MA3005: Control Theory

School of Mechanical and Aerospace

Engineering

Faculty: Asst Prof Tegoeh Tjahjowidodo

Email: [email protected]
Phone: (+65) 6790 4952
Office: N3-02c-68
Course Introduction
What is a Controller?

Watch the animation of a controller as part of the video lecture

(Week 1, 1.1 Introduction to Control Theory, from 0m 35s).

Course Introduction 3
Introduction to Control Theory
Objective:
• To design a controller.

Definition:

• A controller is a device, it can be in the form of a microprocessor or

computer, which monitors and physically alters the operating conditions of a
given dynamical system.

Course Introduction 4
Textbook/ References
Textbook
• Modern Control Engineering, Katsuhiko Ogata, 4th ed. or later, Prentice Hall.
Reference Materials
• Control Systems Engineering, Nise, 5th Edition, John Wiley, 2008.
• System Dynamics, Katsuhiko Ogata, 4th ed. or later, Pearson Prentice Hall.
• Modeling and Analysis of Dynamic Systems, Close, Charles M., 3rd edition, John Wiley &
Sons, 2002.
• Any text on mathematical modelling.

Course Introduction 5
Course Objectives (Systems)
At the end of this course, you should be able to:
• Differentiate static and dynamic systems
• Identify the required mathematical background for dynamic systems
• Develop a dynamic model of mechanical systems
• Analyse the response of dynamical systems

Course Introduction 6
Course Prerequisites

Pay more attention on:

• Calculus (differentiation-integration)
• Complex number operations
• Laplace transform

Course Introduction 7
Lecture Map
2. Laplace
Transform
3. Modelling

1. Introduction to Systems

6. First Order 4. Response and

Stability

5. Routh Stability
8. Transient 7. Second Order
Response

We will be specifically looking at Systems in the following weeks.

Course Introduction 8
Introduction to Systems
Part I - Lecture Map
2. Laplace
Transform
3. Modelling

1. Introduction to Systems

6. First Order 4. Response and

Stability

5. Routh Stability
8. Transient 7. Second Order
Response

Week 1 10
Learning Objectives

At the end of this week, you should be able to:

• Define dynamic systems and types
• Analyse the required mathematical background for dynamic systems

Input SYSTEM Output

Week 1 11
Introduction to Systems
System:
• Can be any physical, biological, or economic model.
• Responds to certain inputs by producing output.

Input SYSTEM Output

Real world examples:

• Pressing on the gas pedal makes the vehicle move faster.
• Here the vehicle is the system, the gas pedal is the input and the velocity of the vehicle is
the output.

Week 1 12
Introduction to Systems (Cont’d.)

𝑢(𝑡) SYSTEM 𝑦(𝑡)

• In general, systems can be classified into:

Static System Dynamic System
• A system is said to be static if its • A system is said to be dynamic if its
output 𝒚(𝒕) depends only on the output 𝒚(𝒕) will be affected not
input 𝒖(𝒕) at the present time 𝒕. only by the input 𝒖(𝒕) at the
present time 𝒕 but also depends on
the past input 𝒖(𝒕).
• Typically the response will vary in
time for a constant (static) input.

Week 1 13
Static Systems
The simplest and intuitive example of static systems is a ‘function machine’.

Input

Rule

+3

Output
5
Function Machine for +

Watch the animation of a static system as part of the video lecture

(Week 1, 1.2 Introduction to Systems, from 3m 58s).

