1

Sets and Relations

Set
Set is a collection of well defined objects which are distinct from each
other. Sets are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C ,K and
elements are usually denoted by small letters a , b, c,... .
If a is an element of a set A, then we write a ∈ A and say a belongs to A
or a is in A or a is a member of A. If a does not belongs to A, we write
a ∉ A.

Standard Notations
N : A set of all natural numbers.
W : A set of all whole numbers.
Z : A set of all integers.
Z+ / Z− : A set of all positive/negative integers.
Q : A set of all rational numbers.
Q+ / Q− : A set of all positive/negative rational numbers.
R : A set of all real numbers.
R+ / R− : A set of all positive/negative real numbers.
C : A set of all complex numbers.

Methods for Describing a Set

(i) Roster Form / Listing Method / Tabular Form In this
method, a set is described by listing the elements, separated by
commas and enclosed within braces.
e.g. If A is the set of vowels in English alphabet, then
A = { a , e, i , o , u }
(ii) Set Builder Form / Rule Method In this method, we write
down a property or rule which gives us all the elements of the set.
e.g. A = { x : x is a vowel in English alphabet}

Types of Sets
(i) Empty/Null/Void Set A set containing no element, it is denoted
by φ or { }.
2 Handbook of Mathematics

(ii) Singleton Set A set containing a single element.

(iii) Finite Set A set containing finite number of elements or no
element.
Note : Cardinal Number (or Order) of a Finite Set The number of
elements in a given finite set is called its cardinal number. If A is a finite
set, then its cardinal number is denoted by n ( A).
(iv) Infinite Set A set containing infinite number of elements.
(v) Equivalent Sets Two sets are said to be equivalent, if they
have same number of elements.
If n( A) = n( B), then A and B are equivalent sets.
(vi) Equal Sets Two sets A and B are said to be equal, if every
element of A is a member of B and every element of B is a member
of A and we write it as A = B.

Subset and Superset

Let A and B be two sets. If every element of A is an element of B, then
A is called subset of B and B is called superset of A and written as
A ⊆ B or B ⊇ A.

Power Set
The set formed by all the subsets of a given set A, is called power set of
A, denoted by P ( A).

Universal Set (U)

A set consisting of all possible elements which occurs under
consideration is called a universal set.
Proper Subset
If A is a subset of B and A ≠ B, then A is called proper subset of B and
we write it as A ⊂ B.
Comparable Sets
Two sets A and B are comparable, if A ⊆ B or B ⊆ A.

Non-comparable Sets
For two sets A and B, if neither A ⊆ B nor B ⊆ A, then A and B are
called non-comparable sets.

Disjoint Sets
Two sets A and B are called disjoint, if A ∩ B = φ . i.e. they do not have
any common element.
 Sets and Relations 3

Intervals as Subsets of R
(i) The set of real numbers x, such that a ≤ x ≤ b is called a closed
interval and denoted by [a , b] i.e. [a, b] = { x : x ∈ R , a ≤ x ≤ b}.
(ii) The set of real number x, such that a < x < b is called an open
interval and is denoted by ( a , b)
i.e. ( a , b) = { x : x ∈ R , a < x < b}
(iii) The sets [a , b) = { x : x ∈ R , a ≤ x < b} and
( a , b] = { x : x ∈ R , a < x ≤ b } are called semi-open or
semi-closed intervals.

Venn Diagram
In a Venn diagram, the universal set is represented by a rectangular
region and its subset is represented by circle or a closed geometrical
figure inside the rectangular region.

U
A

Operations on Sets
1. Union of Sets
The union of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set of all those
elements which are either in A or in B or both in A and B.

A U
B

Laws of Union of Sets

For any three sets A, B and C, we have
(i) A ∪ φ = A (Identity law)
(ii) U ∪ A = U (Universal law)
(iii) A ∪ A = A (Idempotent law)
(iv) A ∪ B = B ∪ A (Commutative law)
(v) ( A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ ( B ∪ C ) (Associative law)
4 Handbook of Mathematics

2. Intersection of Sets
The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted U
by A ∩ B, is the set of all those elements A
B
which are common to both A and B.
If A1 , A 2 ,... , A n is a finite family of sets, then
their intersection is denoted by
n
∩ Ai or A1 ∩ A 2 ∩ ... ∩ A n .
i =1

Laws of Intersection
For any three sets, A, B and C, we have
(i) A ∩ φ = φ (Identity law)
(ii) U ∩ A = A (Universal law)
(iii) A ∩ A = A (Idempotent law)
(iv) A ∩ B = B ∩ A (Commutative law)
(v) ( A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ ( B ∩ C ) (Associative law)
(vi) A ∩ ( B ∪ C ) = ( A ∩ B) ∪ ( A ∩ C )
(intersection distributes over union)
(vii) A ∪ ( B ∩ C ) = ( A ∪ B) ∩ ( A ∪ C )
(union distributes over intersection)

3. Difference of Sets
For two sets A and B, the difference A − B is the set of all those
elements of A which do not belong to B.

A B U

Symmetric Difference
For two sets A and B, symmetric difference is the set ( A − B) ∪ ( B − A)
denoted by A ∆ B.

A U
B
A–B B–A
 Sets and Relations 5
Laws of Difference of Sets
(a) For any two sets A and B, we have
(i) A − B = A ∩ B′ (ii) B − A = B ∩ A′
(iii) A − B ⊆ A (iv) B − A ⊆ B
(v) A − B = A ⇔ A ∩ B = φ
(vi) ( A − B) ∪ B = A ∪ B
(vii) ( A − B) ∩ B = φ
(viii) ( A − B) ∪ ( B − A) = ( A ∪ B) − ( A ∩ B)
(b) If A, B and C are any three sets, then
(i) A − ( B ∩ C ) = ( A − B) ∪ ( A − C )
(ii) A − ( B ∪ C ) = ( A − B) ∩ ( A − C )
(iii) A ∩ ( B − C ) = ( A ∩ B) − ( A ∩ C )
(iv) A ∩ ( B ∆ C ) = ( A ∩ B) ∆ ( A ∩ C )

4. Complement of a Set A' U

If A is a set with U as universal set, then A
complement of a set A, denoted by A′ or Ac is the
set U − A .
Properties of Complement of Sets are
(i) ( A′ )′ = A = U − A′ (law of double complementation)
(ii) (a) A ∪ A′ = U
(b) A ∩ A′ = φ (complement laws)
(iii) (a) φ′ = U
(b) U ′ = φ (laws of empty set and universal set)
(iv) ( A ∪ B) ′ = U − ( A ∪ B)

Important Points to be Remembered

(i) Every set is a subset of itself i.e. A ⊆ A, for any set A.
(ii) Empty set φ is a subset of every set i.e. φ ⊂ A, for any set A.
(iii) For any set A and its universal set U, A ⊆ U
(iv) If A = φ, then power set has only one element, i.e. n( P( A)) = 1.
(v) Power set of any set is always a non-empty set.
(vi) Suppose A = {1, 2}, then P( A) = {{1}, { 2}, {1, 2}, φ }.
(a) A ∈ P( A) (b) { A} ∉ P( A)
(vii) If a set A has n elements, then P( A) has 2n elements.
(viii) Equal sets are always equivalent but equivalent sets may not be equal.
(ix) The set { φ } is not a null set. It is a set containing one element φ.
6 Handbook of Mathematics

Results on Number of Elements in Sets

(i) n ( A ∪ B) = n( A) + n ( B) − n( A ∩ B)
(ii) n( A ∪ B) = n( A) + n( B), if A and B are disjoint sets.
(iii) n( A − B) = n( A) − n( A ∩ B)
(iv) n ( B − A) = n ( B) − n ( A ∩ B)
(v) n( A ∆ B) = n( A) + n( B) − 2n( A ∩ B)
(vi) n( A ∪ B ∪ C ) = n( A) + n( B) + n(C ) − n( A ∩ B)
− n( B ∩ C ) − n( A ∩ C ) + n( A ∩ B ∩ C )
(vii) n (number of elements in exactly two of the sets A, B, C )
= n( A ∩ B) + n( B ∩ C ) + n(C ∩ A) − 3n( A ∩ B ∩ C )
(viii) n (number of elements in exactly one of the sets A, B, C )
= n( A) + n( B) + n(C ) − 2n( A ∩ B)
− 2n( B ∩ C ) − 2n( A ∩ C ) + 3n( A ∩ B ∩ C )
(ix) n( A′ ∪ B ′ ) = n( A ∩ B)′ = n(U ) − n( A ∩ B)
(x) n( A′ ∩ B ′ ) = n( A ∪ B)′ = n(U ) − n( A ∪ B)

Ordered Pair
An ordered pair consists of two objects or elements grouped in a
particular order.

Equality of Ordered Pairs

Two ordered pairs ( a1 , b1 ) and ( a2 , b2 ) are equal iff a1 = a2 and b1 = b2.

