SCALARS AND VECTORS

2.0 Introduction
Apart from classifying physical quantities into fundamental, derived and supplementary quantities,
it can also be classified into either scalar or vector quantities. Scalar quantities are those quantities
that can be described completely by their magnitudes without directions. Examples are mass,
volume, area, power, time, distance, speed, density, work/energy, temperature, electric potential,
etc. Vector quantities are those quantities that can be described by their magnitudes and directions.
Examples are displacement, moment, torque, velocity, acceleration, magnetic induction, electric
force, momentum, impulse, electric field, weight, force, etc. Consider a man driving a car east
along a highway at 100km/h. What we have here is a vector. The car is moving at 100km/h
(magnitude) and eastward (direction). As an illustration, we can consider the difference between
speed and velocity. The velocity of a boat in motion is determined by a magnitude which is the
speed (scalar) and the direction of its motion.

2.1 Vector representation

A vector is represented by a boldface letter such as A or B or use of an arrow over a letter, such as
. The arrow head indicates the direction. The length of the line shows the magnitude of the vector
and the direction of the arrow shows the vector’s direction. The magnitude of the vector A is
written as |A|.

Figure 2.1: Vector representation

2.2 Components of vectors

A component is a projection of a vector along an axis. Any vector can be completely described by
its components. A single vector can be broken down into a number of vectors which when added
give that original vector. These vectors which sum to the original are called components of the
original vector. A unit vector is a vector that have a magnitude of one and at the same time have a
sense of direction. It describes a direction in space and has no other physical significance.
yj
Direction Symbol of representation
x i
xi y j
zk z k
Figure 2.2: Cartesian coordinate system

Vector components depends on the number of directions that a given vector has.
One-component vector: This is a vector that has only one direction. E.gs., A = 9i, B = 6j, C = -k,
etc.
Magnitude Direction
 9 i
6 j
-1 k
Two-component vectors: This is a vector that has two directions. E.gs., A = 3i + 4j, B = 8i – 6j,
C = 2i + 4k, etc.
8
A 4 6
B
3
Three-component vectors: This is a vector that has three directions. E.gs., A = 2i + 4j – 3k,
C = i – j + 5k, etc.
A 4

2
3
A

2.3 Resolution of vectors

This is the process of dividing an incline vector into two perpendicular parts called component. A
vector is usually resolve from the point of application. It should be noted that when a vector is
resolve, the original vector is assumed not to exist again.
y

Fy F Fy
θ x
Fx
Figure 2.3: Resolution of a vector F

The Fx is the component of F along the x-axis and Fy is the component along the y-axis. If a vector
F is inclined at an angle θ, then the horizontal component of F is Fx = Fcosθ while the vertical
component of F is Fy = Fsinθ. It thus follows that the magnitude and direction of F are related to
its components through the expressions (Pythagoras theorem),

F= – magnitude 2.1

θ = tan-1 – direction 2.2

2.4 Addition and subtraction of vectors

The addition and subtraction of a vector is quite different from scalar which you are familiar with.
For instance, 5kg + 2kg = 7kg; 5N + 4N = 9N. Vector addition is very different from adding scalar
quantities. When adding vectors, their directions must be taken into account and units must be the
same.
The sum of two vectors is called the resultant. The direction of vectors is always considered when
finding their resultant. Resultant force is a force whose effect is equal to the sum of two or more
forces acting at a point. Vectors can be added in the following ways:
(a) On a straight line
There are many ways of adding on a straight line:
(i) In the same direction

F1
F2

Resultant F = F1 + F2 2.3
(ii) In the opposite direction
F1 F2

Resultant F = F1 + (-F2) 2.4

When two vectors act in opposite direction to a point, the smaller vector is considered as a negative
vector in determining the resultant vector. The resultant is usually in the direction of the larger
vector.
(b) Inclined vectors
When two vectors act at an angle to a point, they are called inclined vectors. E.g.,
F1 F1

θ θ
F2 F2
There are many ways of adding on inclined vectors. These are:
(i) At right angle
The Pythagoras theorem is used to determine the magnitude while trigonometry ratio is used to
determine the direction.
A b=
b θ = tan-1
c
θ
B a C

(ii) At acute or obtuse angle

The cosine rule is used to determine the magnitude of the vector.

A R
θ 180 – θ
α θ
B
Figure 2.4: Parallelogram of vector addition

Resultant vector R is R2 = A2 + B2 – 2ABcos (180 – θ) 2.5

If the resultant R makes an angle α with the positive x-axis, then sine rule is used.
= 2.6
2.5 Magnitude of vectors
For a one-component vector, the magnitude is a value coefficient (or in front) of the vector. For
e.gs., A = 9i. The magnitude of A is |A| = 9. For D = -81, the magnitude of D is |D| = 81. The
negative sign is the properties that determine the direction the vector moves.
For two- and three-component vectors, if Ax is the component of A along the x-axis, Ay is the
component along the y-axis and Az is the component along the z-axis, then the magnitude of A is

