d being a
consonant or the letter o being a vowel; it's about the sound they make (i.e.,
vowel sound or consonant sound). Here's another example that might help you
understand:
 I need to work for an hour before we go to dinner.

You might think that because the indefinite article comes before a consonant,
our English editing experts should be using a, but think for a moment about the
sound that the word hour makes. It's actually pronounced like the possessive
pronoun our, which starts with the o vowel sound. Therefore, because we're
starting with a vowel sound (regardless of whether the first letter is actually a
consonant), we must use an. The same is true for the opposite (i.e., a vowel
that makes a consonant sound):

Handouts by WAQAR MAHMOOD KHAN (M.Phil. Linguistics, B.S Hons. English, M.A Education)
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A union
The word may start with a u, but think for a minute about the sound that the
word makes: you-nion. We know that y is a consonant, so consequently we
must use a. Here are a few more tricky ones to keep your eye on:
A university (again, the you sound made by a vowel)
An x-ray (a consonant making the ex sound, which, you'll notice, starts with
the e vowel sound)
A European (again we see the y sound coming from a vowel)

The definite article (the)

There is only one definite article in the English language (the). The is used in
front of singular or plural nouns and adjectives to refer to something with
which both the speaker/writer and listener/reader are familiar. For example, if
you're bouncing a basketball at school, your friend might say, "Give
me the ball." In this case, both you and your friend recognize that there is only
one specific ball being referred to, and that's the one you're bouncing. Your
friend doesn't want a ball (meaning any ball); he or she wants the ball that
you're holding.
If you introduce a word with a or an, you may use the anytime thereafter
because the introduction has made both the speaker/writer and listener/reader
familiar with the word. Here's an example:
Example: Aqsa bought a book yesterday. She read the first three pages when
she got home and decided to return the book because it was boring.

20. WHAT IS DIALOGUE WRITING?

Answer: A dialogue is a literary technique in which writers employ two or more
characters to be engaged in conversation with one another. In literature, it is a
conversational passage, or a spoken or written exchange of conversation in a
group, or between two persons directed towards a particular subject.

21. WRITE A DIALOGUE BETWEEN A DOCTOR AND A PATIENT

Answer: Dialogue about fever and sore throat
Patient: Good evening doctor.
Doctor: Good evening. You look pale and your voice is out of tune.
Patient: Yes doctor. I’m running a temperature and have a sore throat.
Doctor: Lemme see.
(He touches the forehead to feel the temperature.)
Doctor: You’ve moderate fever.
(He then whips out a thermometer.)
Patient: This thermometer is very different from the one you used the last time.
(Unlike the earlier one which was placed below the tongue, this one snapped
around one of the fingers.)
Doctor: Yes, this is a new introduction by medical equipment companies. It’s
much more convenient, as it doesn’t require cleaning after every use.
Patient: That’s awesome.

Handouts by WAQAR MAHMOOD KHAN (M.Phil. Linguistics, B.S Hons. English, M.A Education)
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Doctor: Yes it is.

(He removes the thermometer and looks at the reading.)
Doctor: Not too high – 99.8.
(He then proceeds with measuring blood pressure.)
Doctor: Your blood pressure is fine.
(He then checks the throat.)
Doctor: It looks bit scruffy. Not good.
Patient: Yes, it has been quite bad.
Doctor: Do you get sweating and shivering?
Patient: Not sweating, but I feel somewhat cold when I sit under a fan.
Doctor: OK. You’ve few symptoms of malaria. I would suggest you undergo
blood test. Nothing to worry about. In most cases, the test come out to be
negative. It’s just precautionary, as there have been spurt in malaria cases in
the last month or so.
(He then proceeds to write the prescription.)
Doctor: I’m prescribing three medicines and a syrup. The number of dots in
front of each tells you how many times in the day you’ve to take them. For
example, the two dots here mean you’ve to take the medicine twice in the day,
once in the morning and once after dinner.
Doctor: Do you’ve any other questions?
Patient: No, doctor. Thank you.

