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ETHICS
- It comes from the Greek word "ethos" which means "customs" or "moral" in Latin
equivalent.
- It is a study of the morality of human acts and moral agents.

Three Branches:
1. Metaethics
2. Normative Ethics
3. Applied Ethics

I. Metaethics
è studies the very foundation of morality itself
è What is morality?

II. Normative Ethics

è deals with norms or set of considerations on how one should act
è known as Prescriptive Ethics

Types of Standards:
o Moral Standards
o Non-moral Standards

Moral Standards
- are norms, prescriptions or rules used in determining what ought to be done or
what is right or wrong action, what is good or bad character.
- NON-COMPLIANCE of Moral Standards causes SENSE OF GUILT.

Non-moral Standards
- are rules unrelated to MORAL or ETHICAL considerations.
- are called “folkways” in sociology
- NON-COMPLIANCE of Non-Moral Standards causes EMBARRASSMENT or
SHAME

Moral Standards Non-Moral Standards

1. Do not lie 1. No talking while your mouth is full
2. Do not steal 2. Wear black or white for mourning;
3. Do not kill never red.
4. Do not commit adultery 3. The males should be the one to
propose marriage not females.

III. Applied Ethics

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è attempts to APPLY ethical principles and moral theories to REAL-LIFE MORAL

ISSUES

MORAL DILEMMA
- also referred to as ETHICAL DILEMMA
- is a situation where a person has the moral obligation to choose between TWO
OPTIONS both based on moral standards, but he/she can’t choose both, and choosing means
violating the other.

FALSE DILEMMA
• is a situation where the decision-maker has a moral duty to do one thing, but is
tempted or under pressure to do something else.
• a choice between a right and a wrong.
• A lawyer or an accountant can face an opportunity to prioritize self-interest over
the client’s interest.

LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMA

1. Individual
2. Organizational
3. Structural

1. INDIVIDUAL DILEMMA
- refers to personal dilemmas.
- It is an individual’s damn-if-you-do and damn-if- you-don’t situation.
- Example: the Case of Heinz: If he did not steal the drug that would mean his
wife’s death.
- The dilemma is faced by an individual who is torn between 2 OBLIGATIONS:
to save the wife or obey the law.

2. ORGANIZATIONAL DILEMMA
- exists between PERSONAL INTEREST and ORGANIZATION WELFARE or
between individual groups’ interests and organizational well-being.

3. STRUCTURAL DILEMMA
- A conflict of perspective of sectors, groups and institutions that may be affected
by the decision.

EXAMPLES OF STRUCTURAL DILEMMA

o Differentiation vs. Integration
o Gap vs. Overlap
o Lack of Clarity vs. Lack of Creativity
o Flexibility vs. Strict Adherence to Rules
o Excessive Autonomy vs. Excessive Interdependence
o Centralized vs. Decentralized Decision Making

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1. Differentiation vs. Integration o DECENTRALIZATION

- In effect local governments and schools have likewise become MORE
DIFFERENTIATED and so it becomes more difficult to INTEGRATE them for a
unified structure.

2. Gaps versus Overlap

o GAPS - leave an important thing in an organization UNDONE

Example: A patient wanted something however, her call button rarely produced a
response. There is a GAP as to who according to the rule is supposed to respond to the
buzzer.

o OVERLAPS - result in unnecessary and counterproductive, redundant procedures

which ultimately lead to waste of resources.

3. Lack of Clarity vs. Lack of Creativity

o LACK OF CLARITY - When employees are UNCLEAR about what they are
supposed to do, they often tailor their roles around PERSONAL PREFERENCES
instead of system-wide goals, frequently leading to trouble

o LACK OF CREATIVITY - When responsibilities are over-defined, people

conform to PRESCRIBED ROLES and PROTOCOLS in a” bureaucratic” way.
They rigidly follow job descriptions regardless of how much the service or product
suffers and so end up UNCREATIVE.

4. Flexibility vs. Strict Adherence to Rules

- You accommodate by BENDING RULES to help someone or you STICK
STRICTLY TO RULES no matter what and so unable to help someone who is thrown
into a helpless situation or you may become TOO ACCOMMODATING that all rules
are no more.

5. Excessive Autonomy vs. Excessive Interdependence

- refers to being TOO ISOLATED versus TOO MUCH COORDINATION
- When individuals/groups are too autonomous, people often feel isolated and
disconnected.
- If units and roles are TIGHTLY LINKED, people are DISTRACTED from work
and WASTE TIME on UNNECESSARY or TOO MUCH COORDINATION

6. Centralized vs. Decentralized Decision Making

- In decentralized decision-making, organizations can respond to change
RAPIDLY and EFFECTIVELY because the decision makers are the people
CLOSEST TO THE SITUATION.
- However, TOP MANAGERS may LOSE SOME CONTROL.