|A| = 2.7

2.6 Multiplication of vectors

There are two kinds of multiplication of vectors, namely: dot (or scalar) product and cross (or
vector) product. The dot product of two vectors yields a scalar quantity while the cross product of
two vectors yields a vector quantity.
The dot product of two vectors A and B denoted as A.B is defined as A.B = |A||B| cosθ where θ is
the angle between the two vectors. The dot product A.B = |A||B| cosθ can be positive, negative or
zero depending on the angle between A and B. When A and B are perpendicular (or orthogonal)
to each other, θ = 90o, A.B = 0; but when A and B are parallel, θ = 0o, A.B = |A||B|. When two
similar unit vectors are dotted together, the dot product is always one i.e., i.i = j.j = k.k = 1. On the
contrary, when two dissimilar unit vectors are dotted together, the dot product is zero i.e., i.j = i.k
= k.j = 0. In dot product, vector A.B = B.A, and it should be noted that a triple dot product of three
vectors yields a vector quantity. Dot product can be express in terms of components as follows:
A.B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz 2.8
The cross product of two vectors A and B denoted as A x B (or A Ʌ B) is defined as |A x B| =
|A||B| sinθ where θ is the angle between the two vectors. When A and B are perpendicular, θ = 90o
and the magnitude of the cross product will be maximum, i.e., |A x B| = |A||B|; but when A and B
are parallel, θ = 0o, |A x B| = 0. A cross product multiplication of vectors, zero is always obtained
as a product if two similar unit vectors are cross, i.e., i x i = j x j = k x k = 0. On the contrary, if
two dissimilar unit vectors are cross together as shown in Figure 2.4, then i x j = k, j x k = i, k x i
= j and j x i = -k, k x j = -i, i x k = -j. In cross product, vector A x B ≠ B x A.
i

j
k

Figure 2.5: Cyclic order of i, j and k

Cross product can be express in terms of components as follows:
A x B = (Axi + Ayj + Azk) x (Bxi + Byj + Bzk) 2.9
Expanding the expression and using the multiplication identity for unit vectors,
A x B = (AyBz – AzBy)i + (AzBx – AxBz)j + (AxBy – AyBx)k 2.10
The cross product can also be expressed in determinant form as:
AxB=

AxB=i –j +k

A x B = (AyBz – AzBy)i + (AzBx – AxBz)j + (AxBy – AyBx)k 2.11

EXERCISES
2.1. Vectors A and B are said to be parallel if
A. A.B = 0 B. A.B = 90 C. |A x B| = 90 D. |A x B| = 0
Solution
The correct option is D.

2.2. An airplane heading west at an airspeed of 100km/h has a crosswind blowing from the south
at 100km/h. What will be the airplane’s speed relative to the ground?
A. 0km/h B. 71km/h C. 100km/h D. 141km/h
Solution 100km/h
Using Pythagoras’s theorem,
v= = 141km/h 100km/h
v
The correct option is D.
Figure 2.6: Exercises 2.2

2.3. A body moves a distance of = 2î – 5ĵ – 2ĸ (in metres) under the action of a force
= 2î – 2ĵ – ĸ (in newtons). Find the work done by the force.
A. 8J B. 11J C. 16J D. 18J
Solution
Work done = force x distance = (2î – 5ĵ – 2ĸ).(2î – 2ĵ – ĸ) = 4(î.î) + 10(ĵ.ĵ) + 2(ĸ.ĸ)
∴ Work done = 4 + 10 + 2 = 16J
The correct option is C.

2.4. If C = A + B, prove that C.C is similar to cosine rule.

Solution
C.C = (A + B).(A +B) = A2 + A.B + A.B + B2 = A2 + B2 + 2A.B But A.B = AB cosθ
C2 = A2 + B2 + 2(AB cosθ) = A2 + B2 + 2AB cosθ
∴ C2 = A2 + B2 + 2AB cosθ

2.5. What is the resolution of three concurrent forces one of 100N acting horizontally to the right,
another of 140N acting upward at an angle of 60o to the horizontal and the third of 240N acting
vertically upward? y
Solution
140N
Fy = 140sin 60o + 240 = 121.24 + 240 = 361.24N 240N
Fx = 140cos 60o + 100 = 70 + 100 = 170N o
60
x
100N
Figure 2.7: Exercises 2.6
∴F= = = 399.24N

The direction of F is the angle the resultant makes with the horizontal
tan θ =

θ = tan-1 = tan-1 = 64.8o

Therefore, the resultant force acts at 64.8o to the horizontal.

2.6. The resultant of two vectors A and B is vector C = 2.2i + 3.4j. If vector A = 1.5i – 2.0j, find
the magnitude of B.
A. 27.90 B. 2.45 C. 5.45 D. 29.70
Solution
A+B=C
∴ B = C – A = (2.2i + 3.4j) – (1.5i – 2.0j) = 0.7i + 5.4j
|B| = = 5.45
The correct option is C.

2.7. An aircraft attempts to fly due North at 100km/h. If the wind blows against it from East to
West at 60km/h, its resultant velocity is
A. 127km/h, N310W B. 127km/h, N310E C. 117km/h, N310W D. 117km/h, N310E
Solution
60km/h
Using Pythagoras’s theorem,
v= = 117km/h 100km/h
v
tan θ = θ

Figure 2.8: Exercises 2.8

θ = tan-1 = tan-1 = 31o
The correct option is C.

