1.Explain the structures of LED with diagrams.

LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) are critical components in fiber optic communication systems. To
effectively transmit signals, an LED must exhibit high radiance, fast emission response time, and
high quantum efficiency. Radiance measures the optical power radiated into a unit solid angle per
unit area of the emitting surface, which is essential for coupling sufficient optical power into a
fiber. The design of LED structures focuses on achieving these parameters through carrier and
optical confinement.

1. Double-Heterostructure LED:
A double-heterostructure (or heterojunction) LED is composed of a sandwich-like arrangement of
different semiconductor materials, as shown in Fig. 4.8. This design typically involves materials
like GaAs (Gallium Arsenide) and AlGaAs (Aluminum Gallium Arsenide).

The structure consists of a central active layer where the radiative recombination of carriers
(electrons and holes) occurs, producing light. The surrounding layers have different bandgap
energies, forming barriers that help confine the carriers (electrons and holes) within the active
region. This confinement increases the likelihood of radiative recombination, leading to higher
quantum efficiency.

The heterostructure design also provides optical confinement by ensuring that the refractive index
of the active layer is higher than the surrounding layers. This refractive index difference acts as a
waveguide, confining the emitted light within the active region and preventing absorption by
adjacent materials.

2.Surface-Emitting LEDs (Burrus or Front Emitters):

Surface-emitting LEDs have an active region that is oriented perpendicular to the axis of the optical
fiber (as depicted in Fig. 4.9). The light emitted from the active region is directed towards the fiber
by etching a well into the substrate. This configuration aligns the emitted light with the fiber core
for efficient coupling.

The active area is usually circular, with a diameter of about 50 µm and a thickness of up to 2.5 µm.
This allows for an isotropic emission pattern that is essentially Lambertian. A Lambertian emitter
has uniform brightness from all directions but decreases in intensity with the angle θ, following
the relation cos(θ). The power output drops to half at a viewing angle of 60°, resulting in a half-
power beamwidth of 120°.

The broad emission pattern makes surface-emitting LEDs suitable for coupling with multimode
fibers, which can accept light from various angles. However, this also means that surface emitters
have a relatively wider divergence compared to edge-emitting LEDs.

Edge-Emitting LEDs:
The edge-emitting LED, illustrated in Fig. 4.10, includes an active region with lightemitting
recombination and guiding layers that form a waveguide structure. These guiding layers are
designed to have a refractive index lower than the active region but higher than the surrounding
material, creating a waveguide effect.

This waveguide confines the emitted light and directs it towards the edge of the device, making it
more suitable for precise coupling with fiber cores. It is ideal for applications that require more
controlled emission and are typically used with multimode fibers that have core diameters between
50–100 µm.

The emission from edge-emitting LEDs is more directional than that from surface emitters. In the
plane parallel to the junction, the emission pattern remains Lambertian with a halfpower
beamwidth of about 120° (θ||). Perpendicular to the junction (θ ), the beamwidth can be made
narrower (around 25°–35°) by adjusting the thickness of the waveguide. This allows for better
control over the light direction, making edge-emitting LEDs efficient for applications that require
specific directional output.

2. Which are the light source materials?

In the context of optical communication, the semiconductor materials used for the active layers in
LEDs and laser diodes must have a direct bandgap. This property allows for efficient radiative
recombination, where electrons in the conduction band can directly combine with holes in the
valence band to emit photons, making them ideal for light emission.

Direct-bandgap semiconductors enable direct electron-hole recombination, releasing energy in the

form of photons without needing a third particle to conserve momentum. This results in high
radiative recombination efficiency.
The peak emission wavelength (λ) of the emitted light is related to the bandgap energy (Eg ) by the
equation: λ(μm)=1.240/Eg(eV) where Eg is in electron volts (eV).

Key Semiconductor Materials

Ternary Alloy Ga1−xAlxAs (Gallium Aluminum Arsenide):

Application Range: Emission between 800-900 nm, ideal for shorter-wavelength optical sources.
o Bandgap Control: The bandgap energy (Eg) can be adjusted by varying the composition x:
Eg(eV)=1.424+1.266x+0.266x2
For direct bandgap behavior (suitable for LEDs), x must be less than 0.37. For example, x=0.1
results in a bandgap of around 1.551 eV, leading to an emission wavelength of approximately 800-
850 nm.