22. HOW TO WRITE AND DELIVER AN EFFECTIVE PRESENTATION?

Answer: Most people are more afraid of public speaking than of death itself. In
fact, research shows that public speaking is in fact one of the most common
forms of social anxiety.
Regardless of your reason for giving a presentation, your main goal is to ensure
that the message you seek to convey is presented in a clear, understandable
and thought-provoking way. For some this may come naturally, but for most,
public speaking conjures up feelings of insecurity. However, all is not lost; the
challenge of facilitating great presentations can be overcome (or at least
lessened) with these 10 tips.
1. Keep it simple.
Try to keep your presentation straightforward and to the point. Fancy talks,
loads of facts and figures and complicated sentences can overwhelm both you
and your audience. They will fidget, zone out or go to sleep. If you keep it
simple, your audience is more apt to grasp the message you are trying to
transmit.
2. Stick to three points.
To avoid overwhelming your audience with too much information, narrow your
presentation down to no more than main three points. State the three points at
the beginning of your presentation and then reiterate the points at the end.
Even if they forget most of what you said, they will remember the three points.
1. Surround yourself with happy, positive people;
2. Never stop learning;
3. And keep an open mind.
Handouts by WAQAR MAHMOOD KHAN (M.Phil. Linguistics, B.S Hons. English, M.A Education)
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3. Engage your audience.

The best presentations engage the audience so come up with ways to make
them feel involved. Pose questions. Ask for their points of view, or use them to
help with your demonstration. People have short attention spans so try to do
something interactive every seven to 10 minutes.
4. Use visuals.
Confucius said, “I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I
understand.” A flat presentation, where you speak all the time, will not be as
effective as one where you use visuals or as memorable as one where you
engage the audience. Use pictures, animations, charts, graphs or even real-life
objects to emphasize and illustrate your point. Try to stay away from a
multitude of bullet points in your presentation. For example, when I give a
dining etiquette presentation, I pass around unique pieces of antique
silverware.
5. Be honest.
Before you can effectively present any information, you first need to be
passionate about your subject matter. If you aren’t, your audience members
will lose interest, which will make them lose confidence in you as a presenter
and the information you are trying to convey.
6. Move around.
Get out from behind the lectern to bring vibrancy to your presentation. Be
spontaneous, move around the stage, or walk into the audience area. Don’t be
afraid to look each person in the eye. If for some reason you cannot be mobile,
use your hands, facial expressions and gestures to make your point visually
appealing. The larger the audience, the larger your gestures should be.
7. Share stories.
To keep boredom at bay, call upon your own experiences to make things
interesting. Pepper your message with your personal stories. Your audience will
better relate to your message, and remember it to a greater degree.
8. Be conversational.
The best speeches are given in a conversational tone. Try not to lecture your
audience. Even if the subject matter is dry, use real-life examples to keep your
presentation interesting.
9. Consult an expert.
The quality and tone of your voice will impact your presentation, either
positively or negatively. Take a course in public speaking. Hire a vocal coach.
Or watch videos on how to become a better speaker. Audiotape or videotape
your presentation, and review it carefully to see where you can improve.
10. Practice makes perfect.
Whether you are an expert or an amateur, you can never practice too much.
Even the most seasoned speakers rehearse before every presentation. Rehearse
in front of a mirror or before other people. Get feedback and adjust your
material and technique accordingly.
11. Q/A Session.
Ensure that you have a Question-Answer session at the end of the presentation.

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23. WRITE A NOTE ON THE CONCEPTS OF FORMER & LATTER

Answer:
 Former is the element that appears prior or earlier in a sentence.
 Latter is the element that appears later on or afterwards in a sentence
Example: Quaid-e-Azam and Allama Iqbal both carried out productive steps
for the creation of Pakistan. Former was our founder and latter a great
thinker.
Former=Quaid-e-Azam (as our founder).
Latter=Allama Iqbal (as a great thinker).

24. WRITE A NOTE ON DENOTATION AND CONNOTATION

Answer:
Denotation is the literal, objective or dictionary meaning of a word.
Whereas, connotation is the subjective, associated or cultural meaning of a
word.
Example: Snake
 A scaly, legless, poisonous reptile (Denotative meaning)
 Deceiver, cheater (Connotative meaning of a snake)

Example: Duck
 A small wild or domesticated swimming bird.(Denotative meaning)
 A score of nothing by a batsman. (Connotative meaning in cricket)
 Symbol of innocence in society. (Connotative meaning of duck)

