Dr.

Sudhanshu Kumar Jha

Assistant Professor (Computer Science & Engineering)

Dept. of Electronics & Communication

University of Allahabad, Prayagraj – 211 002
Email: [email protected]
Mob: 9470311972
Computer Memory

Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and
instructions required for processing are stored.

The memory is divided into large number of small parts called cells

If the computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory locations.
Volatile and Non-Volatile Memory are both types of computer memory.

Volatile Memory is used to store computer programs and data that CPU needs in real time and
is erased once computer is switched off.

RAM and Cache memory are volatile memory.

Where as Non-volatile memory is static and remains in the computer even if computer is
switched off. ROM and HDD are non-volatile memory.
o. Key Volatile Memory Non-Volatile Memory
Data Retention Data is present till power supply is present. Data remains even after power supply is not
1
present.
2 Persistence Volatile memory data is not permanent. Non-volatile memory data is permanent.

3 Speed Volatile memory is faster than non-volatile memory. Non-volatile memory access is slower.

4 Example RAM is an example of Volatile Memory. ROM is an example of Non-Volatile Memory.

Data Transfer Data Transfer is easy in Volatile Memory. Data Transfer is difficult in Non-Volatile
5
Memory.
CPU Access CPU can access data stored on Volatile memory. Data to be copied from Non-Volatile memory to
6 Volatile memory so that CPU can access its data.

Storage Volatile memory less storage capacity. Non-Volatile memory like HDD has very high
7
storage capacity.
Impact Volatile memory such as RAM is high impact on Non-volatile memory has no impact on system's
8
system's performance. performance.
9 Cost Volatile memory is costly per unit size. Non-volatile memory is cheap per unit size.
 Read Only Memory (ROM)

Computer memory chips containing permanent or semi-permanent data

Data stored in ROM cannot be electronically modified after the manufacture of the memory device.

• Stores crucial information essential to operate the system, like the

program essential to boot the computer.
• It is not volatile.
• Always retains its data.
• Used in embedded systems or where the programming needs no change.
• Used in calculators and peripheral devices.
 Types of Read-Only Memory (ROM)

PROM (Programmable read-only memory) – It can be programmed by the user. Once programmed,
the data and instructions in it cannot be changed.

EPROM (Erasable Programmable read-only memory) – It can be reprogrammed. To erase data from
it, expose it to ultraviolet light. To reprogram it, erase all the previous data.

EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory) – The data can be erased by
applying an electric field, with no need for ultraviolet light. We can erase only portions of the chip.

MROM(Mask ROM) – Mask ROM is a kind of read-only memory, that is masked off at the time of
production. Like other types of ROM, mask ROM cannot enable the user to change the data stored in it.
If it can, the process would be difficult or slow.
 Random-Access Memory (RAM) / Primary Memory / Main Memory

Random-access memory (RAM) is a form of computer memory that can be read and changed in
any order, typically used to store working data and machine code. A random-access memory
device allows data items to be read or written in almost the same amount of time irrespective of the
physical location of data inside the memory

Purpose of RAM

• To hold current running program

(information)
• Hold information for certain amount of
time.
• Volatile Memory

• Random Access
1 GigaByte (GB) memory has 48 billion
transistors.
Static Random-Access Memory (static RAM or SRAM)

In static RAM, a form of flip-flop holds each bit of memory

A flip-flop for a memory cell takes four or six transistors along with some wiring, but never has to
be refreshed.

This makes static RAM significantly faster than

dynamic RAM. However, because it has more parts,
a static memory cell takes up a lot more space on a
chip than a dynamic memory cell. Therefore, you
get less memory per chip, and that increases its
price.
Dynamic Random-Access Memory (dynamic RAM or DRAM)

Is a type of random-access semiconductor memory that stores each bit of data in a memory cell,
usually consisting of a tiny capacitor and a transistor, both typically based on metal-oxide-
semiconductor (MOS) technology.
The capacitor can either be charged or discharged; these two states are taken to represent the
two values of a bit, conventionally called 0 and 1.

The electric charge on the capacitors gradually leaks away; without intervention the data on the
capacity would soon be lost.

To prevent this, DRAM requires an external memory refresh circuit which periodically rewrites
the data in the capacitors, restoring them to their original charge.

This refresh process is the defining characteristic of dynamic random-access memory, in

contrast to Static Random-Access Memory (SRAM) which does not require data to be refreshed.
FPM DRAM: Fast page mode dynamic random access memory was the original form of DRAM. It waits through
the entire process of locating a bit of data by column and row and then reading the bit before it starts on the next
bit. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 176 Mbps.