Cartesian (or Cross) Product of Sets

For two non-empty sets A and B, the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) such
that a ∈ A and b ∈ B is called Cartesian product A × B, i.e.
A × B = {( a , b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}
Ordered Triplet
If there are three sets A, B, C and a ∈ A, b ∈ B and c ∈C , then we form
an ordered triplet (a, b, c). It is also called 3-triple. The set of all
ordered triplets (a, b, c) is called the cartesian product of three sets
A, B and C.
i.e. A × B × C = {( a , b, c): a ∈ A, b ∈ B and c ∈C }
 Sets and Relations 7
Diagramatic Representation of
Cartesian Product of Two Sets
We first draw two circles representing sets A A B
and B one opposite to the other as shown in the 1 f
given figure and write the elements of sets in 2
the corresponding circles. 3 g
Now, we draw line segments starting from each
element of set A and terminating to each
element of set B.
Properties of Cartesian Product
For three sets A, B and C,
(i) n( A × B) = n( A) × n( B)
(ii) A × B = φ, if either A or B is an empty set.
(iii) A × ( B ∪ C ) = ( A × B) ∪ ( A × C )
(iv) A × ( B ∩ C ) = ( A × B) ∩ ( A × C )
(v) A × ( B − C ) = ( A × B) − ( A × C )
(vi) ( A × B) ∩ (C × D ) = ( A ∩ C ) × ( B ∩ D )
(vii) A × ( B′ ∪ C ′ )′ = ( A × B) ∩ ( A × C )
(viii) A × ( B ′ ∩ C ′ )′ = ( A × B) ∪ ( A × C )
(ix) If A ⊆ B and C ⊆ D , then ( A × C ) ⊆ ( B × D )
(x) If A ⊆ B, then A × A ⊆ ( A × B) ∩ ( B × A)
(xi) If A ⊆ B, then A × C ⊆ B × C for any set C.
(xii) A × B = B × A ⇔ A = B
(xiii) If A ≠ B, then A × B ≠ B × A
(xiv) If either A or B is an infinite set, then A × B is an infinite set.
(xv) If A and B be any two non-empty sets having n elements in
common, then A × B and B × A have n 2 elements in common.

Relation
If A and B are two non-empty sets, then a relation R from A to B is a
subset of A × B.
If R ⊆ A × B and ( a , b) ∈ R , then we say that a is related to b by the
relation R, written as aRb.
If R ⊆ A × A, then we simply say R is a relation on A.
8 Handbook of Mathematics

Representation of a Relation
(i) Roster form In this form, we represent the relation by the set
of all ordered pairs belongs to R.
e.g. Let R is a relation from set A = { −3, − 2, − 1, 1, 2, 3} to set
B = { 1, 4, 9, 10}, defined by aRb ⇔ a 2 = b,
Then, ( −3)2 = 9,( −2)2 = 4,( −1)2 = 1, ( 2)2 = 4,( 3)2 = 9.
Then, in roster form, R can be written as
R = {( −1, 1), ( − 2, 4), (1, 1),( 2, 4),( − 3, 9),( 3, 9)}
(ii) Set-builder form In this form, we represent the relation R
from set A to set B as
R = {( a , b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B and the rule which relate the elements
of A and B}
e.g. Let R is a relation from set A = { 1, 2, 4, 5} to set
 1 1 1
B = 1, , ,  such that
 2 4 5
  1  1  1 
R = (1, 1),  2,   4,   5,  
  2  4  5 
Then, in set-builder form, R can be written as
 1
R = ( a , b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B and b = 
 a
Note We cannot write every relation from set A to set B in set-builder form.

Domain, Codomain and Range of a Relation

Let R be a relation from a non-empty set A to a non-empty set B. Then,
set of all first components or coordinates of the ordered pairs belonging
to R is called the domain of R, while the set of all second components
or coordinates of the ordered pairs belonging to R is called the range
of R Also, the set B is called the codomain of relation R.
Thus, domain of R = { a : ( a , b) ∈ R } and range of R = { b : ( a , b) ∈ R }

Types of Relations
(i) Empty or Void Relation As φ ⊂ A × A, for any set A, so φ is a
relation on A, called the empty or void relation.
(ii) Universal Relation Since, A × A ⊆ A × A , so A × A is a
relation on A, called the universal relation.
(iii) Identity Relation The relation I A = {( a , a ) : a ∈ A} is called
the identity relation on A.
(iv) Reflexive Relation A relation R on a set A is said to be
reflexive relation, if every element of A is related to itself.
Thus, ( a , a ) ∈ R , ∀ a ∈ A ⇒ R is reflexive.
 Sets and Relations 9
(v) Symmetric Relation A relation R on a set A is said to be
symmetric relation iff ( a , b) ∈ R ⇒ ( b, a ) ∈ R , ∀ a , b ∈ A
i.e. a R b ⇒ bRa , ∀ a , b ∈ A
(vi) Transitive Relation A relation R on a set A is said to be
transitive relation, iff ( a , b) ∈ R and ( b, c) ∈ R
⇒ ( a , c) ∈ R , ∀ a , b, c ∈ A

Equivalence Relation
A relation R on a set A is said to be an equivalence relation, if it is
simultaneously reflexive, symmetric and transitive on A.

Equivalence Classes
Let R be an equivalence relation on A (≠ φ). Let a ∈ A .
Then, the equivalence class of a denoted by [a ] or ( a ) is defined as the
set of all those points of A which are related to a under the relation R.

Inverse Relation
If A and B are two non-empty sets and R be a relation from A to B,
then the inverse of R, denoted by R −1 , is a relation from B to A and is
defined by R −1 = {( b, a ) : ( a , b) ∈ R }.

Composition of Relation
Let R and S be two relations from sets A to B and B to C respectively,
then we can define relation SoR from A to C such that
( a , c) ∈ SoR ⇔ ∃ b ∈ B such that ( a , b) ∈ R and ( b, c) ∈ S .
This relation SoR is called the composition of R and S .
(i) RoS ≠ SoR (ii) (SoR )−1 = R −1oS −1 known as reversal rule.

Important Results on Relation

(i) If R and S are two equivalence relations on a set A, then R ∩ S
is also an equivalence relation on A.
(ii) The union of two equivalence relations on a set is not
necessarily an equivalence relation on the set.
(iii) If R is an equivalence relation on a set A, then R −1 is also an
equivalence relation on A.
(vi) Let A and B be two non-empty finite sets consisting of m and n
elements, respectively. Then, A × B consists of mn ordered
pairs. So, the total number of relations from A to B is 2nm .
(v) If a set A has n elements, then number of reflexive relations
2
from A to A is 2n − n .
 4
Theory of Equations
and Inequations
Polynomial
An algebraic expression of the form a0 + a1x + a2x 2 +...+ an x n , where
n ∈ N , is called a polynomial. It is generally denoted by p( x ), q( x ),
f ( x ), g( x ) etc.

Real Polynomial
Let a0 , a1 , a2 , K , an be real numbers and x is a real variable, then,
f ( x ) = a0 + a1x + a2x 2 + K + an x n is called a real polynomial of real
variable x with real coefficients.

Complex Polynomial
If a0 , a1 , a2 , K , an be complex numbers and x is a varying complex
number, then f ( x ) = a0 + a1x + a2x 2 + K + an − 1x n − 1 + an x n is called a
complex polynomial or a polynomial of complex variable x with complex
coefficients.

Degree of a Polynomial
A polynomial f ( x ) = a0 + a1x + a2x 2 + a3 x3 + K + an x n , real or complex
is a polynomial of degree n, if an ≠ 0.

Some Important Deduction

(i) Linear Polynomial A polynomial of degree one is known as
linear polynomial.
(ii) Quadratic Polynomial A polynomial of second degree is
known as quadratic polynomial.
(iii) Cubic Polynomial A polynomial of degree three is known as
cubic polynomial.
(iv) Biquadratic Polynomial A polynomial of degree four is
known as biquadratic polynomial.
 Theory of Equations and Inequations 47

Polynomial Equation
If f ( x ) is a polynomial, real or complex, then f ( x ) = 0 is called a
polynomial equation.

Quadratic Equation
A quadratic polynomial f ( x ) when equated to zero is called quadratic
equation.
i.e. ax 2 + bx + c = 0, where a , b, c ∈ R and a ≠ 0.

Roots of a Quadratic Equation

The values of variable x which satisfy the quadratic equation is called
roots of quadratic equation.

Solution of Quadratic Equation

1. Factorisation Method
Let ax 2 + bx + c = a( x − α ) ( x − β ) = 0. Then, x = α and x = β will satisfy
the given equation.

2. Direct Formula
Quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ( a ≠ 0) has two roots, given by

− b + b2 − 4ac − b − b2 − 4ac
α= ,β =
2a 2a
− b+ D − b− D
or α= ,β =
2a 2a
where, D = ∆ = b2 − 4ac is called discriminant of the equation.
Above formulas also known as Sridharacharya formula.