25. WHAT IS FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE? DISCUSS ITS IMPORTANCE.

Answer: A figure of speech is a word or phrase that possesses a separate
meaning from its literal definition. It can be a metaphor or simile, designed to
make a comparison.
26. WRITE A NOTE ON ONOMATOPOEIA
Answer: The word onomatopoeia comes from the combination of two Greek
words, onoma meaning "name" and poiein meaning "to make," so
onomatopoeia literally means "to make a name (or sound)." That is to say that
the word means nothing more than the sound it makes. The word boing, for
example, is simply a sound effect, but one that is very useful in making writing
or storytelling more expressive and vivid.
Many onomatopoeic words can be verbs as well as nouns. Slap, for instance, is
not only the sound that is made by skin hitting skin but also the action of
hitting someone (usually on the face) with an open hand. Rustle is the sound of
something dry, like paper, brushing together, but it can also indicate the action
of someone moving papers around and causing them to brush together, thus
making this noise.
The words ‘barking, sizzling, splashing, sprinkling, drizzling, buzz, cuckoo,
meow’ are all examples of onomatopoeia.

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27. WRITE A NOTE ON METAPHOR AND SIMILE

Answer: A simile is a figure of speech that is used for comparison between
two unlikely things by the use of words: like and as.
For example:
 As shining as a star.
 As light as a feather.
 As brave as a lion.
 As tall as a giraffe.
Whereas, A metaphor is a figure of speech that is used for direct comparison
between two unlikely things without the use of words of comparison.
For example:
 The computers at school are old dinosaurs.
 He is a night owl.
 Maria is a chicken.
 Salman is a lion.

28. WRITE A NOTE ON METONYMY.GIVE EXAMPLES

Answer: It is a literacy device in which one representative stands in for
something else.
Examples: In the example below, crown stands for the whole kingdom of a king
including his crown, palace, perks, ministers, etc.
 The king was deprived of his crown.
Other Examples
 The pen(thought or reason) is mightier than the sword.(Warfare)
 Islamabad(Metonym for Pakistan’s leadership)met Ankara(Turkey)

29. WRITE A NOTE ON IMAGERY.GIVE EXAMPLES.

Answer: Imagery is a descriptive language used to appeal to a reader’s or
listener’s senses. i.e., touch, taste, smell, so und and sight.
Examples: He drank water on a day in summer. (Simple)
 The icy cool, refreshing water quenched his extreme thirst as the
scorching summer sun radiated on him.(Imagery used)

Other Examples of Imagery

 The lake was left shivering by the touch of morning wind.
 He felt like the flowers were waving him hello.

30. WRITE A NOTE ON PERSONIFICATION

Answer: Personification
In this, we personify or represent a non-human entity as human. We give an
inanimate object or an intangible idea of some human qualities such as emotions,
or gestures or even speech. This is done to portray the object as alive and help

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the listener or reader paint a vivid picture. Again, if we take the words at their
literal meaning they will sound absurd.
Examples of Personification
 “Time ran away from him”.
 “Fluttering and dancing in the breeze” (Daffodils)
 “The boat danced in the puddle”,
 “The car died in the middle of the road” etc.

31. WRITE A NOTE ON HYPERBOLE

Answer: Hyperbole
Hyperbole in the Greek language translates to ‘excess’. And that is what it does, it
exaggerates. We use hyperboles to emphasize the importance or the overstate
something. This exaggerates claims and statements are never meant to be taken
at their literal meaning. They are used to create a strong and lasting impression
Examples of Hyperbole
 “Since he has been away from home he has gotten as thin as a toothpick“.
Obviously, he has not gotten as thin as a toothpick, we only exaggerate to
emphasize on how thin he has become.
 “For the millionth time, clean the kitchen”,
 “His grandfather is older than the hills”.
 “I have told you thousands of times.”

32. DIFFERENTIATE B/W DESCRIPTIVE & PRESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR

Answer: Descriptive grammar is the approach to grammar that is concerned
with describing the usage of language by native or non-native speakers without
reference to proposed norms of correctness or advocacy of rules based on such
norms.
Prescriptive grammar, on the other hand, is an approach to grammar that is
concerned with establishing norms of correct and incorrect usage and
formulating rules based on these norms to be followed by users of the
language.
 Descriptive Grammar is use-based, whereas Prescriptive is rule-based.
 Descriptive Grammar is flexible in nature, whereas Prescriptive isn’t.
 Descriptive Grammar is not static whereas Prescriptive is
static/stationary.