EDO DRAM: Extended data-out dynamic random access memory does not wait for all of the processing of the
first bit before continuing to the next one. As soon as the address of the first bit is located, EDO DRAM begins
looking for the next bit. It is about 5-20 percent faster than FPM DRAM. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is
approximately 264 Mbps.

SDRAM: Synchronous dynamic random access memory takes advantage of the burst mode concept to greatly
improve performance. It does this by staying on the row containing the requested bit and moving rapidly through
the columns, reading each bit as it goes. The idea is that most of the time the data needed by the CPU will be in
sequence. SDRAM is about 5 percent faster than EDO RAM and has a transfer rate of 0.8-1.3 mega-transfers
per second (MT/s). It was developed in 1988.

DDR SDRAM, RDRAM

 Register Memory and Cache Memory

A register is the smallest element for data holding. It is built-in

directly in a processor, and thus, the registers act as certain
memory locations that a processor can directly access in a
computer.

An individual register can hold a very small amount of data (it

might be around 32 to 64 bits in size), an instruction, the
storage addresses of data, or any other form of data, such as
individual characters and bit sequences.

Cache is a smaller and fast memory component in the computer

which is inserted between the CPU and the main memory. The
cache is much faster than main memory.
Secondary Memory / Secondary Storage Device

Refers to any non-volatile storage device that is internal or external to the computer.

A secondary storage device is also known as an auxiliary storage device, backup storage
device, tier 2 storage, or external storage.

Computers use main memory such as random access memory (RAM) and cache to hold data that
is being processed. However, this type of memory is volatile, and it loses its data when the
computer is switched off. General-purpose computers, such as personal computers and tablets,
need to store programs and data for later use.

That's why secondary storage is needed to keep programs and data long term. Secondary storage
is non-volatile and able to keep data as long term storage. They are used for various purposes
such as backup data used for future restores or disaster recovery, long-term archiving of data that
is not frequently accessed, and storage of non-critical data in lower-performing, less expensive
drives.
 Characteristics of Secondary Storage Devices

• Non-volatile, which means it retains data when power is switched off

• Allows for the storage of data ranging from a few megabytes to petabytes.
• Cheaper as compared to primary memory.
• Secondary storage devices like CDs and flash drives can transfer the data from one device to
another.
Types of Secondary Storage Device
 Difference between Primary and Secondary Memory

Primary Memory Secondary Memory

Primary memory is directly accessed by the Central Secondary memory is not accessed directly by the
Processing Unit (CPU). Central Processing Unit (CPU). Instead, data accessed
from a secondary memory is first loaded into Random
Access Memory (RAM) and then sent to the Processing
Unit.

RAM provides a much faster-accessing speed to Secondary memory is slower in data accessing. Typically
data than secondary memory. Computers can primary memory is six times faster than secondary
quickly process data by loading software programs memory.
and required files into primary memory (RAM).

Primary memory is volatile and gets completely Secondary memory provides a feature of being non-
erased when a computer is shut down. volatile, which means it can hold on to its data with or
without an electrical power supply
Central Processing Unit

Computer's central processing unit (CPU) is the portion of a computer that retrieves and executes
instructions.

A central processing unit (CPU), also called a central processor, main processor or
just processor, is the electronic circuitry that executes instructions comprising a computer program.
The CPU performs basic arithmetic, logic, controlling, and input/output (I/O) operations specified by
the instructions in the program.
Operating System

An operating system is a
software programme
required to manage and
operate a computing
device like smartphones,
tablets, computers,
supercomputers, web
servers, cars, network
towers, smart watches,
etc.
 DOS WINDOW
DOS is single tasking (Uni-programming) operating While windows are multitasking (Multiprogramming) operating
system. systems.
It consumes low power. While windows consume high power.
It consumes less memory in comparison of windows. While it consumes more memory.
DOS does not share time. While window can share time.
DOS is a command line operating system. Windows are the graphical operating systems.
While windows are more preferred by the users in comparison
DOS operating system is less preferred than windows.
of DOS.
In DOS operating system multimedia is not supported While windows support multimedia such as: Games, movies,
such as: Games, movies, songs etc. songs etc.
In DOS operation systems, operation are performed While in windows OS, operation are performed slowly than
speedily than windows OS. DOS OS.
There is only one window opened at a time in DOS. While in windows, multiple windows can be opened at a time.
While Windows uses various pointing devices such as light
DOS does not need any pointing devices.
pen, mouse, etc.
DOS is not widely used in computer systems now-a-
While Windows is used now-a-days in computer systems.
days.
DOS is free of cost. While original version of Windows is expensive.
File Storage

File storage (aka file-based storage or file-level storage) is the type of

data storage where data is stored in a hierarchical file and folder structure.
A file is stored as a whole without breaking down the data into blocks,
such as in block storage.