Nature of Roots
(i) Let quadratic equation be ax 2 + bx + c = 0, whose discriminant
is D.
Also, let a , b , c ∈ R and a ≠ 0. Then,
(a) D < 0 ⇒ Complex roots
(b) D > 0 ⇒ Real and distinct roots
b
(c) D = 0 ⇒ Real and equal roots as α = β = −
2a
48 Handbook of Mathematics

Note If a, b, c ∈ Q, a ≠ 0, then
(a) D > 0 and D is a perfect square.
⇒ Roots are unequal and rational.
(b) D > 0, a = 1; b, c ∈ I and D is a perfect square.
⇒ Roots are integral.
(c) D > 0 and D is not a perfect square.
⇒ Roots are irrational and unequal.
(ii) Conjugate Roots The irrational (complex) roots of a quadratic
equation, whose coefficients are rational (real) always occur in
conjugate pairs. Thus,
(a) if one root be α + iβ, then other root will be α − iβ.
(b) if one root be α + β , then other root will be α − β .
(iii) Let D1 and D2 are the discriminants of two quadratic equations.
(a) If D1 + D2 ≥ 0, then atleast one of D1 and D2 ≥ 0
Thus, if D1 < 0, then D2 > 0, if D2 < 0, then D1 > 0 or D1 and
D2 both can be non-negative (means positive or zero).
(b) If D1 + D2 < 0, then atleast one of D1 and D2 < 0
Thus, if D1 > 0, then D2 < 0, if D2 > 0, then D1 < 0 or D1 and
D2 both can be negative.

Roots Under Particular Conditions

For the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0.
(i) If a > 0 and b = 0, roots are real/complex according as c < 0 or c > 0.
These roots are equal in magnitude but of opposite sign.
(ii) If c = 0, one root is zero, other is − b / a.
(iii) If b = c = 0, both roots are zero.
(iv) If a = c, roots are reciprocal to each other.
a > 0, c < 0
(v) If  ⇒ Roots are of opposite sign.
a < 0, c > 0
a > 0, b > 0, c > 0
(vi) If  ⇒ Both roots are negative, provided D ≥ 0
a < 0, b < 0, c < 0
a > 0, b < 0, c > 0
(vii) If  ⇒ Both roots are positive, provided D ≥ 0
a < 0, b > 0, c < 0
(viii) If sign of a = sign of b ≠ sign of c
⇒ Greater root in magnitude is negative.
(ix) If sign of b = sign of c ≠ sign of a
⇒ Greater root in magnitude is positive.
(x) If a + b + c = 0 ⇒ One root is 1 and second root is c/a.
 Theory of Equations and Inequations 49

Relation between Roots and Coefficients

1. Quadratic Equation
If roots of quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ( a ≠ 0) are α and β, then
−b coefficient of x
Sum of roots = S = α + β = =−
a coefficient of x 2
c constant term
Product of roots = P = α ⋅ β = =
a coefficient of x 2
D
Also, | α − β | =
|a|

2. Cubic Equation
If α , β and γ are the roots of cubic equation ax3 + bx 2 + cx + d = 0.
b
Then, ∑ α =α +β + γ = −
a
c
∑ αβ = αβ + βγ + γα =
a
d
αβγ = −
a

3. Biquadratic Equation
If α , β , γ and δ are the roots of the biquadratic equation
ax 4 + bx3 + cx 2 + dx + e = 0, then
b
S1 = α + β + γ + δ = − ,
a
c c
S 2 = αβ + αγ + αδ + βγ + βδ + γδ = ( − 1)2 =
a a
c
or S 2 = (α + β )( γ + δ ) + αβ + γδ =
a
d d
S3 = αβγ + βγδ + γδα + αβδ = ( − 1)3 =−
a a
d
or S3 = αβ( γ + δ ) + γδ(α + β ) = −
a
e e
and S 4 = α ⋅ β ⋅ γ ⋅ δ = ( − 1)4 =
a a
50 Handbook of Mathematics

Symmetric Roots
If the roots of quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ( a ≠ 0) are α and β,
then
b2 − 4ac ± D
(i) (α − β ) = (α + β )2 − 4αβ = ± =
a a
b − 2ac
2
(ii) α 2 + β 2 = (α + β )2 − 2 αβ =
a2
b b2 − 4ac ±b D
(iii) α 2 − β 2 = (α + β ) (α + β )2 − 4αβ = ± 2
=
a a2
b( b − 3ac )
2
(iv) α3 + β3 = (α + β )3 − 3 αβ(α + β ) = −
a3
± ( b2 − ac) b2 − 4ac
(v) α3 − β3 = (α − β )3 + 3 αβ(α − β ) =
a3
2
 b2 − 2ac 2c2
(vi) α 4 + β 4 = {(α + β )2 − 2 αβ } 2 − 2α 2β 2 =  2
 − 2
 a  a
± b( b2 − 2ac) b2 − 4ac
(vii) α 4 − β 4 = (α 2 − β 2 ) (α 2 + β 2 ) =
a4
b − ac
2
(viii) α 2 + αβ + β 2 = (α + β )2 − αβ =
a2
α β α +β 2
(α + β ) − 2 αβ b2 − 2ac
2 2
(ix) + = = =
β α αβ αβ ac
bc
(x) α β + β α = αβ(α + β ) = − 2
2 2
a
2 2
α β α 4 + β 4 (α 2 + β 2 )2 − 2 α 2 β 2 b2D + 2a 2c2
(xi)   +   = = =
β α α2 β2 α2 β2 a 2c 2

Formation of Polynomial Equation from Given Roots

If α1, α 2, α3 ,..., α n are the roots of an nth degree equation, then the
equation is x n − S1x n −1 + S 2x n − 2 − S3 x n −3 +...+( −1)n S n = 0, where S n
denotes the sum of the products of roots taken n at a time.
1. Quadratic Equation
If α and β are the roots of a quadratic equation, then the equation is
x 2 − S1x + S 2 = 0, where S1 = sum of roots and S 2 = multiplication of roots.
i.e. x 2 − (α + β) x + αβ = 0.
 Theory of Equations and Inequations 51
2. Cubic Equation
If α, β and γ are the roots of cubic equation, then the equation is
x3 − S1x 2 + S 2x − S3 = 0
i.e. x3 − (α + β + γ) x 2 + (αβ + βγ + γ α) x − αβγ = 0

3. Biquadratic Equation
If α , β , γ and δ are the roots of a biquadratic equation, then the
equation is
x 4 − S1x3 + S 2x 2 − S3 x + S 4 = 0
i.e. x 4 − (α + β + γ + δ )x3 + (αβ + βγ + γδ + αδ + βδ + αγ )x 2
− (αβγ + αβδ + βγδ + γδα )x + αβγδ = 0

Equation in Terms of the Roots of another Equation

If α , β are roots of the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0, then the equation
whose roots are
(i) − α , − β ⇒ ax 2 − bx + c = 0 [replace x by −x]
(ii) α n , β n ; n ∈ N ⇒ a( x1/ n )2 + b ( x1/ n ) + c = 0 [replace x by x1/ n ]
(iii) kα , kβ ⇒ ax 2 + kbx + k2c = 0 [replace x by x / k]
(iv) k + α , k + β ⇒ a( x − k) + b( x − k) + c = 0
2
[replace x by ( x − k)]
α β
(v) , ⇒ k2ax 2 + kbx + c = 0 [replace x by kx]
k k
(vi) α1/ n , β1/ n ; n ∈ N ⇒ a( x n )2 + b( x n ) + c = 0 [replace x by x n ]
The quadratic function f ( x ) = ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c is
always resolvable into linear factor, iff
abc + 2 fgh − af 2 − bg2 − ch 2 = 0
a h g
or h b f =0
g f c

Condition for Common Roots in Quadratic Equations

1. Only One Root is Common
If α is the common root of quadratic equations a1x 2 + b1x + c1 = 0 and
a2x 2 + b2x + c2 = 0, then a1α 2 + b1α + c1 = 0 and a2 α 2 + b2 α + c2 = 0.
52 Handbook of Mathematics

By Cramer’s Rule
α2 α 1
= =
− c1 b1 a1 − c1 a1 b1
− c2 b2 a2 − c2 a2 b2
α2 α 1
or = =
b1c2 − b2c1 a2c1 − a1c2 a1b2 − a2b1
a2c1 − a1c2 b c − b2c1
∴ α= = 1 2 ,α ≠ 0
a1b2 − a2b1 a2c1 − a1c2
Hence, the condition for only one root common is
( c1a2 − c2a1 )2 = ( b1c2 − b2c1 )( a1b2 − a2b1 )

2. Both Roots are Common

The required condition is
a1 b1 c1
= =
a2 b2 c2
(i) To find the common roots of two equations, make the coefficient
of second degree term in the two equations equal and subtract.
The value of x obtained is the required common root.
(ii) Two different quadratic equations with rational coefficient can
not have single common root which is complex or irrational as
imaginary and surd roots always occur in pair.