Examples:
 They aren’t not coming.(Correct according to Descriptivists)
 They aren’t coming (Correct according to Prescriptivists)

 I asked the shopkeeper to place the item into the shopper(Correct

according to Descriptivists)
 I asked the shopkeeper to place the items into the shopping bag(Correct
according to Prescriptivists)

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33. GIVE AN INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Answer: Being able to communicate effectively is perhaps the most important

of all life skills. It is what enables us to pass information to other people, and to
understand what is said to us. You only have to watch a baby listening intently
to its mother and trying to repeat the sounds that she makes to understand
how fundamental is the urge to communicate.

Definition of Communication, at its simplest, is the act of transferring

information from one place to another. It may be vocally (using voice), written
(using printed or digital media such as books, magazines, websites or emails),
visually (using logos, maps, charts or graphs) or non-verbally (using body
language, gestures and the tone and pitch of voice). In practice, it is often a
combination of several of these.
Communication skills may take a lifetime to master—if indeed anyone can ever
claim to have mastered them. There are, however, many things that you can do
fairly easily to improve your communication skills and ensure that you are able
to transmit and receive information effectively.

34. DISCUSS THE IMPORTANCE OF GOOD COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Answer: Developing your communication skills can help all aspects of your life,
from your professional life to social gatherings and everything in between.
The ability to communicate information accurately, clearly and as intended, is a
vital life skill and something that should not be overlooked. It’s never too late
to work on your communication skills and by doing so, you may well find that
you improve your quality of life.
Communication skills are needed in almost all aspects of life:
Professionally, if you are applying for jobs or looking for a promotion with your
current employer, you will almost certainly need to demonstrate good
communication skills.
Communication skills are needed to speak appropriately with a wide variety of
people whilst maintaining good eye contact, demonstrate a varied vocabulary
and tailor your language to your audience, listen effectively, present your ideas
appropriately, write clearly and concisely, and work well in a group. Many of
these are essential skills that most employers seek.

Examples of Communications Skills

Does your typical day look like this?

All these are examples of communication skills.

 You share quality time, chit-chatting with your family before you leave for
work;
 you use an app to call a cab as your car is in the garage;

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 catch the news on your tablet in the cab

 then you attend a slew of meetings at the office;
 reply to a flood of emails;
 video-conference with clients on another continent;
 let your smart phone order you lunch.
POETRY
35. SUMMARIZE THE POEM NEW YEAR RESOLUTIONS
(Elizabeth Sewell)

I will drain
Long draughts of quiet
As a purgation;

Remember
Twice daily
Who I am;

Will lie o' nights

In the bony arms
Of Reality and comforted
Answer:Summary:

In this poem, the poetess, Elizabeth Sewell, has made an extraordinary

resolution to make herself a better woman by facing and living with reality in
the start of the New Year. New Year is generally understood as starting of a
new chapter of one’s life. People make resolution by taking stock of their lives
and resolving to be better ones. Socrates, the great Greek philosopher, is
reported to have said that un-examined life is not worthy of living and it is
almost a tradition with the sensible and reasonable people to take stock of their
life and to resolve to be better people, at the start of the new year.
So, the poetess has decided to live with reality in the New Year. Reality is not
always comfortable but pinching and disturbing. The use of the image “bony
arms” points to this fact. But the poetess is resolute and will draw comfort
fulfilling her resolution. The phrase ‘draining of long droughts is linked with
drinking wine but the poetess intends to drink calmness and thinks it necessary
for cleansing herself. It is quite natural and true that in loneliness and quiet
one can examine one’s life honestly. It is a self-criticism. Life examined
critically purifies one for better future life.

OR

This is a brief and interesting poem by Elizabeth Sewel. She tells us about her
resolutions on the start of a new year. Instead of celebrating and rejoicing, she

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is planning to be more serious and philosophical on New year's day. She tells
us that she would make some resolution on the new year. She told us about her
promises for the future year.

Her first resolution is to purify her soul. She will remain quiet and serious in the
coming year. Silence and quietness will purify her soul and will wash away her
sins. She uses a simile that she will drink long droughts of quietness. In this
way, she gives us an impression that she will not indulge in worldly affairs and
will satisfy herself with what nature gives to her. This is really an innovative
and untraditional resolution.

Her 2nd resolution is to remove her all shortcomings and bad things. She says
that she will carefully examine her own soul. She will identify and remove her
drawbacks and evil things to purify her soul.

The poetess makes another resolution that she will face reality. She will be
more realistic and accepting. She will lead a simple and humble life. She will
not feel proud of his beauty and riches.