Quaternary Alloy In1−xGaxAsyP1−y (Indium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide): o

Application Range: Emission between 1.0-1.7 µm, suitable for longer-wavelength sources like
those used in fiber-optic communications.
Bandgap Tuning: The values of x and y are adjusted to tailor the bandgap energy and emission
wavelength, allowing for precise control over the emission spectrum. o This material is commonly
referred to as InGaAsP and is used when longwavelength emissions are required.

Lattice Matching in Heterojunctions

In heterojunction designs, materials with matching lattice parameters are chosen to minimize
defects at the interface, reducing strain and improving the radiative efficiency and lifetime of the
light-emitting device.
For instance, Ga1−x AlxAs and In1−xGaxAsyP1−y can be paired with suitable substrates to form stable
heterostructures with minimized lattice mismatches.

3. Define quantum efficiency and LED power? write the relation between them.

Quantum Efficiency refers to the effectiveness with which a light-emitting diode (LED) converts
electrons into photons. It is a measure of how many photons are emitted per electron injected into
the LED. Quantum efficiency is divided into two types: internal quantum efficiency (ηint) and
external quantum efficiency (ηext).
Internal Quantum Efficiency (ηint):
ηint is defined as the fraction of electron-hole pairs that recombine radiatively within the active
region of the LED, generating photons.
It is expressed as:

where:
Rr : Rate of radiative recombination (electron-hole pairs that emit photons).
Rnr: Rate of nonradiative recombination (electron-hole pairs that do not emit photons). External
Quantum Efficiency (ηext):

ηext considers not only the internal radiative recombination but also how many of those photons
actually escape from the LED into the surrounding medium.

It accounts for factors like light absorption within the device and reflective losses at the surface.

LED Output Power

The output power (Popt) of an LED is the power of the light emitted externally from the LED. It
depends on the amount of radiative recombination inside the LED and the efficiency with which
the generated photons are extracted from the device.

The internal optical power (Pint) generated by the LED is given by:

where:
h: Planck's constant (6.626×10−34 J·s).
c: Speed of light (3×108 m/s).
I: Current flowing through the LED (A). q: Charge
of an electron (1.6×10−19 C).
λ: Emission wavelength (m).

The external output power (Popt) is related to the internal power by the external quantum
efficiency:

The output power of an LED is directly proportional to both the internal and external quantum
efficiencies. Higher quantum efficiency means more of the injected current is effectively converted
into light, resulting in greater output power. Therefore, optimizing ηint and ηext is critical for
improving the performance of LEDs.
4. What is LASR Diode, Modes and threshold Conditions?

Laser Diode: Principles of Operation

Laser diodes are semiconductor devices that emit highly monochromatic, directional, and coherent
light. They are a key component in optical fiber communication systems due to their ability to
couple light into optical fibers with high efficiency and fast response times. The operation of a
laser diode is based on three fundamental processes: photon absorption, spontaneous emission,
and stimulated emission, as shown in Fig. 4.16.

Photon Absorption (Fig. 4.16a):

When a photon with energy hν12 strikes an electron in its ground state (E1), the electron absorbs
the photon's energy and is excited to a higher energy level (E2).
Spontaneous Emission (Fig. 4.16b):
The excited electron in E2 will return to the ground state (E1E_1E1) without external stimulation,
releasing a photon of energy hν12. This emission occurs randomly in all directions.
Stimulated Emission (Fig. 4.16c):
If an external photon with energy hν12 interacts with an electron in its excited state (E2), the electron
is induced to drop to E1E_1E1, releasing another photon in phase with the incident photon. This
process forms the basis of laser operation.

For laser action to occur, the number of electrons in the excited state must exceed those in the
ground state, a condition known as population inversion. In semiconductor lasers, population
inversion is achieved through electron injection at the device contacts.

Modes and Threshold Conditions in Laser Diodes

Laser diodes operate within a Fabry-Perot resonator cavity, where light reflects back and forth
between two parallel, partially reflecting mirrors, as shown in Fig. 4.17. The cavity typically has the
following dimensions:

Longitudinal (length): 250–500 µm

Lateral (width): 5–15 µm

Transverse (thickness): 0.1–0.2 µm

The emitted light forms a vertical elliptical beam due to the difference in emission angles in the
lateral (θ∣∣) and transverse (θ⊥) dimensions. The lateral half-power beamwidth (θ∣∣) is typically 5°–10°,
while the transverse half-power beamwidth (θ⊥) is 30°–50°.