Properties of Polynomial Equation

1. Let f ( x ) = 0 be a polynomial equation, then we have the following
results.
(i) f ( a ) ⋅ f ( b) < 0, then atleast one or in general odd number of
roots of the equation f ( x ) = 0 lies between a and b.
Y f(a) = +ve
Y f(a) = +ve

A x=b A C x=b
X X
O x=a O x=a B

f(b) = –ve f(b) = –ve

 Theory of Equations and Inequations 53
(ii) f ( a ) ⋅ f ( b) > 0, then in general even number of roots of the
equation f ( x ) = 0 lies between a and b or no root exist.
(iii) f ( a ) = f ( b), then there exists a point c between a and b such
that f ′ ( c) = 0, a < c < b.
2. Repeated roots A polynomial equation f ( x ) = 0 has exactly n
roots equal to α if f (α ) = f ′ (α ) = f ′′(α )... = f n −1(α ) = 0 and
f n (α ) ≠ 0.
(i) If the roots of the quadratic equation a1x 2 + b1x + c1 = 0,
 α α 
a2x 2 + b2x + c2 = 0 are in the same ratio  i. e. 1 = 2  , then
 β1 β 2 
b12 a1c1
= .
b22 a2c2
(ii) If one root is k times the other root of the quadratic equation
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ,then
( k + 1)2 b2
= .
k ac

Quadratic Expression
An expression of the form ax 2 + bx + c, where a , b, c ∈ R and a ≠ 0 is
called a quadratic expression in x.
1. Graph of a Quadratic Expression
We have,
y = ax 2 + bx + c = f ( x )
 b
2
D 
y = a  x +  − 
 2a  4a 2 
2
D  b
⇒ y+ = a x + 
4a  2a 
D b
Let y+ = Y and x + =X
4a 2a
Y
Y = a ⋅ X2 ⇒ X2 =
a
(i) The graph of the curve y = f ( x ) is parabolic.
b
(ii) The axis of parabola is X = 0 or x + = 0 i.e., parallel to
2a
Y-axis.
54 Handbook of Mathematics

(iii) If a > 0, then the parabola opens upward.

If a < 0, then the parabola opens downward.

X-axis

a > 0, D < 0 a < 0, D < 0

X-axis

2. Position of y = ax 2 + bx + c with Respect to Axes

(i) For D > 0, parabola cuts X-axis and has two real and distinct
− b± D
points i.e. x = .
2a
a<0 D>0
X-axis

X-axis

a>0 D>0

b
(ii) For D = 0, parabola touch X-axis in one point, x = − .
2a
a<0 D=0
X-axis

X-axis
a>0 D=0

(iii) For D < 0, parabola does not cut X-axis (i.e. imaginary value
of x).
a<0 D<0
X-axis

X-axis
a>0 D<0

3. Maximum and Minimum Values of Quadratic

Expression
−b
(i) If a > 0, quadratic expression has least value at x = . This least
2a
4ac − b2 D
value is given by =− . But their is no greatest value.
4a 4a
 Theory of Equations and Inequations 55
b
(ii) If a < 0, quadratic expression has greatest value at x = − . This
2a
4ac − b2 D
greatest value is given by =− . But their is no least
4a 4a
value.

4. Sign of Quadratic Expression

(i) a > 0 and D < 0, so f ( x ) > 0 for all x ∈ R i.e. f ( x ) is positive for all
real values of x.
(ii) a < 0 and D < 0, so f ( x ) < 0 for all x ∈ R i.e. f ( x ) is negative for all
real values of x.
(iii) a > 0 and D = 0, so f ( x ) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ R i.e. f ( x ) is positive for all
real values of x except at vertex, where f ( x ) = 0.
(iv) a < 0 and D = 0, so f ( x ) ≤ 0 for all x ∈ R i.e. f ( x ) is negative for all
real values of x except at vertex, where f ( x ) = 0.
(v) a > 0 and D > 0
Let f ( x ) = 0 have two real roots α and β (α < β ), then f ( x ) > 0 for
x ∈ ( − ∞ , α ) ∪ (β , ∞ ) and f ( x ) < 0 for all x ∈(α , β ).
(vi) a < 0 and D > 0
Let f ( x ) = 0 have two real roots α and β (α < β ), then, f ( x ) < 0 for
all x ∈ ( − ∞ , α ) ∪ (β , ∞ ) and f ( x ) > 0 for all x ∈(α , β ).

5. Intervals of Roots
In some problems, we want the roots of the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 to
lie in a given interval. For this we impose conditions on a , b and c.
b c
Since, a ≠ 0, we can take f ( x ) = x 2 + x + .
a a
(i) Both the roots are positive i.e., they lie in ( 0, ∞ ), iff roots are real,
the sum of the roots as well as the product of the roots is positive.
−b c
i.e. α +β = > 0 and αβ = > 0 with b2 − 4ac ≥ 0
a a
Similarly, both the roots are negative i.e. they lie in (− ∞, 0), iff
roots are real, the sum of the roots is negative and the product of
the roots is positive.
−b c
i.e. α +β = < 0 and αβ = > 0 with b2 − 4ac ≥ 0
a a
56 Handbook of Mathematics

(ii) Both the roots are greater than a given number k, iff the
following conditions are satisfied
−b
D ≥ 0, > k and af ( k) > 0
2a

–b/2a
X' X X' X
k (–b/2a) k

(iii) Both the roots are less than a given number k, iff the following
conditions are satisfied
−b
D ≥ 0, < k and af ( k) > 0
2a
(iv) Both the roots lie in a given interval ( k1 , k2 ), iff the following
conditions are satisfied
−b
D ≥ 0, k1 < < k2 and af ( k1 ) > 0, af ( k2 ) > 0
2a
or f ( k1 ) ⋅ f ( k2 ) > 0

(–b/2a)
X' X X' X
k1 (–b/2a) k2 k1 k2

(v) Exactly one of the roots lie in a given interval ( k1 , k2 ), iff D > 0 and
f ( k1 ) f ( k2 ) < 0.

k2 k1
X' X X' X
k1 k2

(vi) A given number k lies between the roots, iff af ( k) < 0 and D > 0.

k
X' X

Note The roots of the equation will be of opposite sign, iff 0 lies between the
roots.
⇒ af (0 ) < 0, D > 0
 Theory of Equations and Inequations 57
Descarte’s Rule of Signs
The maximum number of positive real roots of a polynomial equation
f ( x ) = 0 is the number of changes of sign in f ( x ).
The maximum number of negative real roots of a polynomial equation
f ( x ) = 0 is the number of changes of sign in f ( − x ).

Lagrange’s Identity
If a1 , a2 , a3 , b1 , b2 , b3 ∈ R, then
( a12 + a22 + a32 )( b12 + b22 + b32 ) − ( a1b1 + a2b2 + a3 b3 )2
= ( a1b2 − a2b1 )2 + ( a2b3 − a3 b2 )2 + ( a3 b1 − a1b3 )2

Important Points about Roots of Algebraic Equation

(i) An equation of degree n has n roots, real or imaginary.
(ii) Irrational roots of a polynomial equation with rational coefficients, always
occurs in a pair, e.g. if 2 + 3 is a root, then 2 − 3 is also its root.
(iii) Imaginary roots of a polynomial equation with real coefficients always
occur in a pair e.g. if ( 2 + 3 i) is a root, then ( 2 − 3 i) is also its root.
(iv) An odd degree equation has atleast one real root whose sign is opposite
to that of its last term (constant term), provided that the coefficient of
highest degree term is positive.
(v) Every equation of an even degree whose constant term is negative and
the coefficient of highest degree term is positive has atleast two real
roots, one positive and one negative.
(vi) If an equation has only one change of sign, then it has one positive root.
(vii) If all the terms of an equation are positive and the equation involves
no odd powers of x, then all its roots are complex.
(viii) If all the terms of an equation are positive and equation involves only odd
power of x, then O is the only real root.

Inequality
A statement involving the symbols >, <, ≤ or ≥ is called an inequality
or inequation.
Here, the symbols < (less than), > (greater than), ≤ (less than or equal
to) and ≥ (greater than or equal to) are known as symbol of
inequalities.
e.g. 5 < 7, x ≤ 2, x + y ≥ 11

Types of Inequalities
(i) Numerical inequality An inequality which does not involve
any variable is called a numerical inequality.
58 Handbook of Mathematics

e.g. 4 > 2, 8 < 21

(ii) Literal inequality An inequality which have variables is
called literal inequality.
e.g. x < 7, y ≥ 11, x − y ≤ 4
(iii) Strict inequality An inequality which have only < or > is called
strict inequality.
e.g. 3x + y < 0, x > 7
(iv) Slack inequality An inequality which have only
≥ or ≤ is called slack inequality.
e.g. 3x + 2 y ≤ 0, y ≥ 4

Linear Inequality
An inequality is said to be linear, if the variable (s) occurs in first
degree only and there is no term involving the product of the variables.
e.g. ax + b ≤ 0, ax + by + c > 0, ax ≤ 4.

