FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

1
(20A02101T)

▶ PREPARED BY

Mr. D.C.DASTAGIRI
Assistant Professor,
Department of ECE.
 JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY ANANTAPUR
B.Tech (ECE) – I Sem L T P C (3 0 0 3)
(20A02101T) FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
Course Objectives:
To make the student learn about
Basic characteristics of R, L, C parameters, their Voltage and Current Relations and Various
combinations of these parameters.
The Single Phase AC circuits and concepts of real power, reactive power, complex power,
phase angle and phase difference
Series and parallel resonances, bandwidth, current locus diagrams
Network theorems and their applications
Network Topology and concepts like Tree, Cut-set , Tie-set, Loop, Co-Tree
Unit- 1
Introduction to Electrical & Magnetic Circuits
Electrical Circuits: Circuit Concept – Types of elements - Source Transformation-Voltage – Current Relationship for Passive
Elements. Kirchhoff’s Laws – Network Reduction Techniques- Series, Parallel, Series Parallel, Star-to-Delta or Delta-to-Star
Transformation. Examples Magnetic Circuits: Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction-Concept of Self and Mutual
Inductance-Dot Convention-Coefficient of Coupling-Composite Magnetic Circuit-Analysis of Series and Parallel Magnetic
Circuits, MMF Calculations.
Unit- 2
Network Topology
Definitions – Graph – Tree, Basic Cutset and Basic Tieset Matrices for Planar Networks – Loop and Nodal Methods of Analysis
of Networks & Independent Voltage and Current Sources – Duality & Dual Networks.Nodal Analysis, Mesh Analysis.
Unit- 3
Single Phase A.C Circuits

R.M.S, Average Values and Form Factor for Different Periodic Wave Forms – Sinusoidal Alternating Quantities – Phase and
Phase Difference – Complex and Polar Forms of Representations, j-Notation, Steady State Analysis of R, L and C (In Series,
Parallel and Series Parallel Combinations) with Sinusoidal Excitation- Resonance - Phasor diagrams - Concept of Power
Factor- Concept of Reactance, Impedance, Susceptance and Admittance-Apparent Power, Active and Reactive Power,
Examples.
Unit- 4
Network Theorems

Superposition, Reciprocity, Thevenin’s, Norton’s, Maximum Power Transfer, Millmann’s, Tellegen’s, and Compensation
Theorems for D.C and Sinusoidal Excitations.

Unit- 5
Three Phase A.C. Circuits

Introduction - Analysis of Balanced Three Phase Circuits – Phase Sequence- Star and Delta Connection -Relation between
Line and Phase Voltages and Currents in Balanced Systems - Measurement of Active and Reactive Power in Balanced and
Unbalanced Three Phase Systems. Analysis of Three Phase Unbalanced Circuits - Loop Method - Star Delta Transformation
Technique – for balanced and unbalanced circuits - Measurement of Active and reactive Power – Advantages of Three Phase
System.

Text Books:
1. Fundamentals of Electric Circuits Charles K. Alexander and Matthew. N. O. Sadiku, Mc Graw Hill, 5th
Edition, 2013.
2. Engineering circuit analysis William Hayt and Jack E. Kemmerly, Mc Graw Hill Company, 7th Edition,
2006.
Reference Books:
1. Circuit Theory Analysis & Synthesis A. Chakrabarti, Dhanpat Rai & Sons, 7th Revised Edition, 2018.
2. Network Analysis M.E Van Valkenberg, Prentice Hall (India), 3rd Edition, 1999.
3. Electrical Engineering Fundamentals V. Del Toro, Prentice Hall International, 2nd Edition, 2019.
4. Electric Circuits- Schaum’s Series, Mc Graw Hill, 5th Edition, 2010.
5. Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology John Bird, Routledge, Taylor & Francis, 5th Edition, 2014.
COURSE OUTCOMES

After completing the course, the student should be able to do the following

Given a network, find the equivalent impedance by using network reduction techniques and determine the current through any element
and voltage across and power through any element.

Given a circuit and the excitation, determine the real power, reactive power, power factor etc,.