Week 1 14
Dynamic Systems
Dynamic systems are characterised mathematically by derivative and/ or integrative operators.
𝑑𝑥 𝑋 1
Example: 5 +𝑥 =𝑦 5𝑠 + 1 𝑋 = 𝑌 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑌 5𝑠 + 1

𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑋 1
+ 5 + 10𝑥 = 𝑦 𝑠2 + 5𝑠 + 10 𝑋 = 𝑌 = 2
𝑑𝑡2 𝑑𝑡 𝑌 𝑠 + 5𝑠 + 10

Input

Rule
𝟏
𝟓𝒔 + 𝟏

Output

𝑿 Watch the animation of a dynamic system as part of the video lecture

(Week 1, 1.2 Introduction to Systems, from 6m 33s).
Week 1 15
Systems Examples
Weighing scale

Watch the animation of a weighing scale as part of the video lecture

(Week 1, 1.2 Introduction to Systems, from 9m 40s).
Week 1 16
Systems Examples
Weighing scale
Is the weighing scale a static or dynamic system?

Identify the input Identify the output

25 𝑦(𝑡)
weight (kg)

24
23
22
˸
˸

0 10 20 30 time (s)

Week 1 17
Systems Examples
Weighing scale
Is the weighing scale a static or dynamic system?

Identify the input Identify the output

25 𝑦(𝑡) 25

weight (kg)
weight (kg)

24 24
23 23
22 22
˸ ˸
˸ ˸

0 10 20 30 time (s) 0 10 20 30 time (s)

Week 1 18
Systems Examples
Light bulb
Is the light bulb a static or dynamic system?

OFF
ON

Week 1 19
Systems Examples (Cont’d.)
Light bulb
Is the light bulb a static or dynamic system?

Identify the input Identify the output

25 𝑦(𝑡)
weight (kg)

Intensity
24

Light
23
22
˸ ˸
˸ ˸

0 10 20 30 time (s) 0 10 20 30 time (s)

Watch the animation of the light bulb as part of the video lecture
(Week 1, 1.2 Introduction to Systems, from 15m 10s).

Week 1 20
Systems Examples
Light bulb
Is the light bulb a static or dynamic system?

Identify the input Identify the output

25 𝑦(𝑡)
weight (kg)

Intensity
24

Light
23
22
˸ ˸
˸ ˸

0 10 20 30 time (s) 0 10 20 30 time (s)

Week 1 21
All systems in nature are essentially ………
dynamic
Laplace Transform
Part I - Lecture Map
2. Laplace
Transform
3. Modelling

1. Introduction to Systems

6. First Order 4. Response and

Stability

5. Routh Stability
8. Transient 7. Second Order
Response

Week 1 24
Recap from MA2006
• Laplace Transform has been covered in detail in Year 2 in MA2006.
• In the following slides, we will cover some important topics in Laplace Transform which
includes:
– Definition,
– Laplace transformations of basic time functions,
– Properties,
– Final value theorem to find steady state value, and
– Initial value theorem to find initial conditions.

Week 1 25
Why use Laplace Transform?
• Laplace transformation converts ordinary linear differential equations into algebraic
equations (that simplify the mathematical operations).
• The transformation helps us to solve any ordinary linear differential equations.
• Laplace table can be used to transform any linear expressions.
Illustration
𝑑
𝑥 𝑡 = 2𝑡 → 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑡2 + 𝑐
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑐 → 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑐
𝑑𝑡

𝑑2
𝑑2𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 + 𝛽
𝑑
𝑑𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 → ?
Week 1 26
Laplace Transform

Time domain (t) Laplace domain (s)

𝑓(𝑡) 𝐹(𝑠)

(differential equation) (algebraic equation)

?
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

(in time domain) (in Laplace domain)

Week 1 27
Definition of Laplace Transform
Consider a function f(t) s.t. f(t) = 0 for t < 0.
Let s = complex variable (s = σ + jω).
Then Laplace transform of f(t) is given by:

L  f t   F s    f t e  st dt




Inverse Laplace transform of F(s) is given by:

c  j
L F s   f t   F s   e st ds , for t  0
1

-1
2j c  j

Hyperlink: Common Laplace Transforms

Week 1 28
Laplace Transform

Time domain (t) Laplace domain (s)

𝑓(𝑡) 𝐹(𝑠)

(differential equation) (algebraic equation)

𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

(in time domain) (in Laplace domain)

Week 1 29
Laplace Table 1
S.No Name Operations in Time Domain Operations in Frequency Domain
1. Linearity 𝑎1𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑎2𝑥2(𝑡) 𝑎1𝑋1 𝑠 + 𝑎2𝑋2(𝑠)
−
2. Differentiation 𝑑𝑛𝑥(𝑡) 𝑠𝑛𝑋 𝑠 − 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑥 0− − ⋯ 𝑥 𝑛−1 (0 )
𝑑𝑡𝑛
𝑡 −1 −
3. Integration 𝑋(𝑠) 𝑥 (0 )
𝑥 𝜆 𝑑𝜆 +
−∞ 𝑠 𝑠
4. S-shift 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒𝑥𝑝(−𝛼𝑡) 𝑋(𝑠 + 𝛼)
5. Delay 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0)𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑡0) 𝑋 𝑠 exp(−𝑠𝑡0)
∞
6. Convolution 𝑋1 𝑠 𝑋2(𝑠)
𝑥1 𝑡 ∗ 𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑥1 𝜆 𝑥2 𝑡 − 𝜆 𝑑 𝜆
0

7. Product 𝑥1(𝑡)𝑥2(𝑡) 𝑐+𝑗∞

1
𝑋1 𝑠 − 𝜆 𝑋2 𝜆 𝑑𝜆
2𝜋𝑗 𝑐−𝑗∞

Week 1 30
Laplace Table 1 (Cont’d.)
S.No Name Operations in Time Domain Operations in Frequency Domain
8. Initial Value (provided lim 𝑥(𝑡) lim 𝑠𝑋(𝑠)
𝑡→0+ 𝑠→∞
limits exist)
9. Final Value (provided lim 𝑥(𝑡) lim 𝑠𝑋(𝑠)
𝑡→∞ 𝑠→0
limits exist)
10. Time Scaling 𝑥 𝑎𝑡 , 𝑎 > 0 −1
𝑠
𝑎 𝑋
𝑎

Week 1 31
Laplace Table 2
Table of Laplace Transforms Impulse: 𝜹(𝒕)

S.No f(t) F(s)

1. 𝜹(𝒕) 1

𝑡
2. 𝒖𝒔(𝒕) 1 0
𝑠
Step: 𝒖𝒔 (𝒕)
3. 𝑡 1
𝑠2

4. 𝑡𝑛 𝑛!
𝑡
𝑠 𝑛+1 0

5. 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 1
(𝑠 + 𝑎)

Week 1 32
Laplace Table 2 (Cont’d.)
Table of Laplace Transforms
S.No f(t) F(s)
6. 𝑡𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 1
𝑠+𝑎 2

7. 1 1
𝑡 𝑛−1 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑛
𝑛−1 ! 𝑠+𝑎
8. 1 − 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑎
𝑠 𝑠+𝑎

9. 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 −𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 𝑏−𝑎

𝑠 + 𝑎 (𝑠 + 𝑏)

10. 𝑏𝑒 −𝑏𝑡 − 𝑎𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑏−𝑎 𝑠

𝑠 + 𝑎 (𝑠 + 𝑏)

Week 1 33
Laplace Table 2 (Cont’d.)
Table of Laplace Transforms
S.No f(t) F(s)
11. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡 𝑎
𝑠2 + 𝑎2

12. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑠
𝑠2 + 𝑎2

13. 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑡 𝑠+𝑎

(𝑠 + 𝑎)2 + 𝑏2

14. 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑡 𝑏

(𝑠 + 𝑎)2 + 𝑏2
𝑎 𝑎 2 + 𝑏2
15. 1 − 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑡 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑡)
𝑏
𝑠[(𝑠 + 𝑎)2 + 𝑏2]

Week 1 34
Common Notation Convention
Lower case letter denotes function of time, such as, f(t) = 2t
Capital letter denotes its Laplace transform, such as, F(s) = 2/s2
U(s) denotes L [u(t)], Vin(s) denotes L (vin), etc.