Linear Inequality in One Variable

A linear inequality which has only one variable, is called linear
inequality in one variable.
e.g. ax + b < 0, where a ≠ 0

Linear Inequality in Two Variables

A linear inequality which have only two variables, is called linear
inequality in two variables.
e.g. 3x + 11 y ≤ 0, 4t + 3 y > 0
Concept of Intervals on a Number Line
On number line or real line, various types of infinite subsets, known as
intervals, are defined below
Closed Interval
The set of all real numbers x, such that a ≤ x ≤ b, is called a closed
interval and is denoted by [a, b].
On the number line, [a , b] may be represented as follows
a≤x≤b
−∞ ∞
a b

Open Interval
The set of all real numbers x, such that a < x < b, is called an open
interval and is denoted by (a, b) or ] a, b [.
 Theory of Equations and Inequations 59
On the number line, ( a , b) may be represented as follows
a<x<b
−∞ ∞
a b

Semi-open or Semi-closed Intervals

Here, ( a , b] = { x : a < x ≤ b, x ∈ R } and [a , b) = { x : a ≤ x < b, x ∈ R }
are known as semi-open or semi-closed intervals.
a<x≤b
−∞ ∞
a (a , b ] b
a≤x<b
−∞ ∞
a [a , b ) b

Solution of an Inequality
Any solution of an inequality is the value(s) of variable(s) which makes
it a true statement.

1. Addition or Subtraction
Some number may be added (or subtracted) to (from) both sides of an
inequality i.e. if a > b, then for any number c,
a + c > b + c or a − c > b − c

2. Multiplication or Division
Let a, b and c be three real numbers, such that a > b and c ≠ 0.
a b
(i) If c > 0, then > and ac > bc.
c c
a b
(ii) If a > b and c < 0, then < and ac < bc.
c c

Solution Set
The set of all solutions of an inequality is called the solution set of the
inequality.

Algebraic Solution of Linear Inequalities in One Variable

Any solution of an linear inequality in one variable is a value of the
variable which makes it a true statement.
e.g. x = 1 is the solution of the linear inequality 4x + 7 > 0.
60 Handbook of Mathematics

Solution of System of Linear Inequalities in One Variable

The common point which satisfy both the inequations is said to be the
solution of system of equation.

Important Point to be Remembered

a1x 2 + b1x + c1
To find the values attained by rational expression of the form
a2 x 2 + b2 x + c2
for real values of x, proceed as follows
(a) Equate the given rational expression to y.
(b) Obtain a quadratic equation in x by simplifying the expression.
(c) Obtain the discriminant of the quadratic equation.
(d) Put discriminant ≥ 0 and solve the inequation for y.
The values of y, so obtained determines the set of values attained by the
given rational expression.

Inequation Containing Absolute Value

(i)|x|< a ⇒ − a < x < a ( a > 0)
(ii)|x|≤ a ⇒ − a ≤ x ≤ a ( a > 0)
(iii)|x|> a ⇒ x < − a or x > a ( a > 0)
(iv)|x|≥ a ⇒ x ≤ − a or x ≥ a ( a > 0)

Important Inequalities
1. Arithmetic, Geometric and Harmonic Mean Inequalities
a+b 2
(i) If a , b > 0, then ≥ ab ≥
2 (1 / a ) + (1 / b)
(ii) If ai > 0, where i = 1, 2, 3, K , n, then
a1 + a2 + K + an n
≥ ( a1 ⋅ a2 ⋅ ... ⋅ an )1/ n ≥
n 1 1 1
+ +K +
a1 a2 an
(iii) If a1 , a2 ,... , an are n positive real numbers and m1 , m2 ,... , mn are
n positive rational numbers, then
1
m1a1+ m2a2 +...+ mn an
≥ ( a1m1 ⋅ a2m 2 ⋅ . . . ⋅ anm n ) m1 + m 2 +... + m n
m1 + m2 +...+ mn
i.e. Weighted AM ≥ Weighted GM
 Theory of Equations and Inequations 61

Important Points to be Remembered

(i) If a > b and b > c, then a > c. Generally, if a1 > a2 , a2 > a3 ,K , an − 1 > an , then
a1 > an .
(ii) If a > b , then a ± c > b ± c , ∀ c ∈ R
a b
(iii) (a) If a > b and m > 0, am > bm, >
m m
b a
(b) If a > b and m < 0, bm > am, >
m m
(iv) If a > b > 0, then
1 1
(a) a2 > b2 (b) | a | > |b | (c) <
a b
(v) If a < b < 0, then
1 1
(a) a2 > b2 (b) | a | > |b | (c) >
a b
(vi) If a < 0 < b, then
(a) a2 > b2 , if | a | > |b |
(b) a2 < b2 , if | a | < |b |
(vii) If a < x < b and a, b are positive real numbers, then a2 < x 2 < b2
(viii) If a < x < b and a is negative number and b is positive number, then
(a) 0 ≤ x 2 < b2 , if b > a
(b) 0 ≤ x 2 < a2 , if a > b
a
(ix) If > 0, then
b
(a) a > 0, if b > 0
(b) a < 0, if b < 0
(x) If ai > bi > 0, where i = 1, 2, 3,... , n, then
a1a2 a3K an > b1b2b3Kbn
(xi) If ai > bi , where i = 1, 2, 3, K , n, then
a1 + a2 + a3 + K + an > b1 + b2 + K + bn
(xii) If 0 < a < 1 and n is a positive rational number, then
(a) 0 < a n < 1 (b) a −n > 1
 11
Trigonometric Functions,
Identities and Equations
Angle
When a ray OA starting from its initial B
position OA rotates about its end point O

de
si
and takes the final position OB, we say

al
that angle AOB (written as ∠ AOB) has
in
rm
Te
been formed.
θ°
The amount of rotation from the initial side A
to the terminal side is called the measure O Initial side
(Vertex)
of the angle.

Positive and Negative Angles

An angle formed by a rotating ray is said to be positive or negative
depending on whether it moves in an anti-clockwise or a clockwise
direction, respectively.
B O Initial side
A
−θ°
ed
si
al
in

Te
rm

rm
Te

in
al

θ°
si
d

A
e

O Initial side B
(Positive angle) (Negative angle)

Measurement of Angles
There are three system for measuring the angles, which are given
below

1. Sexagesimal System (Degree Measure)

In this system, a right angle is divided into 90 equal parts, called the
degrees. The symbol 1° is used to denote one degree. Each degree is
divided into 60 equal parts, called the minutes and one minute is
 Trigonometric Functions, Identities and Equations 125
divided into 60 equal parts, called the seconds. Symbols 1′ and 1′ ′ are
used to denote one minute and one second, respectively.
i.e. 1 right angle = 90°, 1° = 60′, 1′ = 60′ ′

2. Circular System (Radian Measure)

In this system, angle is measured in radian. A radian is the angle
subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc, whose length is equal to
the radius of the circle. The number of radians in an angle subtended
arc
by an arc of circle at the centre is equal to .
radius

3. Centesimal System (French System)

In this system, a right angle is divided into 100 equal parts, called the
grades. Each grade is subdivided into 100 min and each minute is
divided into 100 s.
i.e. 1 right angle = 100 grades = 100 g , 1 g = 100′, 1′ = 100′ ′

Relation between Degree and Radian

(i) π radian = 180°
 180°  22
or 1 radian =   = 57°16′ 22′ ′ where, π = = 3.14159
 π  7
 π 
(ii) 1° =   rad = 0.01746 rad
 180
(iii) If D is the number of degrees, R is the number of radians and G
is the number of grades in an angle θ, then
D G 2R
= =
90 100 π

Length of an Arc of a Circle

If in a circle of radius r, an arc of length l subtend an angle θ radian at
the centre, then
l
Q
θ r

1c
r P

l Length of arc
θ= = or l = r θ
r Radius
126 Handbook of Mathematics

Trigonometric Ratios For acute Angle

Relation between different sides and angles of a right angled triangle
are called trigonometric ratios or T-ratios.
Trigonometric ratios can be represented as
C
Perpendicular BC
sin θ = = ,

Perpendicular
Hypotenuse AC

e
n us
Base AB

te
cos θ = =

o
,

yp
Hypotenuse AC

H
Perpendicular BC
tan θ = = , θ
Base AB A B
Base
1
cosec θ =
sin θ
1 cos θ 1
sec θ = , cot θ = =
cos θ sin θ tan θ

Trigonometric (or Circular) Functions

Let X ′OX and YOY ′ be the coordinate axes. Taking O as the centre
and a unit radius, draw a circle, cutting the coordinate axes at
A, B, A′ and B′, as shown in the figure.
Y
B
P(x, y)
1 l
y
θ
X' A' O x M A X

B'
Y'
 arc AP θ l
Q∠AOP = radius OP = 1 = θ °, using θ = r 
 

Now, six circular functions may be defined as

(i) cosθ = x (ii) sinθ = y
1 1
(iii) sec θ = , x ≠ 0 (iv) cosec θ = , y ≠ 0
x y
y x
(v) tanθ = , x ≠ 0 (vi) cotθ = , y ≠ 0
x y
 Trigonometric Functions, Identities and Equations 127
Trigonometric Function of Some Standard Angles
Angle 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180°
1 1 3 3 1 1
sin 0 1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 1 1 1 1 3
cos 1 0 − − − −1
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1
tan 0 1 3 ∞ − 3 −1 − 0
3 3
1 1
cot ∞ 3 1 0 − −1 − 3 −∞
3 3
2 2
sec 1 2 2 ∞ −2 − 2 − −1
3 3
2 2
cosec ∞ 2 2 1 2 2 ∞
3 3