Apply the network theorems suitably

Determine the Dual of the Network, develop the Cut Set and Tie-set Matrices for a given Circuit. Also
understand various basic definitions and concepts
UNIT - 1
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INTRODUCTION:
• In electric network analysis, the fundamental rules are Ohm‘s Law and Kirchhoff‘s Laws.
While these humble laws may be applied to analyze just about any circuit configuration
(even if we have to resort to complex algebra to handle multiple unknowns), there are
some ―shortcut‖ methods of analysis to make the math easier for the average human.
• As with any theorem of geometry or algebra, these network theorems are derived from
fundamental rules. In this chapter, I‘m not going to delve into the formal proofs of any of
these theorems. If you doubt their validity, you can always empirically test them by
setting up example circuits and calculating values using the ―old‖ (simultaneous
equation) methods versus the ―new‖ theorems, to see if the answers coincide.
• Network theorems are also can be termed as network reduction techniques. Each and
every theorem got its importance of solving network. Let us see some important
theorems with DC and AC excitation with detailed procedures.
TELLEGEN‟S THEOREM:
• Dc Excitation: Tellegen‘s theorem states algebraic sum of all delivered
power must be equal to sum of all received powers. According to
Tellegen‘s theorem, the summation of instantaneous powers for the n
number of branches in an electrical network is zero. Are you
confused? Let's explain. Suppose n number of branches in an
electrical network have i1, i2, i3…. in respective instantaneous
currents through them. These currents satisfy Kirchhoff's Current Law.
Again, suppose these branches have instantaneous voltages across
them are v1, v2, v3, ........... vn respectively. If these voltages across
these elements satisfy Kirchhoff Voltage Law then
This theorem can easily be explained by the
following example:
• In the network shown, arbitrary reference directions have been
selected for all of the branch currents, and the corresponding branch
voltages have been indicated, with positive reference direction at the
tail of the current arrow. For this network, we will assume a set of
branch voltages satisfy the Kirchhoff voltage law and a set of branch
current satisfy Kirchhoff current law at each node.
• We will then show that these arbitrary assumed voltages and currents
satisfy the equation.
• And it is the condition of Tellegen‟s theorem. In the network shown in the
figure, let v1, v2 and v3 be 7, 2 and 3 volts respectively. Applying Kirchhoff
Voltage Law around loop ABCDEA. We see that v4 = 2 volt is required.
Around loop CDFC, v5 is required to be 3 volt and around loop DFED, v6 is
required to be 2. We next apply Kirchhoff's Current Law successively to
nodes B, C and D. At node B let ii = 5 A, then it is required that i2 = - 5 A. At
node C let i3 = 3 A and then i5 is required to be - 8. At node D assume i4 to
be 4 then i6 is required to be - 9. Carrying out the operation of equation.
• We get,
SUPER-POSITION THEOREM:
• DC: “ In an any linear , bi-lateral network consisting number of
sources , response in any element(resistor) is given as sum of the
individual Reponses due to individual sources, while other sources are
non-operative”
• AC: “ In an any linear , bi-lateral network consisting number of
sources , response in any element(impedance) is given as sum of the
individual Reponses due to individual sources, while other sources are
non-operative”
Procedure of Superposition Theorem:
• Follow these steps in order to find the response in a particular branch
using superposition theorem.
• Step 1 − Find the response in a particular branch by considering one
independent source and eliminating the remaining independent
sources present in the network.
• Step 2 − Repeat Step 1 for all independent sources present in the
network.
• Step 3 − Add all the responses in order to get the overall response in a
particular branch when all independent sources are present in the
network.
 • Eg:
Let V = 6v, I = 3A, R1 = 8 ohms and R2 = 4 ohms
Let us find current through 4 ohms using V source, while I
is zero. Then equivalent circuit is

Let i1 is the current through 4 ohms, i1 = V / (R1+R2)

Let us find current through 4 ohms using I source, while V
is zero. Then equivalent circuit is

Let i2 is the current through 4 ohms, i2 = I. R1 / (R1+R2)

Hence total current through 4 ohms is = I1+I2( as both
currents are in same direction or otherwise I1-I2)
• Let us find current through 4 ohms using I
source, while V is zero. Then equivalent circuit is

Let i2 is the current through 4 ohms, i2 = I. Z1 / (Z1+Z2)