Week 1 35
Common Laplace Transforms
Example: Laplace Transform of et
Consider the exponential function:
f (t )  0 for t  0
 et for t  0
 t  st  (1 s ) t
F ( s)   e e dt  e dt
0 0

1 (1 s )t  1
 e 
1 s 0 s 1

Laplace Transform integral converges for s – 1 < 0 but is valid throughout the
complex plane.
Hyperlink: Definition

L  f t   F s    f t e  st dt




Week 1 37
Table of Laplace Transforms
S.No f(t) F(s)
1. 𝜹(𝒕) 1

2. 𝒖𝒔(𝒕) 1
𝑠
3. 𝑡 1
𝑠2

4. 𝑡𝑛 𝑛!
𝑠 𝑛+1

5. 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 1
(𝑠 + 𝑎)

Week 1 38
Singular Values
Laplace Transform of et is 1/(s-1):
 
L e 
t 1
s 1
At s = 1, the value of F(s) is infinite or singular.
The values of s for which F(s) is infinite or singular is called the pole of F(s).

Hyperlink: Final-value Theorem (FVT)

Week 1 39
Step Function
The unit-step function is defined as: f (t )  0 for t  0
 1 for t  0 Step: 𝑢𝑠 (𝑡)

  st 1  st 
F ( s)   e dt  e
0 s 0
𝑡
1 0

s
Again, the Laplace Transform integral converges for s > 0 but is valid throughout
the complex plane.

Hyperlink: Definition

L  f t   F s    f t e  st dt




Week 1 40
Table of Laplace Transforms
S.No f(t) F(s)
1. 𝜹(𝒕) 1

2. 𝒖𝒔(𝒕) 1
𝑠
3. 𝑡 1
𝑠2

4. 𝑡𝑛 𝑛!
𝑠 𝑛+1

5. 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 1
(𝑠 + 𝑎)

Week 1 41
Sinusoidal Function
f (t )  0 for t  0
 A sin t for t  0

sin ωt can be expressed in terms of exponentials as:

e jt  e  jt
sin t 
2j

Laplace of Sinusoidal Function

 


A
F (s)  e  st e jt  e  jt dt
2j 0

   
 
A   st  jt  st  jt
 e dt  e dt 
2j  This is valid for Re(s) > 0.
0 0 
The formula is okay for s ≠ + jω.
A 1 1  A
    
2 j  s  j s  j  s 2   2

Week 1 42
Table of Laplace Transforms
S.No f(t) F(s)
11. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡 𝑎
𝑠2 + 𝑎2

12. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑠
𝑠2 + 𝑎2

13. 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑡 𝑠+𝑎

(𝑠 + 𝑎)2 + 𝑏2

14. 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑡 𝑏

(𝑠 + 𝑎)2 + 𝑏2
𝑎 𝑎 2 + 𝑏2
15. 1 − 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑡 + 𝑏 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑡)
𝑠[(𝑠 + 𝑎)2 + 𝑏2]

Week 1 43
Properties of Laplace Transforms
Laplace Table 1
S.No Name Operations in Time Domain Operations in Frequency Domain
1. Linearity 𝑎1𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑎2𝑥2(𝑡) 𝑎1𝑋1 𝑠 + 𝑎2𝑋2(𝑠)
−
2. Differentiation 𝑑𝑛𝑥(𝑡) 𝑠𝑛𝑋 𝑠 − 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑥 0− − ⋯ 𝑥 𝑛−1 (0 )
𝑑𝑡𝑛
𝑡 −1 −
3. Integration 𝑋(𝑠) 𝑥 (0 )
𝑥 𝜆 𝑑𝜆 +
−∞ 𝑠 𝑠
4. S-shift 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒𝑥𝑝(−𝛼𝑡) 𝑋(𝑠 + 𝛼)
5. Delay 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0)𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑡0) 𝑋 𝑠 exp(−𝑠𝑡0)
∞
6. Convolution 𝑋1 𝑠 𝑋2(𝑠)
𝑥1 𝑡 ∗ 𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑥1 𝜆 𝑥2 𝑡 − 𝜆 𝑑 𝜆
0