Graph of Trigonometric Functions

1. Graph of sin x
Y y = sinx
π, 1
(– 3π , 1
2 ) 1 2 ( )
y=1

X' O X
–2π – 3π –π –π π π 3π
2π
2 2 2 2
–1 y=–1
(– π , –1 ) ( 3π , –1
)
2 2
Y'
(i) Domain = R (ii) Range = [−1, 1] (iii) Period = 2π
2. Graph of cos x
Y
y = cosx
(– 2π, 1) 1 (0, 1) (2π, 1)
y=1
D

X' O X
–2π – 3π −π –π π π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2
y = –1
(– π, –1) –1 (π, –1)
Y'
(i) Domain = R (ii) Range = [−1, 1] (iii) Period = 2π
128 Handbook of Mathematics

3. Graph of tan x
Y y = tanx

X' X
–π –π O π π π
–π
– 3π 2 4
3π
2 4 2 2
–1

Y'
π
(i) Domain = R ~ ( 2n + 1) , n ∈ I
2
(ii) Range = ( − ∞ , ∞ )
(iii) Period = π
4. Graph of cot x
Y
y = cotx

X' X
–2π – 3π –π –π O π π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2

Y'
(i) Domain = R ~ nπ , n ∈ I (ii) Range = ( − ∞ , ∞ ) (iii) Period = π
5. Graph of sec x
Y
y = sec x

(–2π, 1) (2π, 1)

y=1
1
X' X
–2π – 3π –π –π O π π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2
–1 y = –1
(–π, –1) (π, –1)

Y'
π
(i) Domain = R ~ ( 2n + 1) , n ∈ I
2
(ii) Range = ( − ∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ )
(iii) Period = 2π
 Trigonometric Functions, Identities and Equations 129
6. Graph of cosec x
Y
y = cosec x

( –23π,1) (π2,1) ( 52π,1)

y=1
1
X' X
–2π –π
–π/2 O π π 3π 2π 5π
– 3π
2 –1 2 2 2
y = –1
– π,–1
( ) 3π,_1
( )
2 2

Y'
(i) Domain = R ~ nπ , n ∈ I
(ii) Range = ( −∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ )
(iii) Period = 2π
Note|sin θ | ≤ 1,|cos θ| ≤ 1,|sec θ| ≥ 1,|cosec θ| ≥ 1 for all values of θ, for which
the functions are defined.

Trigonometric Functions in Terms of

sine and cosine Functions
Given below are trigonometric functions defined in terms of sine and
cosine functions
1 1
(i) sin θ = or cosec θ =
cosec θ sin θ
1 1
(ii) cos θ = or sec θ =
sec θ cos θ
1 cos θ 1 sin θ
(iii) cot θ = = or tan θ = =
tan θ sin θ cot θ cos θ

Fundamental Trigonometric Identities

An equation involving trigonometric functions which is true for all
those angles for which the functions are defined is called
trigonometrical identity.
(i) cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1 or 1 − cos2 θ = sin2 θ or 1 − sin2 θ = cos2 θ
(ii) 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ or tan2 θ = sec2θ − 1 or sec2θ − tan2 θ = 1
(iii) 1 + cot2 θ = cosec2 θ or cot2 θ = cosec2θ − 1 or cosec2θ − cot2 θ = 1
 Transformation of One Trigonometric Function to
Another Trigonometric Function 130
Trigonometric tan θ sec θ cosec θ
sin θ cos θ cot θ
function

tan θ 1 1
(sec2 θ − 1)
sin θ sin θ (1 − cos 2 θ) 2 2 cosec θ
(1 + tan θ) 1 + cot θ
sec θ

1 cot θ 1 (cosec2 θ − 1)
cos θ (1 − sin2 θ) cos θ (1 + cot2 θ)
(1 + tan2 θ) sec θ cosec θ

sin θ 1 1
(1 − cos 2 θ) tan θ (sec2 θ − 1)
tan θ (cosec2 θ − 1)
(1 − sin2 θ) cos θ cot θ
Handbook of Mathematics

(1 − sin2 θ) cos θ 1 1 (cosec2 θ − 1)

cot θ 2 cot θ 2
sin θ (1 − cos θ) tan θ (sec θ − 1)

1 1 1 + cot2 θ sec θ cosec θ

sec θ 2 (1 + tan2 θ)
(1 − sin θ) cos θ cot θ (cosec2 θ − 1)

1 1 (1 + tan2 θ) sec θ cosec θ

cosec θ (1 + cot2 θ)
sin θ (1 − cos 2 θ) tan θ (sec2 θ − 1)

Note Above table is applicable only when θ ∈ ( 0 ° , 90 ° ).

 Trigonometric Functions, Identities and Equations 131

Sign of Trigonometric Functions in

Different Quadrants
If we draw two mutually perpendicular (intersecting) lines in the plane
of paper, then these lines divide the plane of paper into four parts,
known as quadrants.
In anti-clockwise order, these quadrants are numbered as I, II, III and
IV. All angles from 0° to 90° are taken in I quardant, 90° to 180° in II
quardant, 180° to 270° in III quadrant and 270° to 360° in IV
quadrant.
Y
π π
II Quadrant 2 < θ < π I Quadrant 0 < θ <
2
sin θ and cosec θ are All trigonometric functions
positive. are positive.
(90°+θ) and (180° – θ) (360°+θ) and (90° – θ)
180° 90°
X′ X
270° 360°
3π 3π
III Quadrant π < θ < IV Quadrant < θ < 2π
2 2
tan θ and cot θ are positive. cos θ and sec θ are positive.
(180°+θ) and (270° – θ) (270°+θ) and (360° – θ)
Y′

Trigonometric Ratios of
Some Special Angles
1° 1°
Angle 7 15 ° 18 ° 22 36 °
2 2

sin θ 4− 2 − 6 3 −1 5 −1 1
2− 2
1
10 − 2 5
2 2 4 2 4
2 2

cos θ 3+1 1 1 5+1

4+ 2 + 6 10 + 2 5 2+ 2
4 2 4
2 2 2 2

tan θ ( 3 − 2 )( 2 − 1 ) 2− 3 5 −1 2 −1 10 − 2 5
10 + 2 5 5+1

Trigonometric Ratios (or Functions) of Allied Angles

Two angles are said to be allied when their sum or difference is either
zero or a multiple of 90°. The angles − θ , 90° ± θ , 180° ± θ , 270° ± θ,
360° − θ etc., are angles allied to the angle θ, if θ is measured in
degrees.
132 Handbook of Mathematics

Allied Angles sin θ cosec θ cos θ sec θ tan θ cot θ

−θ − sin θ − cosec θ cos θ sec θ − tan θ − cot θ
90° − θ cos θ sec θ sin θ cosec θ cot θ tan θ
90° + θ cos θ sec θ − sin θ − cosec θ − cot θ − tan θ
180° − θ sin θ cosec θ − cos θ − sec θ − tan θ − cot θ
180° + θ − sin θ − cosec θ − cos θ − sec θ tan θ cot θ
270° − θ − cos θ − sec θ − sin θ − cosec θ cot θ tan θ
270° + θ − cos θ − sec θ sin θ cosec θ − cot θ − tan θ
360° − θ − sin θ − cosec θ cos θ sec θ − tan θ − cot θ

Trigonometric Functions of Compound Angles

The algebraic sum of two or more angles are generally called
compound angles and the angles are known as the constituent angle.
Some standard formulae of compound angles have been given below
(i) sin ( A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
(ii) sin ( A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B
(iii) cos ( A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
(iv) cos ( A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
tan A + tan B
(v) tan ( A + B) =
1 − tan A tan B
tan A − tan B
(vi) tan( A − B) =
1 + tan A tan B
cot A cot B − 1
(vii) cot( A + B) =
cot B + cot A
cot A cot B + 1
(viii) cot( A − B) =
cot B − cot A

Some Important Results

(i) sin ( A + B) sin ( A − B) = sin2 A − sin2 B = cos2 B − cos2 A
(ii) cos ( A + B) cos ( A − B) = cos2 A − sin2 B = cos2 B − sin2 A
(iii) sin( A + B + C ) = cos A cos B sin C + cos A sin B cos C
+ sin A cos B cos C − sin A sin B sin C
or sin ( A + B + C ) = cos A cos B cos C(tan A + tan B + tan C
− tan A tan B tan C )
(iv) cos( A + B + C ) = cos A cos B cos C − sin A sin B cos C
− sin A cos B sin C − cos A sin B sin C
 Trigonometric Functions, Identities and Equations 133
or cos( A + B + C ) = cos A cos B cos C(1 − tan A tan B − tan B tan C
− tan C tan A)
tan A + tan B + tan C − tan A tan B tan C
(v) tan( A + B + C ) =
1 − tan A tan B − tan B tan C − tan C tan A
If A + B + C = 0, then tan A + tan B + tan C = tan A tan B tan C
(vi) (a) sin( A1 + A2 + K + An ) = (cos A1 cos A 2 cos A 3 ... cos An )
× (S1 − S3 + S5 − S7 + K )
(b) cos( A1 + A2 + K + An ) = (cos A1 cos A 2cos A 3... cos An )
× (1 − S 2 + S 4 − S 6 + ... )
S1 − S3 + S5 − S7 + K
(c) tan( A1 + A2 + K + An ) =
1 − S2 + S4 − S6 + K
where, S1 = tan A1 + tan A 2 + K + tan An
[sum of the tangents of the separate angles]
S 2 = tan A1 tan A 2 + tan A 2 tan A3 + ...
[sum of the tangents taken two at a time]
S3 = tan A1 tan A 2 tan A3 + tan A 2 tan A3 tan A 4 + ...
[sum of the tangents taken three at a time]
Note If A1 = A2 = L An = A, then we have
S1 = n tan A,S 2 = nC2 tan 2 A, S 3 = nC3 tan 3 A,K so on.