Hence total current through 4 ohms is = I1+I2 ( as both
currents are in same direction or otherwise I1-I2).
RECIPROCITY THEOREM:
DC & AC: ― In any linear bi-lateral network ratio of
voltage in one mesh to current in other mesh is same
even if their positions are inter-changed‖.
Eg:
Find the total resistance of the circuit, Rt = R1+
[R2(R3+Rl)] / R2+R3+RL.
Hence source current, I = V1 / Rt.
Current through RL is I1 = I. R2 / (R2+R3+RL)
Take the ratio of , V1 / I1 ---1
Draw the circuit by inter changing position of V1 and I
Find the total resistance of the circuit, Rt =
(R3+RL) + [R2(Rl)] / R2+R1.
Hence source current, I = V1 / Rt.
Current through RL is I1 = I. R2 / (R2+R1)
Take the ratio of , V1 / I1 ---2
If ratio 1 = ratio 2, then circuit is said to be satisfy
reciprocity
THEVENIN’S THEOREM:
• DC: ― An complex network consisting of number voltage and current sources
and be replaced by simple series circuit consisting of equivalent voltage source in
series with equivalent resistance, where equivalent voltage is called as open
circuit voltage and equivalent resistance is called as Thevenin‘s resistance
calculated across open circuit terminals while all energy sources are non-
operative‖
• AC: ― An complex network consisting of number voltage and current sources
and be replaced by simple series circuit consisting of equivalent voltage source in
series with equivalent impedance, where equivalent voltage is called as open
circuit voltage and equivalent impedance is called as Thevenin‘s impedance
calculated across open circuit terminals while all energy sources are non-
operative‖
NORTON’S THEOREM:
• DC: ― An complex network consisting of number voltage and current
sources and be replaced by simple parallel circuit consisting of equivalent
current source in parallel with equivalent resistance, where equivalent
current source is called as short circuit current and equivalent resistance is
called as Norton‘s resistance calculated across open circuit terminals while
all energy sources are non-operative‖
• AC: ―An complex network consisting of number voltage and current
sources and be replaced by simple parallel circuit consisting of equivalent
current source in parallel with equivalent impedance, where equivalent
current source is called as short circuit current and equivalent impedance is
called as Norton‘s impedance calculated across open circuit terminals while
all energy sources are non-operative‖
Here we need to find current through RL using Norton‘s theorem.
Short circuit the AB terminals to find the Norton‘s current.
Total resistance of circuit is, Rt = (R2.R3) / (R2+R3) + R1
Source current, I = E / Rt
Norton‘s current , IN = I. R3 / (R2+R3) ----1 from figure .1
Norton‘s resistance, RN = (R1.R3)/ (R1+R3) + R2 ----2 from figure 2
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM:
• DC: “ In linear bi-lateral network maximum power
can be transferred from source to load if load
resistance is equal to source or thevenin‘s or
internal resistances.
• AC: “ In linear bi-lateral network maximum power
can be transferred from source to load if load
impedance is equal to complex conjugate of
source or thevenin‘s or internal impedances‖ Eg:
For the below circuit explain maximum power
transfer theorem.
• Let I be the source current, I = V / (R1+R2)
• Power absorbed by load resistor is, PL = I2 .R2
= [ V / (R1+R2)]2 .R2.
To say that load resistor absorbed maximum power , dPL / dR2 = 0
When we solve above condition we get, R2 = R1.
Hence maximum power absorbed by load resistor is, PLmax = V 2 / 4R2.
MILLIMAN‟S THEOREM:
• DC: “ An complex network consisting of number of parallel branches ,
where each parallel branch consists of voltage source with series
resistance, can be replaced with equivalent circuit consisting of one
voltage source in series with equivalent resistance‖
Where equivalent voltage source value is , V‘ = (V1G1+V2G2+------+VnGn)
-------------------------------- G1+G2+----------------Gn
Equivalent resistance is , R‘ = 1 / ( G1+G2+-------------------Gn)
AC: “ An complex network consisting of number of parallel branches , where
each parallel branch consists of voltage source with series impedance, can be
replaced with equivalent circuit consisting of one voltage source in series
with equivalent impedance
Where equivalent voltage source value is , V‘ = (V1Y1+V2Y2+------+VnYn) -----
--------------------------- Y1+Y2+----------------Yn
Equivalent resistance is , Z‘ = 1 / ( Y1+Y2+-------------------Yn)
UNIT - 5
 Outline

 Recap of Three Phase System

 Three Phase Quantities: Line/Phase Voltage and Current

 Three Phase Power and Power Measurement

2
 THREEsystem
• A typical three-phase -PHASE SOURCES
consists of three voltage sources connected
to loads by three or four wires (or transmission lines).
• The voltage sources can be either wye-connected or delta-connected.