Fabry-Perot Resonator and Longitudinal Modes

The Fabry-Perot cavity in a laser diode consists of two parallel mirrors formed by cleaving the
semiconductor crystal along its natural planes, as illustrated in Fig. 4.18a. The mirrors provide
optical feedback, allowing the device to act as an oscillator by reinforcing light waves that meet
the resonance condition.
Resonance Condition:
Only wavelengths that are integer multiples of the cavity length undergo constructive
interference and are amplified. These wavelengths are called longitudinal modes, as they
resonate along the length of the cavity.
In Fig. 4.18b, the electric field of light inside the cavity interferes constructively at specific
wavelengths, while all other wavelengths interfere destructively.
Threshold Condition and Reflectivity
To achieve laser operation, the optical gain within the Fabry-Perot cavity must overcome losses
due to mirror reflectivity and other factors. The threshold condition is the point where the optical
gain equals the total losses in the cavity, resulting in continuous lasing.
Fig. 4.19 shows the behavior of resonant wavelengths at different mirror reflectivities
(R=0.4,0.7,0.9R = 0.4, 0.7, 0.9R=0.4,0.7,0.9). As the mirror reflectivity increases:
The resonance peaks become sharper, indicating stronger feedback.
The free spectral range (FSR), or the spacing between successive resonant peaks, becomes more
pronounced.

5. External effects and temperature effects of LASER Diodes.

The threshold current Ith(T) is a critical parameter in laser diodes, dictating the minimum current
needed for lasing action. This threshold current is notably influenced by temperature, as it tends to
increase with rising temperatures due to various semiconductor properties. The complexity of these
factors makes it difficult to derive a universal equation applicable to all devices across different
temperature ranges. However, an empirical expression can be used to approximate this
relationship:

Here:

Ith(T) is the threshold current at temperature T,

Iz is a constant specific to the laser diode,

T0 is the temperature coefficient that indicates how sensitively Ith varies with temperature.

For conventional GaAlAs laser diodes, the value of T0 typically ranges between 120 and 165 °C
near room temperature. For example, a GaAlAs laser diode with T0=135°C and Iz =52mA
demonstrates a threshold current increase by a factor of 1.4 when the temperature rises from 20 °C
to 60 °C. This results in a temperature dependence of 0.8% per °C.

In comparison, GaAlAs quantum-well heterostructure lasers exhibit a higher T0, sometimes as

much as 437 °C, resulting in a reduced threshold variation of 0.23% per °C. This lower temperature
sensitivity is beneficial for maintaining stable performance over a wide temperature range, making
these lasers suitable for demanding applications.

Aging Effects on Lasing Threshold

Beyond temperature influences, aging also affects the threshold current. As laser diodes age, their
lasing threshold may change, necessitating adjustments to the dc-bias current to sustain a constant
optical output power.

6. Explain Pin Photodetector and avalanche photo diode

6.1.1 The Pin Photodetector

The basic semiconductor photodetector is the pin photodiode, shown schematically in Fig. 6.1. The
structure of the pin photodiode consists of p and n regions separated by a very lightly n-doped
intrinsic (i) region.

In normal operation, a sufficiently large reverse-bias voltage is applied across the device through a
load resistor RL so that the intrinsic region is fully depleted of carriers. This means that the intrinsic
region has negligibly small carrier concentrations compared to the impurity concentration.
Fig. 6.1 a Representation of a pin photodiode circuit with an applied reverse bias. b An incident
optical power level decays exponentially inside the device

Photon Absorption in the Pin Photodiode

When photon flux penetrates the semiconductor material, photons are absorbed and converted into
charge carriers as they pass through the material.

Let:

Pin= Optical power at x = 0 (the surface of the photodetector)

P(x) = Power level at a distance x into the material

The incremental change in power dP(x) as the photon flux passes through an incremental distance
dx is given by:

dP(x)=−αs(λ)P(x)dx

where αs(λ) is the photon absorption coefficient at a wavelength λ.

Integrating this relationship gives the power level at a distance xx as:

P(x)=Pin exp(−αsx) (Equation 6.1)

Fig. 6.1 illustrates the power level as a function of penetration depth into the intrinsic region,
which has a width ww. The p-region is very thin, so little radiation is absorbed in that region. Most
of the radiation absorption and charge carrier generation occur in the intrinsic region.

Basics of Avalanche Photodiodes

Avalanche photodiodes (APDs) internally multiply the primary signal photocurrent before it
enters the input circuitry of the following amplifier. This multiplication action increases receiver
sensitivity because the photocurrent is multiplied before encountering the thermal noise
associated with the receiver circuit.
As shown in Fig. 6.5, photocurrent multiplication takes place when photon-generated carriers
traverse a multiplication region where a very high electric field is present. In this high-field region,
a photon-generated electron or hole can gain enough energy to ionize bound electrons in the valence
band upon colliding with them. This carrier multiplication mechanism is known as impact ionization.
The newly created carriers are also accelerated by the high electric field, causing further impact
ionization, resulting in the avalanche effect.