Transformation Formulae
(i) 2 sin A cos B =
sin ( A + B) + sin ( A − B)
(ii) 2 cos A sin B =
sin ( A + B) − sin ( A − B)
(iii) 2 cos A cos B =
cos ( A + B) + cos ( A − B)
(iv) 2 sin A sin B =
cos ( A − B) − cos ( A + B)
C + D C − D
(v) sin C + sin D = 2 sin   cos  
 2   2 
C + D C − D
(vi) sin C − sin D = 2 cos   sin  
 2   2 
C + D C − D
(vii) cos C + cos D = 2 cos   cos  
 2   2 
C + D C − D
(viii) cos C − cos D = − 2 sin   sin  
 2   2 
C + D  D − C
= 2 sin   sin  
 2   2 
134 Handbook of Mathematics

Trigonometric Functions of Multiple Angles

2 tan A
(i) sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos A =
1 + tan2 A
(ii) cos 2 A = cos2 A − sin2 A = 2 cos2 A − 1
1 − tan2 A
= 1 − 2 sin2 A =
1 + tan2 A
2 tan A
(iii) tan 2 A =
1 − tan2 A
(iv) sin 3 A = 3 sin A − 4 sin3 A
(v) cos 3 A = 4 cos3 A − 3 cos A
3 tan A − tan3 A
(vi) tan 3 A =
1 − 3 tan2 A

Trigonometric Functions of Sub-multiple Angles

A
2 tan
A A 2
(i) sin A = 2 sin cos =
2 2 1 + tan2 A
2
A
1 − tan2
A 2 A 2 A 2 A 2
(ii) cos A = cos 2
− sin = 2 cos − 1 = 1 − 2 sin =
2 2 2 2 1 + tan2 A
2
A
2 tan
(iii) tan A = 2
2 A
1 − tan
2
2 A
(iv) 1 − cos A = 2 sin
2
A
(v) 1 + cos A = 2 cos2
2
1 − cos A 2 A
(vi) = tan
1 + cos A 2
 A  A
(vii) sin   + cos   = ± 1 + sin A
 2  2
A  A
(viii) sin   − cos   = ± 1 − sin A
2  2
 Trigonometric Functions, Identities and Equations 135

Some Important Results

1. Product of Trigonometric Ratio
1
(i) sin θ sin ( 60° − θ ) sin ( 60° + θ ) = sin 3 θ
4
1
(ii) cos θ cos ( 60° − θ ) cos ( 60° + θ ) = cos 3 θ
4
(iii) tan θ tan ( 60° − θ ) tan ( 60° + θ ) = tan 3 θ
1
(iv) cos 36° cos 72° =
4
1
(v) cos A cos 2 A cos 4 A K cos 2n − 1 A = n sin( 2n A)
2 sin A

2. Sum of Trigonometric Ratios

(i) sin A + sin ( A + B) + sin ( A + 2B) + ... + sin ( A + ( n − 1) B)
 B nB
sin  A + ( n − 1)  sin
=  2 2
B
sin
2
(ii) cos A + cos ( A + B) + cos( A + 2B) + ... + cos ( A + ( n − 1) B)
nB
sin
= 2 cos  A + ( n − 1)B
 
sin
B  2 
2

3. Identities for Angles of a Triangle

If A, B and C are angles of a triangle (or A + B + C = π), then
(i) (a) sin ( B + C ) = sin A (b) cos ( B + C ) = − cos A
 B + C A  B + C A
(c) sin   = cos (d) cos   = sin
 2  2  2  2
(ii) sin 2 A + sin 2B + sin 2C = 4 sin A sin B sin C
(iii) cos 2 A + cos 2B + cos 2C = − 1 − 4 cos A cos B cos C
A B C
(iv) sin A + sin B + sin C = 4 cos cos cos
2 2 2
A B C
(v) cos A + cos B + cos C = 1 + 4 sin sin sin
2 2 2
(vi) tan A + tan B + tan C = tan A tan B tan C
(vii) cot B cot C + cot C cot A + cot A cot B = 1
136 Handbook of Mathematics

A B C A B C
(viii) cot + cot + cot = cot cot cot
2 2 2 2 2 2
A B B C C A
(ix) tan tan + tan tan + tan tan = 1
2 2 2 2 2 2

Trigonometric Periodic Functions

A function f ( x ) is said to be periodic, if there exists a real number T > 0
such that f ( x + T ) = f ( x ) for all x. T is called the period of the function,
all trigonometric functions are periodic.

Important Points to be Remembered

(i)sinθ, cos θ , cosec θ and sec θ have a period of 2π.
(ii)tanθ, cot θ have a period of π.
(iii)Period of sin k θ is 2π /k.
(iv) Period of tan k θ is π /k.
(v) Period of sinn θ , cosn θ , secn θ and cosecnθ is 2π , if n is odd and, π if n is
even.
(vi) Period of tann θ , cotn θ is π , if n is even or odd.
(vii) Period of |sin θ |, |cos θ |, |tanθ |, |cot θ |, |sec θ | and |cosec θ| is π.
(viii) Period of |sin θ | + |cos θ |, |tan θ | + |cot θ | and |sec θ | + | cosec θ | is π / 2.

Maximum and Minimum Values of a

Trigonometric Expression
(i) Maximum value of a cos θ ± b sin θ = a 2 + b2

Minimum value of a cos θ ± b sin θ = − a 2 + b2

(ii) Maximum value of a cos θ ± b sin θ + c = c + a 2 + b2

Minimum value of a cos θ ± b sin θ + c = c − a 2 + b2

Hyperbolic Functions
The hyperbolic functions sinh z , cosh z , tanh z , cosech z , sec h z , coth z
are angles of the circular functions, defined by removing is appearing
in the complex exponentials.
ex − e− x
(i) sinh x =
2
 Trigonometric Functions, Identities and Equations 137
ex + e− x
(ii) cosh x =
2
sinh x ex − e− x
(iii) tanh x = =
cosh x ex + e− x
1 2
(iv) cosech x = =
sinh x ex − e− x
1 2
(v) sech x = =
cosh x ex + e− x
cosh x ex + e− x
(vi) coth x = =
sinh x ex − e− x

Domain and Range of Hyperbolic Function

Hyperbolic function Domain Range
sinh x R R
cosh x R [1, ∞)
tanh x R (− 1, 1)
cosech x R − { 0} R − { 0}
sech x R (0, 1]
coth x R − { 0} R − [ −1, 1]

Identities
(i) cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1
(ii) sech2 x + tanh2 x = 1
(iii) coth2 x − cosech2 x = 1
(iv) cosh2 x + sinh2 x = cosh 2x

Formulae for the Sum and Difference

(i) sinh( x ± y ) = sinh x cosh y ± cosh x sinh y
(ii) cosh( x ± y ) = cosh x cosh y ± sinh x sinh y
tanh x ± tanh y
(iii) tanh ( x ± y ) =
1 ± tanh x tanh y

Formulae to Transform the Product into Sum or Difference

 x + y  x − y
(i) sinh x + sinh y = 2 sinh   cosh  
 2   2 
 x + y  x − y
(ii) sinh x − sinh y = 2 cosh   sinh  
 2   2 
138 Handbook of Mathematics

 x + y  x − y
(iii) cosh x + cosh y = 2 cosh   cosh  
 2   2 
 x + y  x − y
(iv) cosh x − cosh y = 2 sinh   sinh  
 2   2 
(v) 2 sinh x cosh y = sinh ( x + y ) + sinh( x − y )
(vi) 2 cosh x sinh y = sinh ( x + y ) − sinh( x − y )
(vii) 2 cosh x cosh y = cosh ( x + y ) + cosh ( x − y )
(viii) 2 sinh x sinh y = cosh( x + y ) − cosh ( x − y )

Formulae for Multiples of x

2 tanh x
(i) sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x =
1 − tanh2 x
(ii) cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x = 2 cosh2 x − 1 = 1 + 2 sinh2 x
1 + tanh2 x
=
1 − tanh2 x
2 tanh x
(iii) tanh 2x =
1 + tanh2 x
(iv) sinh 3x = 3 sinh x + 4 sinh3 x
(v) cosh 3x = 4 cosh3 x − 3 cosh x
3 tanh x + tanh3 x
(vi) tanh 3x =
1 + 3 tanh2 x

Important Formulae
1. (i) sinh2 x − sinh2 y = sinh ( x + y )sinh ( x − y )
(ii) cosh2 x + sinh2 y = cosh( x + y ) cosh( x − y )
(iii) cosh2 x − cosh2 y = sinh ( x + y )sinh( x − y )
2. (i) sinix = i sinh x (ii) cos(ix ) = cosh x
(iii) tan(ix ) = i tanh x (iv) cot(ix ) = − i coth x
(v) sec(ix ) = sech x (vi) cosec (ix ) = − i cosech x
3. (i) sinh x = − i sin(ix ) (ii) cosh x = cos (ix )
(iii) tanh x = − i tan(ix ) (iv) coth x = i cot(ix )
(v) sech x = sec(ix ) (vi) cosech x = i cosec(ix )
 Trigonometric Functions, Identities and Equations 139

Trigonometric Equations
An equation involving one or more trigonometrical ratios of unknown
angle is called a trigonometric equation.