Y-connected source Δ-connected source 3

• 3-phase loads canTHREE
also be-P LOADS
HASEwye-connected
either or delta-connected.

Y-connected load Δ-connected source

4
 BALANCED SOURCE AND LOAD
Balanced Source: All phase voltages are equal in magnitude
and are out of phase with each other by 120.

Van  Vp0
Vbn  Vp 120
Vcn  Vp  240  Vp 120
abc or positive sequence

Balanced Load: The phase impedances are equal in magnitude

and in phase.
THREE PHASE QUANTITIES
QUANTITY SYMBOL

Phase current Ip

Line current IL

Phase voltage Vp

Line voltage VL
 PHASE VOLTAGES & LINE VOLTAGES
Phase voltage is measured across any single source or load.
Line voltage is measured between any two of the three lines.

VL = Vab = Van – Vbn

VL = Vab = Vp
For balanced source,
VL  Vp0 V p  120  3Vp30
 PHASE CURRENTS & LINE CURRENTS
Line current (IL) is the current in a line of the 3-phase system.
Phase current (Ip) is the current in a phase/arm of the source or load.
For balanced 3-phase system:
For Y-load, IL = Ip

For Δ-load,
I L  Ia  I AB  ICA
 I AB 11  240 
I L = 3I p  30
 Numerical 1
Calculate the line currents.
 Single Phase Equivalent Circuit
5  j2

10 j8

Total impedence per phase ZY = 15 + j6 = 16.15521.8

 Van 1100
Ia    6.81  21.8
ZY 16.15521.8

Ib  I a  120
 6.81 141.8A

Ic  I a   240
 6.81  261.8  6.8198.2A
 Numerical 2
A balanced delta-connected load having an impedance 20-j15 
is connected to a delta-connected, positive-sequence generator
having Vab = 3300 V.

Calculate the phase currents of the load and the line currents.
 Numerical 2
Solution: ZΔ  20  j15   25  36.87
Vab  3300

VAB 3300
Phase Currents: I AB    13.236.87A
ZΔ 25  36.87

IBC  IAB 120  13.2-83.13A

ICA  IAB 120  13.2156.87A
Line Currents:

Ia  IAB 3  30

 13.236.87 3  30 A
 22.866.87

Ib  I a  120  22.86 -113.13A

Ic  I a  120  22.86126.87A
 Numerical 3
A balanced positive sequence Y-connected source
with Van = 10010 V is connected to a -connected
balanced load with impedance (8 + j4)  per phase.

Calculate the phase and line currents at the load.

 Numerical
Solution: Balanced Y-source 3 10010 V
with Van=
Balanced Δ-load with Z= 8+j4 
VAB
Phase Current I AB 
ZΔ
Line Voltage VAB  3 Van 30
VAB  173.240 V

173.240
=> I AB   19.3613.43
8  j4
Phase Currents:

IAB  19.3613.43 A

IBC  IAB 120  19.36 106.57 A

ICA  IAB 120  19.36133.43 A

Line Currents:

Ia  3 IAB   30  3 (19.36) (13.43  30)

Ia  33.53  16.57 A

Ib  Ia 120  33.53  136.57 A

Ic  Ia 120  33.53 103.43 A

 Instantaneous
The phase voltage for 3-phasePower
balancedin 3-Phase
Y-system System
is given as :
vAN  2Vp cost
 2Vp cos(t 120 0 )
vBN ia
vAN
vCN  2Vp cos(t 1200 ) Z θ
vBN ib
N N
The phase currents are given as,
Z θ
vCN ic
ia  2I p cos(t ) Z θ
ib  2I p cos(t 1200 )
ic  2I p cos(t 1200 )
 The total instantaneous power is p  pa  pb  pc  vANia  vBNib  vCNic
p  2Vp I p cost cos(t )  cos(t 120) cos(t 120)  cos(t 120) cos(t 120)

Applying the trigonometric identity cos Acos B  21 cos(A  B)  cos(A  B)

p  V p I p 3cos  cos(2t   )  cos(2t    240)  cos(2t    240)
p  V p I p 3cos  cos  cos cos 240  sin  sin 240  cos cos 240  sin  sin 240
where,   2t 

p  V p I p  3cos   cos  2( ) cos   3Vp I p cos

1
 2 

The total instantaneous power in a balanced three-phase system is constant!