7. Product 𝑥1(𝑡)𝑥2(𝑡) 𝑐+𝑗∞

1
𝑋1 𝑠 − 𝜆 𝑋2 𝜆 𝑑𝜆
2𝜋𝑗 𝑐−𝑗∞

Week 1 45
Linearity of Laplace Transforms
Let functions f(t) and g(t) be Laplace transformable.
Let h(t) = f(t) + g(t).
If F(s) = L (f(t)) and G(s) = L (g(t)),
then L (h(t)) = L (f(t) + g(t)) = L (f(t)) + L (g(t)) or H(s) = F(s) + G(s).

Week 1 46
Laplace Table 1
S.No Name Operations in Time Domain Operations in Frequency Domain
1. Linearity 𝑎1𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑎2𝑥2(𝑡) 𝑎1𝑋1 𝑠 + 𝑎2𝑋2(𝑠)
−
2. Differentiation 𝑑𝑛𝑥(𝑡) 𝑠𝑛𝑋 𝑠 − 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑥 0− − ⋯ 𝑥 𝑛−1 (0 )
𝑑𝑡𝑛
𝑡 −1 −
3. Integration 𝑋(𝑠) 𝑥 (0 )
𝑥 𝜆 𝑑𝜆 +
−∞ 𝑠 𝑠
4. S-shift 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒𝑥𝑝(−𝛼𝑡) 𝑋(𝑠 + 𝛼)
5. Delay 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0)𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑡0) 𝑋 𝑠 exp(−𝑠𝑡0)
∞
6. Convolution 𝑋1 𝑠 𝑋2(𝑠)
𝑥 1 𝑡 ∗ 𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑥1 𝜆 𝑥2 𝑡 − 𝜆 𝑑 𝜆
0

7. Product 𝑥1(𝑡)𝑥2(𝑡) 𝑐+𝑗∞

1
𝑋1 𝑠 − 𝜆 𝑋2 𝜆 𝑑𝜆
2𝜋𝑗 𝑐−𝑗∞

ℒ𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑋(𝑠)

Week 1 47
Laplace Transform of Derivative of f(t)
−
2. Differentiation 𝑑𝑛𝑥(𝑡) 𝑠𝑛𝑋 𝑠 − 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑥 0− − ⋯ 𝑥 𝑛−1 (0 )
𝑑𝑡𝑛

d 
L  f (t )  sF ( s )  f (0) if L  f (t )  F ( s)
 dt 

Example: Laplace Transform of cos(t)

d  d
L cos(t )  L  sin(t ) sin(t )  cos(t )
 dt  dt
 s  L sin(t )  sin(0)
L sin(t )  2
1
s s 1
 2
s 1

Week 1 48
Laplace Transform of Higher Derivative
−
2. Differentiation 𝑑𝑛𝑥(𝑡) 𝑠𝑛𝑋 𝑠 − 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑥 0− − ⋯ 𝑥 𝑛−1 (0 )
𝑑𝑡𝑛

Laplace Transform of second derivative of f(t):

 d2 
L  2 f (t )  s 2 F ( s )  sf (0)  f (0)
 dt 
Laplace Transform of nth derivative of f(t):
 dn  n 1 n2 
n 1
L  n f (t )  s F ( s )  s f (0)  s f (0)  ... f (0)
n