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BASES OF MORAL ACCOUNTABILITY

1. KNOWLEDGE (awareness)
2. FREEDOM
3. VOLUNTARINESS (willingness)

Voluntary Act
- an act is voluntarily intended when it is done with the aim, purpose, or goal of
attaining a result.
- can either be Intentional or Negligent

Negligent Act
- done voluntarily WITHOUT CARE or PRECAUTION in avoiding the
happening of a foreseeable event.

MODIFIERS of HUMAN ACTS

- affect the mental or emotional state of a person to the extent that the
voluntariness involved in an act is either INCREASED or DECREASED.

MODIFIERS of HUMAN ACTS

1. IGNORANCE
2. PASSION
3. FEAR
4. VIOLENCE

MODIFIERS OF HUMAN ACTS

IGNORANCE PASSION FEAR VIOLENCE
-absence of knowledge -refers to POSITIVE -disturbance -refers to
EMOTIONS such as love, of the mind any physical
desire, delight, hope, and of a person force
bravery; also refers to due to an exerted on a
NEGATIVE EMOTIONS such impending person by
as hatred, horror, sadness, danger or another free
despair, fear, and anger harm to agent for the
himself or purpose of
loved ones compelling
said person
to act
against his
WILL.
DEGREES OF TYPES OF PASSION
IGNORANCE
1. Antecedent Passion
1. Invincible 2. Consequent Passion
2. Vincible

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- Supine/Gross/ ANTECEDENT PASSION

Crass - Those that precede
- Affected the act, do not always
destroy
Invincible ignorance voluntariness but
- When we DO they DIMINISH
NOT KNOW accountability for the
something that resultant act.
was
IMPOSSIBLE CONSEQUENT PASSION
for us to - Those that are
KNOW INTENTIONALLY
- in good AROUSED and
conscience - KEPT. They DO NOT
having taken lessen voluntariness
every but may INCREASE
precaution to ACCOUNTABILITY
inform himself.

Vincible ignorance
- When we DO
NOT KNOW
something that
WE OUGHT
TO KNOW
- Not in good
conscience-
NOT having
taken every
precaution to
be fully
informed.

Vincible Ignorance can

either be:
1. SUPINE/GROSS/
CRASS
- When scarcely
an effort has
been made to
remove it.

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2. AFFECTED
- If a person
deliberately
avoids
enlightenment
in order to sin
more freely

ACT OF MAN VS. HUMAN ACT

HUMAN ACTS ACTS OF MAN
-are those of which a man is a master -actions that merely happen in the body or
which he has the power of doing or not through the body WITHOUT the
doing as he pleases awareness of the MIND or the control of
the WILL
Examples: Examples:
1. Observing prescribed diet 1. Breathing
2. Tutoring slow learners 2. Blinking
3. Preparing for the board exam 3. Perspiring
4. Dilation of the pupils of the eyes

CLASSIFICATIONS OF MORAL FRAMEWORKS

1. ARISTOTLE’S VIRTUE ETHICS

2. ST. THOMAS’ NATURAL LAW ETHICS
3. KANT’S DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS
4. UTILITARIANISM

1. VIRTUE ETHICS (Aristotle)

- What is moral is “what a virtuous person does ”
- One attains virtue when he/she actualizes his/her potential or possibilities, the
highest of which is HAPPINESS.

VIRTUE ETHICS IN OTHER TRADITIONS

Confucianism Hinduism
- JEN (humaneness) - Non- violence
human- heartedness, compassion - Truthfulness
- LI (Propriety) - Honesty
Manner - Chastity
- Freedom from Greed

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2. NATURAL LAW ETHICS (St. Thomas Aquinas)

- is the law of God revealed through human reason.
- It is the "law of God written in the hearts of men."
- The rule that says “do good and avoid evil”

3. DEONTOLOGICAL ETHICS (Immanuel Kant)

CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVES
- These are commands you must follow, regardless of your desires.

TWO FORMULATIONS:

§ “Act only according to that maxim which you can at the same time will that
it should become a universal law without contradiction.”
§ “Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of
another, always as an end, and never as a mere means.”

4. UTILITARIANISM (Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill, & Epicurus)

- moral theory that focuses on the RESULTS or CONSEQUENCES of our
ACTIONS and treats INTENTIONS as IRRELEVANT.

TWO OPTIONS OF UTILITARIANISM

§ ACT UTILITARIANISM - In any given situation, you should choose the

action that produces that greatest good for the greatest number.

§ RULE UTILITARIANISM - It is a version of the theory that says we ought

to live by rules that, in general, are likely to lead to the greatest good for the
greatest number

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