Even though the instantaneous power of each phase is time-varying.
This result is true whether the load is Y- or ∆- connected.
17
0
The average power per phase Pp for either the ∆-connected or the
Y-connected balanced load is P/3, or
Pp  Vp I p cos
And the reactive power per phase is
Q p  Vp I p sin
The apparant power per phase is
S p  Vp I p
The complex power per phase is
S  P  jQ  V I*
p p p p p

Here Vp and Ip are rms values of the phase voltage and phase current .
17
1
 The total average power is the sum of the average powers in the phases:
P  Pa  Pb  Pc  3Pp  3Vp I p cos  3VL I L cos

 For a Y-connected load, IL = Ip and 𝑉𝐿 = 3𝑉𝑝

 For a ∆-connected load, 𝐼𝐿 = 3𝐼𝑝 and VL = Vp
 Similarly, the total reactive power is Q  3Vp I p sin  3VLI L sin
3Vp2
 The total complex power: S  3S p  3V I *
 3I 2
Z 
p p p p
Z p*
Z p  Z p  is the load impedance per phase

S  P  jQ  3VL IL
 Vp, Ip, VL, and IL are all rms values and that θ is the angle of the load
impedance or the angle between the phase voltage and the phase current. 17
2
Line Power Quantities for Balanced Y- or Δ-loads
 Instantaneous power: p(t)  p a (t)  p b (t)  p c (t)  3V p I p cos(  )

 Real Power: P  3VL I L cos

 Reactive Power: Q  3VLI L sin 
 Apparent Power: S  3VL I L

 NOTE: φ is the load (or impedance) angle i.e. the angle between the
phase voltage and phase current.
17
3
Check that power remains same on Y-Δ transformation

17
4
For the balanced systemNumerical 4 find:
shown in figure,
a) The magnitude of the line current
b) The magnitude of the line and phase voltages at the load
c) The real, reactive and apparent powers consumed by the load
d) The power factor of the load. 0.06Ω j0.12Ω

Vɸ + 0.06Ω j0.12Ω
+ + Zɸ Zɸ Zɸ=12+j9 Ω
Vcn=120∟-2400
- -
Van=120∟00
208V
- Zɸ
Vbn =120∟-120 0
+ 0.06Ω j0.12Ω VL 208
- V    120V
3 3
17
5
Solution:
Both, the generator and the load are Y-connected, therefore, its easy to construct a per phase
equivalent circuit.
IL
0.06Ω j0.12Ω

-
Vɸ=120∟0 0 VɸL Zɸ 12+j9 Ω
+

a) Phase/line current:
V 1200 1200
IL     7.94  37.1 A
Z L  Z load (0.06  j0.12)  (12  j9) 15.1237.1

b) Phase voltage over the load: Vp  I p * Z p  (7.94  37.1)(12  j9)  119.1  0.2V
The magnitude of the line voltage on the load: VL  3Vp  206.3V
17
6
c) The real power consumed by the load:
Pload  3Vp I p cos  3119.1 7.94cos36.9  2270 W

The reactive power consumed by the load:

Qload  3Vp I p sin   3119.1 7.94sin 36.9  1702 var
The apparent power consumed by the load:
Sload  3Vp I p  3119.1 7.94  2839 VA

d) The load power factor:

Pfload = cosΦ = cos 36.9° = 0.8 lagging
17
7
 Advantage of Three Phase
System
• A major advantage of three-phase systems for power
distribution is that the three-phase system uses a lesser amount
of wire than the single-phase system for the same line voltage
VL and the same absorbed load power PL.