The multiplication M for all carriers generated in the photodiode is defined by:

where:

iM = Average value of the total multiplied output current

ip = Primary unmagnified photocurrent

The multiplication mechanism is a statistical process, as not every carrier pair experiences the same
multiplication. Therefore, M is an average value.

The responsivity of an APD is given by:

where R is the unity gain responsivity.

7.Explain the principle of operation of WDM with relevant block diagram.

10.1.1 WDM Operational Principles

Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is a technique where discrete wavelengths form an
orthogonal set of carriers that can be separated, routed, and switched without interfering with each
other. This channel isolation holds as long as the total optical power intensity is kept low to prevent
nonlinear effects such as stimulated Brillouin scattering and four-wave mixing from degrading the link
performance.
WDM networks require passive and active devices to combine, distribute, isolate, and amplify optical
power at different wavelengths:
• Passive devices require no external control and are used to split, combine, or tap optical signals.
• Active devices are electronically or optically controlled, providing network flexibility.
Examples include optical amplifiers, wavelength switches, and optical wavelength converters.
In Fig. 10.1, a typical WDM link contains:
• Multiplexers at the transmitting end to combine signals from several light sources onto a single
fiber.
• Demultiplexers at the receiving end to separate signals for detection and processing.
• Active devices such as optical amplifiers to compensate for power losses.

In Fig. 10.2, WDM operates across multiple regions from O-band to L-band. The spectral width is the
wavelength band occupied by the light signal, while the optical bandwidth is the frequency band
occupied by the light signal.
The relationship between wavelength and frequency is:
c=λν

Differentiating gives:

where ∣Δν∣ is the frequency deviation corresponding to ∣Δλ∣, the wavelength deviation around λ.

8.Explain Functions of optical isolators.

Optical isolators allow light to pass in only one direction, preventing scattered or reflected light from
traveling backward. One important application is to protect laser diodes from backward-traveling light,
which can cause instabilities in the laser's optical output.
Some optical isolators are based on the state of polarization (SOP) of the input light. However, these
designs lose 3 dB of power when passing unpolarized light, as half of the input signal is blocked. In
practical optical links, light is typically unpolarized, so the isolator should function independently of
SOP.
Figure 10.17 shows a polarization-independent isolator design. It consists of:
A 45° Faraday rotator
Two birefringent plates (walkoff polarizers) made of materials like YVO4 or TiO2

Forward Direction (Left to Right - Top of Fig. 10.17):

The first birefringent plate separates the light into ordinary and extraordinary rays.
The Faraday rotator rotates the polarization plane of each ray by 45°.
The rays pass through the second birefringent plate, maintaining their relationship, and are refracted in
parallel directions.

Reverse Direction (Right to Left - Bottom of Fig. 10.17):

The Faraday rotator reverses the relationship between the ordinary and extraordinary rays.
When the rays exit the left-hand birefringent plate, they diverge and are not coupled to the fiber.

Table 10.3 shows the operational characteristics of commercial optical isolators, which have similar
configurations to the tap coupler shown in Fig. 10.7.
9.Explain Characteristics of Optical Circulators.

An optical circulator is a nonreciprocal multiport passive device that directs light sequentially from
port to port in one direction only. It is used in various components such as optical amplifiers, add/drop
multiplexers, and dispersion compensation modules. The operation of an optical circulator is similar
to that of an isolator, but it has a more complex construction.

The circulator typically consists of walk-off polarizers, half-wave plates, and Faraday rotators, and it
usually has three or four input/output ports.

Three-Port Circulator (Fig. 10.18)

Port 1 input → Port 2 output

Port 2 input → Port 3 output

Port 3 input → Port 1 output

Commercial Circulators

Commercially available circulators have the following characteristics:

Low insertion loss

High isolation over a wide wavelength range

Minimal polarization-dependent loss (PDL)

Low polarization-mode dispersion (PMD)

Table 10.4 provides the operational characteristics of these circulators.

10.Explain fibre grating.

Grating Basics

A reflection grating consists of a periodic structure that separates light into different wavelengths by
constructive interference as shown in Fig 10.19.

• θi: Incident angle of light

• θd: Diffracted angle

• Λ: Grating period (distance between adjacent slits)

The grating equation for constructive interference at a wavelength λ is given by:

Λ(sinθi−sinθd)=mλ
where m is the grating order.