 dt 

Week 1 49
Properties of Laplace Transforms
S.No Name Operations in Time Domain Operations in Frequency Domain
1. Linearity 𝑎1𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑎2𝑥2(𝑡) 𝑎1𝑋1 𝑠 + 𝑎2𝑋2(𝑠)
−
2. Differentiation 𝑑𝑛𝑥(𝑡) 𝑠𝑛𝑋 𝑠 − 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝑥 0− − ⋯ 𝑥 𝑛−1 (0 )
𝑑𝑡𝑛
𝑡 −1 −
3. Integration 𝑋(𝑠) 𝑥 (0 )
𝑥 𝜆 𝑑𝜆 +
−∞ 𝑠 𝑠
4. S-shift 𝑥(𝑡)𝑒𝑥𝑝(−𝛼𝑡) 𝑋(𝑠 + 𝛼)
5. Delay 𝑥(𝑡 − 𝑡0)𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑡0) 𝑋 𝑠 exp(−𝑠𝑡0)
∞
6. Convolution 𝑋1 𝑠 𝑋2(𝑠)
𝑥1 𝑡 ∗ 𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑥1 𝜆 𝑥2 𝑡 − 𝜆 𝑑 𝜆
0

7. Product 𝑥1(𝑡)𝑥2(𝑡) 𝑐+𝑗∞

1
𝑋1 𝑠 − 𝜆 𝑋2 𝜆 𝑑𝜆
2𝜋𝑗 𝑐−𝑗∞

Week 1 50
Laplace Transform of Integral of 𝒇(𝒕)

L  
f (t ) dt 
F (s) 1
s
  f (t ) dt t  0
s
Original given function

Example: Laplace Transform of ramp function

0 for t  0 1  1(t )  us (t )
f t   
d
t 1
 t for t  0 dt
Step: 𝑢𝑠 (𝑡)
L 1(t )  1
 
L t   L  1 dt 
s

s  1(t ) dt t 0

1
 2 𝑡
s 0

Week 1 51
Example
The equation of motion is:
mx  bx  kx  0
The Laplace Transform is:
m  s 2 X  s   sx  0   x  0    b  sX  s   x  0    kX  s   0

m  sxi  vi   bxi
 X s 
ms 2  bs  k

x  0   xi
x  0   vi

Week 1 52
Final-value Theorem (FVT)

1
lim f (t )
lim f (t )  lim sF ( s ) t 

t  s 0
0 10 20 30 Time(s)

FVT relates the steady-state behaviour of f (t ) to the behaviour of sF(s) in the neighbourhood
of s = 0.
The theorem applies only if lim f (t ) exists, i.e., all the poles of F(s) lie in the left half s-plane
t 

(and at most one pole on the imaginary axis). Negative pole

Pole = 0

Hyperlink: Pole

Week 1 53
Example
L  f (t )  F ( s) 
2
s ( s  2)

By FVT, 2
lim f (t )  lim sF ( s )  lim 1
t  s0 s0 s2

Now consider,
L  f (t )  F ( s ) 
2
s ( s  2)
By FVT,

However,
lim f (t )  lim sF ( s)  lim
t 

 1 
s0
2
s0 s  2
 1
× Thus, FVT cannot be applied here.

L -1    e 2t
and e 2t
  as t  
s  2

Week 1 54
Initial Value Theorem (IVT)

f (0 )  lim sF ( s )
s 
f(t) and df(t)/dt are Laplace transformable and lim sF ( s ) exist.
s 

There is no restriction on poles location of sF(s), so it can be used for sinusoidal

functions.
The value of f(0+) can be obtained from the Laplace Transform of f(t).

Week 1 55
Remarks on FVT and IVT

Both theorems enable us to predict the system behaviour in time domain

without transforming the function from s back to time domain.

Both theorems also provide a convenient check on the solution.

Week 1 56
Summary

At the end of this week, you should be able to:

• Define dynamic systems and types
• Analyse the required mathematical background for dynamic systems

Input SYSTEM Output

Week 1 57
References
S.No Slide Number Image/ Video References
Martinez, M. (n.d.). Light
Bulb 10. Retrieved 27
December, 2016, from
http://mitchmartinez.com/p
ortfolio/light-bulb-10/
1. 20

Week 1 58