• The two cases (of single phase and three phase system) will be
compared in the next slides, considering that both have wires
of the same material and length, and that the loads are
resistive.
17
8
 Power Loss in Single Phase and Three Phase
Systems P
For the two-wire single-phase system, IL  L
, so the total power loss in the
VL
two transmission wires is
2
P
Ploss  2I L2 R  2R L2 (1)
VL

17
9
For the three-wire, three-phase system, IL’= |Ia| = |Ib| = |Ic| = PL / 3VL
The total power loss in the three transmission wires is
 P 2
  P 2

P 'loss  3(I L ') R '  3R '  2   R '  2 
2 L L
(2)
 3VL   VL 

18
0
Equations (1) and (2) show that for the same total power delivered PL and
same line voltage VL, Ploss  2R
(3)
P 'loss R '
Also R 
 l
and R ' 
 l
where r and r′ are the radii of the wires
r2  (r ')2
Ploss 2(r ')2
=>  2 (4)
P 'loss r
If the same power loss is tolerated in both systems, then r2 = 2(r′)2. The ratio
of material required is determined by the number of wires and their volumes,
Material for single phase 2( r 2l) 2r 2 2
 = 2 = (2)=1.33
Material for three phase 3( (r ') l) 3(r ') 3
2

18
1
 UNBALANCED THREE PHASE SYSTEMS
(1) The source voltages are not equal in magnitude and/or differ
in phase by angles that are unequal, or
(2) load impedances are unequal (more practical scenario).

VAN V V
Ia = , I b = BN , I c = CN
ZA ZB ZC

In   Ia  Ib  Ic 

18
2
 In a three-wire system where the neutral line is absent, we can still
find the line currents Ia, Ib, and Ic using mesh analysis.
 At node N, KCL must be satisfied so that Ia + Ib + Ic = 0 in this case.
The voltage at node N will not be zero in such a case. The same could
be done for an unbalanced ∆-Y, Y-∆, or ∆-∆ three-wire system.
 To calculate power in an unbalanced three-phase system requires that we
find the power in each phase earlier.
 The total power is not simply three times the power in one phase but
the sum of the powers in the three phases.

18
3
 THREE-PHASE POWER MEASUREMENT
 A single wattmeter can measure the average power in a
three-phase system that is balanced i.e. P1 = P2 = P3 ; the
total power is just 3x the reading of that one wattmeter.

 However, two or three single-phase wattmeters are

necessary to measure power if the system is unbalanced.

18
4
 THREE-WATTMETER METHOD
This method can work regardless of whether the load is balanced
or unbalanced, wye- or delta-connected. PT  P1  P2  P3

185
 TWO-WATTMETER METHOD
The two-wattmeter method is the most commonly used method for
three-phase power measurement in a 3-wire system (no neutral wire).

186
 Notice that the current coil of each wattmeter measures the line
current, while the respective voltage coil is connected between the
respective line and the third line and measures the line voltage.
 Although the individual wattmeters no longer read the power taken by
any particular phase, the algebraic sum of the two wattmeter readings
equals the total average power absorbed by the load, regardless of
whether it is wye- or delta-connected, balanced or unbalanced.
 The total real power is equal to the algebraic sum of the two
wattmeter readings
PT  P1  P2
18
7
 Two-Wattmeter Method for a balanced three phase system

Assume the source is in the abc sequence and the load impedance Z y  Z y .
Each phase voltage leads its respective phase current by θ
Each line voltage leads the corresponding phase voltage by 30°.
18
8
 Thus, the total phase difference between the phase current Ia and
line voltage Vab is θ + 30°.
 The average power read by wattmeter W1 is
P1  Re(Vab I*a )  Vab I a cos(  300 )  VL I L cos(  300 )

 Similarly, we can show that the average power read by wattmeter 2 is

P2  Re(Vcb I*c )  Vcb I c cos(  300 )  VL I L cos(  300 )
18
9
 cos(A  B)  cos Acos B  sin Asin B
We now use the trigonometric identities
cos(A  B)  cos Acos B  sin Asin B
to find the sum and the difference of the two wattmeter reading P1 and P2

P1  P2  VL IL cos(  300 )  cos(  300 ) 

P1  P2  VL I L cos cos30  sin sin 30  cos cos30  sin  sin 30
P1  P2  VL I L 2 cos cos30  3VLI L cos

Thus, the sum of the wattmeter readings gives the total average power
PT  P1  P2 (1)
19
0
Similarly P1  P2  VL I L cos(  300 )  cos(  300 ) 