Reality is bitter. But the poetess makes a resolution to accept it as it is. She
says that she will lie on the bony arms of the reality. This is a good simile the
poetess has used in the poem. She is trying to convey us an inspiring message
that we should face the reality with all its bitterness and try to seek comfort in
it.

The tone of the poetess suggests that she is willing to fulfill her new year's
resolutions at any cost. Her resolutions seem to be unrealistic and inapplicable
but she seems to be determined. The poem looks like imagery far away from
reality. In real life, we are still not willing to make such
extraordinary resolutions.

"New Year Resolutions" By Elizabeth Sewell (Reference to the Context)

Reference:
These lines have been taken from the poem “New Year Resolutions”, composed
by Elizabeth Sewell.
Context:
This poem is about the new year resolutions and promises. Another year has
lapsed. On the start of the new year, the poetess takes stock of herself very
realistically. She tries to make this world a better place by making new pledges.
Her untraditional resolution is to face and lie with reality.
Lines 1 – 3
Explanation:
In these lines the poetess describes her mental state and the way she would
drink to purify her soul. She says that she will drink wine at night secretly. She
will have long draughts during night and will purge herself from all kinds
of evils. This will assist her in helping other people because her own mind and
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spirit will be free from all types of evils. “Long draughts of Quiet” also suggests
that she will keep quiet most of time. This will be the best means for the
purification of her soul and it will help her in leading beneficial and
successful life. She says; she will talk less and hear more and mould her life into
betterment.
Lines 4 – 6
In the given lines Elizabeth says, she will remember herself twice daily, in the
evening and in the morning. She will take into consideration what her aim of
creation is. She will try to understand the purpose of life in general.
Perhaps she means that she should recognize herself, which will help her in
recognizing God and leading life for benefit of others.
Lines 7 – 9
These are concluding lines of the poem. Here, the poetess says she will accept
reality. While, sleeping at night, she will consider the bitter reality of life.
During the New Year she will make some promises and pledges. She will sleep
on thin, less-fleshy arms of reality. Accepting reality and facts is always a
difficult thing, but she will accept it bravely. She will feel relieved and satisfied,
when she comes to know that she has spent her life for the benefit of others.
The image of bony arms is a hard reality. Even then she will get delight and
feel comforted when she has fulfilled her promises and resolutions, she has
made on the start of the New Year.

36. WRITE A NOTE ON THE USE OF DICTIONARY

Answer: A book or mobile application that gives us the literal or objective

meaning of words is known as a dictionary.
The use of dictionary keeps a prime significance particularly for those who wish
to update their understanding of English. It is basically a book where we look
up the meanings of words.
In the modern era, traditional book dictionaries have been replaced by digital
/talking dictionaries which can easily be installed in our Android smartphones,
IOS devices and laptops. Examples of famous dictionaries include: Merriam
Websters, Oxford, Cambridge, Collins, etc.

37. DIALOGUE BETWEEN A CUSTOMER AND BOOKSELLER

Answer: Book Seller: Good Morning. May I Help You, Please?
Customer: Yes I Want To Buy Some Books.
Book Seller: There Are Different Kinds Of Books Here. What Type Of Books Do
You Want?
Customer: I Want Story Books For The Children.
Book Seller: Yes, I Want To Buy Children’s Book.
Book Seller: You’ll Find Children’s Book in Those Selves. Anyhow, I Am Bringing
Them To You. They Are Very Popular Among The Children.
Customer: Please, Bring.
Book Seller: Here Are The Books.
Customer: How Much Do They Cost?
Handouts by WAQAR MAHMOOD KHAN (M.Phil. Linguistics, B.S Hons. English, M.A Education)
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Book Seller: Two Hundred.

Customer: Here Is The Money.
Book Seller: Thank You. Please, Visit Us Next Time.
Customer: You’re Most Welcome. Sure, Bye.

38. HOW TO WRITE A COVERING LETTER FOR A JOB?

The Managing Director,
Samsung Electronics,
Lahore Headquarters,
Pakistan.