2.8. The electromagnetic pointing vector is defined as = x , where and are the electric
and magnetic fields respectively. = 10.10î + 0.20ĵ + 0.60ĸ and = 0.40î + 9.80ĵ + 0.10ĸ.
Calculate .
Solution
= x = (10.10î + 0.20ĵ + 0.60ĸ) x (0.40î + 9.80ĵ + 0.10ĸ)

= =î –ĵ +ĸ

∴ = (0.02 – 5.88)î – (1.01 – 0.24)ĵ + (98.98 – 0.08)ĸ = -5.86î – 0.77ĵ + 98.9ĸ

2.9. Vectors A and B are given as A = 2i + 3j + 4k and B = i – 2j + 3k. What is the angle between
vectors A and B?
A. 66.6o B. 39.7o C. 46.6o D. 56.0o
Solution
A = 2i + 3j + 4k and B = i – 2j + 3k
|A| = = =
|B| = = =
A.B = (2i + 3j + 4k).(i – 2j + 3k) = 2(i.i) – 6(j.j) + 12(k.k) = 2 – 6 + 12 = 8
A.B = |A||B| cosθ
θ = cos-1 = cos-1 = cos-1 = 66.6o
∴ θ = 66.6o
The correct option is A.

2.10. Given that A = i + 4j, B = 2i – 3j, C = i + k. Find the triple product (A x B).C
Solution

AxB= =i –j +ĸ = 0 – 0 + (-3 – 8)k = -11k

∴ (A x B).C = (-11k).(i + k) = -11(k.k) = -11

Summary
1. Scalar quantities are completely described when only their magnitudes are known. Examples
are mass, time, energy, temperature, etc. Vector quantities are not completely described unless
their magnitudes and directions are specified. Examples are velocity, momentum, force, electric
field, etc.
2. Vectors can be represented with boldface letter such as A or a line with an arrowhead indicating
the direction of the given vector.
3. Resultant vector is that single vector whose effect is the same as the individual vectors acting
together. The resultant vector can be obtained by the parallelogram method or the triangle method.
4. A vector is usually resolved into components along mutually perpendicular directions. If a
vector F is inclined at an angle θ, then horizontal component of F is Fx = Fcosθ while the vertical

component of F is Fy = Fsinθ with F = as magnitude and θ = tan-1 as direction.

5. The dot or scalar product of two vectors A and B denoted as A.B is defined as A.B = |A||B| cosθ
where θ is the angle between the two vectors, and in terms of components as:
A.B = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz.
6. The cross or vector product of two vectors A and B denoted as A x B (or A Ʌ B) is defined as
|A x B| = |A||B| sinθ where θ is the angle between the two vectors, and in terms of components in
determinant form as:

AxB= = (AyBz – AzBy)i + (AzBx – AxBz)j + (AxBy – AyBx)k

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
2.1. Two forces each of 10N act on a body, one towards the north and the other towards the east.
The magnitude and the direction of the resultant force are
A. 10N, 45oW B. 20N, 45oE C. 10 N, 45oW D. 10 N, 45oE

2.2. If A = 3i + 3j and B = 9i + j - 5k. Find the magnitude of A + B.

A. 13.6 B. 12.6 C. 11.6 D. 10.6

2.3. Given two vectors A = 2i + 3j + 4k and B = i – 2j + 3k. What is the magnitude of each vector?
A. 4, 7 B. 6.4, 4.0 C. 29, 14 D. 5.4, 3.7
2.4. Three vectors are given by A = 3i – j + 3k, B = -i + 2j – k and C = -3i + 5j + 3k.
Find A.(B x C)

2.5. When a body moves in the x-y plane, its velocity may be expressed in terms of the components
vx and vy. What is the angle between them? If vx is 5m/s and vy is 7m/s, what is the value of the
angle between them?
A. Ө = tan-1 , 54.5o B. Ө = tan , 0.01o C. Ө = tan , 0.02o D. Ө = tan-1 , 35.5o

2.6. Given three vectors, A = 3i – j + 3k, B = -i + 2j – k and C = -3i + 5j – 3k. Find: (A + B).C
A. -7 B. -8 C. -10 D. -14
2.7. Given that D = i + 5k, E = 2i – 3j + 4k, H = i – 3j + 2k. Find vector F such that
D – 2E + F = H and the magnitude of F.

2.8. Calculate the angle between the two vectors and defined as = i + 2j + 3k and = i – 3j
+ 2k.

2.9. Given that A = 2i + 3j, B = 3i + 5j and C = 4i – 6j. Find A x B x C.

A. 114i + 76j B. 6i + 4j C. -114i – 76j D. 6i – 4j

2.10. Given that A = 3i + 3j and B = 9i + j – 5k. Find the magnitude of C where C = 2A + B.

A. 17.3 B. 8.1 C. 13.6 D. 5.9

ANSWERS
2.1. D
2.2. A
2.3. D
2.4. 30
2.5. A
2.6. A
2.7. 4i – 9j + 5k, 11
2.8. 85.9o
2.9. B
2.10. A