P1  P2  VL I L cos cos30  sin sin 30  cos cos30  sin  sin 30

P1  P2  VL I L 2sin sin 30
P2  P1  VL I L sin

Thus, the difference of the wattmeter readings is proportional to the

total reactive power,
QT  3 P2  P1  (2)

19
1
 From (1) and (2), the apparent power can calculated as ST  T  QT2
P 2

 Dividing Eq. (2) by Eq. (1) gives the tangent of the power factor angle as
QT  P2  P1 
tan   3 P P 
PT  2 1

 Thus the power factor is,

 1  P2  P1  
cos  cos  tan 3
P  P 
  2 1 

19
2
 Thus, the two-wattmeter method not only provides the total real and
reactive powers, it can also be used to compute the power factor.
1. If P2 = P1, the load is resistive.
2. If P2 > P1, the load is inductive.
3. If P2 < P1, the load is capacitive.
 Although these results are derived from a balanced Y-connected load, they are
equally valid for a balancedΔ-connected load.
 The two-wattmeter method cannot be used for power measurement in a 3-phase
4-wire system unless the current through the neutral line is zero.
 We can use the three-wattmeter method to measure the real power in a 3-phase
4-wire system. 19
3
 Numerical
5
The three-phase balanced load in figure, has impedance per phase of
ZY = 8 + j6 Ω. If the load is connected to 208-V lines, predict the
readings of the wattmeter W1 and W2. Find PT and QT.
 Numerical
Solution:
5
The impedance per phase is ZY  (8  j6)  1036.87

Thus the Power Factor angle θ = 36.87°.

Since the line voltage VL = 208 V,

the line current is
Vp 208 3
IL    12A
ZY 10
P1  VL I L cos  30  208*12 * cos36.87  30  980.48W
P2  VL I L cos  30  208*12* cos36.87  30  2478.1W

Since P2  P1 , the load is inductive. This is evident from the load ZY itself.

PT  P1  P2  3.459kW
QT  3(P2  P1 )  3(1497.6)VAR  2.594kVAR
 Numerical
6
Three wattmeters W1, W2, and W3 are connected, respectively, to
phases A, B, and C of an unbalanced Y-connected load as in figure.
The balanced source is Y-connected with phase voltage 100 V in
negative (acb) sequence.
Find
(a) the wattmeter readings
(b)the total power absorbed
by the load.
 Numerical
6
Solution: The line currents are,
1000
Ia   6.670A
15
100120
Ib   8.9493.44A
10  j5
100 120
Ic   10  66.87A
6  j8
(a) The wattmeter readings are,
P1  Re(VAN I a*)  VAN I a cos(V  I ) 100*6.67*cos(00  00 )  667W
AN a

P2  Re(VBN I b*)  VBN I b cos(VBN  Ib ) 100*8.94*cos(1200  93.440)  800W

P3  Re(VCN I c*)  VCN I c cos(VCN  Ic ) 100*10*cos(1200  66.870 )  600W

(b) The total power absorbed is PT  P1  P2  P3  667800 600  2067W

The power absorbed can also be calculated as the power dissipated

across the resistors,
P  I (15)  I
2
(10)  I c (6)  6.672 (15)  8.942 (10) 102 (6)  667  800  600  2067W
2 2
T a b
The two-wattmeter method produces wattmeter readings
P1 = 1560 W and P2 = 2100 W when connected to a delta-
connected load. If the line voltage is 220 V, calculate:
(a) the per-phase average power,
(b) the per-phase reactive power,
(c) the power factor.
Solution: Numerical 7
(a). The total real or average power is PT  P1  P2 1560  2100  3660W
PT 3660
The per phase average power is Pp   1220W
3 3
(b) The total reactive power is QT  3(P2  P1)  3(21001560)  935.3VAR
QT 935.3
The per phase reactive power is Qp    311.77VAR
3 3
(c) The power-factor angle is   tan1  QT   tan1  935.3   14.330
 PT   3660 
Hence the power factor is cos  0.9689 (lagging) as QT is positive or P2 > P1
 References

• Edward Hughes; John Hiley, Keith Brown, Ian McKenzie Smith,

“Electrical and Electronic Technology”,10th edition, Pearson
Education Limited,2008.

• Alexander, Charles K., and Sadiku, Matthew N. O., Fundamentals of

Electric Circuits, 5th Ed, McGraw Hill, Indian Edition,2013.