Subject: Application for Job under advertisement no. SY23778N, dated 9th
May,2019
Respected Sir,
I am writing this letter with reference to your advertisement no.
SY23778N, published in Daily Dawn on 9th May, 2019 for the post of Hardware
Technician. I fulfil the eligibility criteria mentioned in the advertisement.
Additionally, I have worked for 3 years in the relevant field at LG Electronics,
Islamabad division. My areas of interest include mobile maintenance, chipset,
transistors, etc.
All my testimonials including my CV are hereby attached with this
application. I do hope that I’ll be considered for the said post on priority basis.
Thanking you in anticipation,
Truly,
Hamid Khan,
Contact no, ____________
Dated: ______________

39. DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN PROSE AND POETRY

BASIS FOR PROSE POETRY

COMPARISON
Meaning Prose is a straight forward Poetry is that form of
form of literature, wherein literature in which the poet
the author expresses his uses a unique style and
thoughts and feelings in a rhythm, to express intense
lucid way experience.
Language Straight Forward Expressive or Decorated
Nature Pragmatic Imaginative
Essence Message or information Experience
Purpose To provide information or to To delight or amuse.
convey a message.

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Ideas Ideas can be found in Ideas can be found in lines,

sentences, which are which are arranged in
arranged in paragraph. stanzas.
Line break No Yes

40. GIVE THE BASIC DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VOWELS & CONSONANTS

The main difference between vowels and consonants lies in their articulation;
a vowel is articulated with an open vocal tract whereas a consonant is
articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract.

Comparison between Vowels and Consonants:

Vowels Consonants
Meaning The alphabets a, e, i, o, and u Consonants are all the other
are called as vowels in the alphabets of the English
English language. At times, language, except the vowels.
the alphabet 'y' is also
considered as a vowel.

Phonetics They are the speech sounds They are the speech sounds
made with the mouth open made by either totally
and tongue in the middle, stopping the flow of air
while ensuring that it doesn’t exhaled out from the mouth,
touch the teeth, lips, etc. or by partially stopping it.

Number There are five vowels in all. There are 21 consonants in

the English language.
Applicable Vowels always have to be Consonants have no such
rule preceded by the word ‘an’, rule.
instead of 'a', 'the', 'they', etc.
Example of There is an owl on that tree. There is an owl on that tree.
usage

41. GIVE AN INTRODUCTION TO REPORT WRITING:

Report writing is the creation of a structured document that precisely
describes, and examines an event or occurrence. A report is a document that is
short, sharp and specially written for a particular audience and purpose.
Examples: Report to the editor of a newspaper on Rash Driving. Report to the
Editor of newspaper expressing your take on the evil of selling food exposed to
the flies.
42. WRITE DOWN THE IMPORTANCE OF REPORT WRITING:
Report writing plays an important role in our life, business, commerce and
trade. Actually it helps to find out the root of a problem to solve that. By the
way, it contains its importance for its own special features. And such

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importance can be understood through the following main points:

1. Decision Making Tool: Today's complex business organizations require
thousands of information. Reports provide the required information. A large
number of important decisions in business or any other areas are taken on the
basis of information presented in the report.
2. Investigation: Whenever there is any problem, a committee or commission or
study group investigate the problem to find out the reason behind the problem
and present the fount output with or without the recommendation in the form
of a report.
3. Evaluation: Large scale organizations are engaged in multidimensional
activities. It is not possible for a single top executive to keep personal watch on
what others are doing.
4. Development of Skill: Report writing skill develops the power of designing,
Organization co-ordination, judgement and communication. Therefore such skill
acts as a catalyst.
5. Neutral Presentation of Facts: Facts are required to be presented in a neutral
way. Such presentation is ensured through a report as it investigates, explains
and evaluates and much more about any fact independently.
6. Professional Advancement: Report also plays a major role in professional
progress and advancement. For promotion to the rank and file position,
satisfactory job performance is enough to help a person. Such ability can be
expressed through the report submitted to higher authority.
7. Proper Control: Whether activities are happening according to plan or not is
expressed through a report. So, controlling such activities are implemented
based on the information of a report.
8. A Managerial Tool: Various reports make activities easy for the managers. For
planning, organizing, coordinating, motivating and controlling, a manger may
find help from a report which acts as a source of information.

Content: The Rain (Poem)

I hear leaves drinking rain;

I hear rich leaves on top
Giving the poor beneath
Drop after drop;
Tis a sweet noise to hear
These green leaves drinking near.
And when the Sun comes out,
After this Rain shall stop,
A wondrous Light will fill
Each dark, round drop;
I hope the Sun shines bright;
It will be a lovely sight.

Handouts by WAQAR MAHMOOD KHAN (M.Phil. Linguistics, B.S Hons. English, M.A Education)