In most cases, only the first-order diffraction (m = 1) is considered. The grating equation shows that
different wavelengths are separated at different angles, allowing for wavelength discrimination.

Optical Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG)

A fiber Bragg grating (FBG) is a narrowband reflection filter constructed within an optical fiber. It
is commonly used in dense WDM systems to access specific wavelengths.

Advantages of FBG

• Simple packaging

• Low cost

• Low insertion loss (~0.3 dB)

• Polarization insensitivity

• Low temperature coefficient (<0.7 pm/°C)

Fabrication Process

The FBG is made through photo-imprinting in germanium-doped silica fibers, which are highly
sensitive to ultraviolet (UV) light. Exposing the fiber core to UV radiation causes a permanent change
in the core's refractive index, forming the Bragg grating.

In the external-writing technique, two UV beams intersect the fiber, creating an interference pattern
in the core.

• High-intensity regions increase the local refractive index.

• Zero-intensity regions remain unaffected.

This forms a permanent Bragg grating as shown in Fig 10.20, which reflects specific wavelengths
while transmitting others.

The refractive index modulation in the fiber core is given by:

Where:

• ncore is the refractive index of the unexposed core.

• δn is the induced change in the refractive index.

• Λ is the period of the grating (related to the interference pattern).

Bragg Condition

The Bragg reflection wavelength is given by:

λBragg=2Λneff
where Λ is the grating period and neff is the effective refractive index of the core.

Reflectivity and Bandwidth

The maximum reflectivity (Rmax) of an FBG depends on the grating length (L) and coupling
coefficient (κ):

Rmax=tanh2(κL)

The full bandwidth (Δλ) over which maximum reflectivity occurs is:

The full-width half-maximum (FWHM) bandwidth can be approximated by:

• s ≈ 1 for strong gratings with near 100% reflectivity.

• s ≈ 0.5 for weak gratings.

Coupling Coefficient

The coupling coefficient (κ) for a uniform sinusoidal index modulation is:

where η is the fraction of optical power in the core.

For a uniform grating, η can be approximated as:

η≈1−V−2
where V is the V-number of the fiber
11. Explain Dielectric Thin Film Filter

A dielectric thin-film filter (TFF) is used as an optical bandpass filter. This means that it allows a
particular very narrow wavelength band to pass straight through it and reflects all others. The basis
of these devices is a classical Fabry–Perot filter structure, which is a cavity formed by two parallel
highly reflective mirror surfaces, as shown in Fig. 10.23. This structure is called a Fabry–Perot
interferometer or an etalon. It also is known as a thin-film resonant cavity filter.

To see how it works, consider a light signal that is incident on the left surface S1 of the etalon. After
the light passes through the cavity and hits the inside surface S2 on the right, some of the light leaves
the cavity and some is reflected. The amount of light that is reflected depends on the reflectivity R of
the surface S2. If the roundtrip distance between the two mirrors is an integral multiple of a wavelength
λ (i.e., λ, 2λ, 3λ, etc.), then all the light at those wavelengths that pass through the right facet add in
phase. This means that these wavelengths interfere constructively in the device output beam so they
add in intensity. These wavelengths are called the resonant wavelengths of the cavity. The etalon rejects
all other wavelengths.
12. Explain diffraction grating.
WDM Applications of Diffraction Gratings
A diffraction grating is a conventional optical device that spatially separates the different wavelengths
contained in a beam of light. The device consists of a set of diffracting elements, such as narrow parallel
slits or grooves, separated by a distance comparable to the wavelength of light. These diffracting
elements can be either reflective or transmitting, thereby forming a reflection grating or a transmission
grating, respectively.
Reflection Gratings: These are fine-ruled or etched parallel lines on a reflective surface. When light
strikes the grating, it is reflected at an angle, and the angle of reflection depends on the wavelength of
light. The reflected light fans out into a spectrum. Each wavelength is reflected at a slightly different
angle, as shown in Fig. 10.32, allowing individual wavelengths to be directed to separate fibers.
Transmission Phase Gratings: These consist of a periodic variation in the refractive index of the
material. The grating is characterized by the Q-parameter, which is defined as:

where λ is wavelength, d is the thickness of the grating, ng is the refractive index of the material, Λ is
the grating period, and α is the incident angle, as shown in Fig. 10.33. The phase grating is called thin
for Q<1 and thick for Q>10. After a spectrum of wavelength channels passes through the grating, each
wavelength emerges at a slightly different angle and can be focused into a receiving fiber.