Solution/Roots of a Trigonometric Equation

A value of the unknown angle which satisfies the given equation, is
called a solution or root of the equation.
The trigonometric equation may have infinite number of solutions.
(i) Principal Solution The least value of unknown angle
which satisfies the given equation, is called a principal solution
of trigonometric equation.
(ii) General Solution We know that trigonometric function are
periodic and solution of trigonometric equations can be
generalised with the help of the periodicity of the trigonometric
functions. The solution consisting of all possible solutions of a
trigonometric equation is called its general solution.

Some Important Results

(i) sinθ = 0 ⇒ θ = nπ, where n ∈ z
π
(ii) cosθ = 0 ⇒ θ = ( 2n + 1) , where n ∈ z
2
(iii) tanθ = 0 ⇒ θ = nπ, where n ∈ z
 π π
(iv) sin θ = sin α ⇒ θ = nπ + ( − 1)n α, where α ∈ − ,  and n ∈ z
 2 2
(v) cos θ = cos α ⇒ θ = 2nπ ± α, where α ∈ [0, π ] and n ∈ z
 π π
(vi) tan θ = tan α ⇒ θ = nπ + α, where α ∈  − ,  and n ∈ z
 2 2
(vii) sin2 θ = sin2 α , cos2 θ = cos2 α, tan2 θ = tan2 α
⇒ θ = n π ± α, where n ∈ z
π
(viii) sinθ = 1 ⇒ θ = ( 4n + 1) , where n ∈ z
2
(ix) cosθ = 1 ⇒ θ = 2nπ, where n ∈ z
(x) cosθ = − 1 ⇒ θ = ( 2n + 1) π, where n ∈ z
sin θ = sin α and cos θ = cos α 


(xi) sin θ = sin α and tan θ = tan α ⇒ θ = 2nπ + α, where n ∈ z

tan θ = tan α and cos θ = cos α
140 Handbook of Mathematics

(xii) Equation of the form a cos θ + b sin θ = c

Put a = r cosα and b = r sin α , where
r = a 2 + b2 and|c|≤ a 2 + b2
∴ θ = 2nπ ± α + φ, n ∈ I
|c| b
where, α = cos−1 and φ = tan−1
a +b
2 2 a

(a) If|c|> a 2 + b2 , equation has no solution.

(b) If|c|≤ a 2 + b2 , equation is solvable.

n
 nπ 
(xiii) sin  + θ = ( − 1) 2 cos θ , if n is odd.
 2 
n
= ( −1) 2 sin θ , if n is even.
n −1
 nπ 
(xiv) cos  + θ = ( − 1) 2 sin θ , if n is odd.
 2  n
= ( −1) 2 cos θ , if n is even.
(xv) sin θ1 + sin θ 2 + K + sin θ n = n ⇒ sin θ1 = sin θ 2 = K = sin θ n = 1
(xvi) cos θ1 + cos θ 2 + K + cos θ n = n ⇒ cos θ1 = cos θ 2 = K = cos θ n = 1
(xvii) sin θ + cosec θ = 2 ⇒ sin θ = 1
(xviii) cos θ + sec θ = 2 ⇒ cos θ = 1
(xix) sin θ + cosec θ = − 2 ⇒ sin θ = − 1
(xx) cos θ + sec θ = − 2 ⇒ cos θ = − 1

Important Points to be Remembered

(i) While solving an equation, we have to square it, sometimes the resulting
roots does not satisfy the original equation.
(ii) Do not cancel common factors involving the unknown angle on LHS and
RHS. Because it may be the solution of given equation.
(iii) (a) Equation involving sec θ or tan θ can never be a solution of the form
π
( 2n + 1) .
2
(b) Equation involving cosec θ or cotθ can never be a solution of the form
θ = nπ .
 12
Solution of Triangles

Basic Rules of Triangle

In a ∆ABC, the angles are denoted by capital letters A, B and C and
the lengths of the sides opposite to these angles are denoted by small
letters a , b and c, respectively. Area and perimeter of a triangle are
denoted by ∆ and 2s respectively.
A

b
c

B C
a
a+ b+ c
Semi-perimeter of the triangle is written as s = .
2
sin A sin B sin C 1
(i) Sine Rule = = = , where R is radius of the
a b c 2R
circumcircle of ∆ABC.
b2 + c2 − a 2 a 2 + c2 − b2
(ii) Cosine Rule cos A = , cos B =
2bc 2ac
a 2 + b2 − c2
and cosC =
2ab
(iii) Projection Rule a = b cos C + c cos B, b = c cos A + a cos C
and c = a cos B + b cos A
B−C b− c A
(iv) Napier’s Analogy tan = cot ,
2 b+ c 2
C− A c−a B A− B a− b C
tan = cot and tan = cot
2 c+a 2 2 a+b 2
142 Handbook of Mathematics

Trigonometrical Ratios of
Half of the Angles of Triangle
A ( s − b)( s − c) B ( s − c)( s − a )
(i) sin = , sin = ,
2 bc 2 ac

C ( s − a )( s − b)
sin =
2 ab

A s( s − a ) B s( s − b) C s( s − c)
(ii) cos = , cos = , cos =
2 bc 2 ac 2 ab

A ( s − b)( s − c) B ( s − a )( s − c)
(iii) tan = , tan =
2 s( s − a ) 2 s( s − b)

C ( s − a )( s − b)
tan =
2 s( s − c)

Area of a Triangle
Consider a triangle of side a , b and c.
1 1 1
(i) ∆ = bc sin A = ca sin B = ab sin C
2 2 2
c2 sin A sin B a 2 sin B sin C b2 sin C sin A
(ii) ∆ = = =
2 sin C 2 sin A 2 sin B
(iii) ∆ = s ( s − a ) ( s − b) ( s − c), its known as Heron’s formula.
a+ b+ c
where, s = [semi-perimeter of triangle]
2
abc
(iv) ∆ = = rs, where R and r are radii of the circumcircle and the
4R
incircle of ∆ABC, respectively.

Solutions of a Triangle
Elements of a Triangle
There are six elements of a triangle, in which three are its sides and
other three are its angle. If three elements of a triangle are given,
atleast one of which is its side, then other elements can be uniquely
calculated. This is called solving the triangle.
 Solution of Triangles 143
1. Solutions of a Right Angled Triangle
Let ∆ABC be a given triangle with right angle at C, then
B

c
a

A C
b
(i) the solution when two sides are given
Given To be calculated
a, b a a
tan A = ; B = 90° − A, c =
b sin A
a, c a
sin A = ; B = 90° − A
c
b = c cos A or b = c2 − a2

(ii) the solution when one side and one acute angle are given
Given To be calculated
a, A a
B = 90° − A, b = a cot A, c =
sin A
c, A B = 90° − A, a = c sin A, b = c cot A

2. Solutions of a Triangle in General

(i) When three sides a , b and c are given, then
2∆ 2∆ 2∆
sin A = , sin B = , sin C =
bc ac ab
a+ b+ c
where, ∆ = s ( s − a ) ( s − b) ( s − c) in which s =
2
and A + B + C = 180°.
(ii) When two sides and the included angle are given, then
 A − B a − b C A+ B C a sin C
(a) tan   = cot , = 90° − , c =
 2  a+b 2 2 2 sin A
 B − C b − c A B+C A b sin A
(b) tan   = cot , = 90° − , a =
 2  b+ c 2 2 2 sin B
 C − A c − a B C+ A B c sin B
(c) tan   = cot , = 90° − , b =
 2  c+a 2 2 2 sin C
This is called as Napier’s analogy.
(iii) When one side a and two angles A and B are given, then
c sin B a sin C
C = 180° − ( A + B) ⇒ b = and c =
sin C sin A
144 Handbook of Mathematics

(iv) When two sides a , b and the opposite ∠A is given, then

b a sin C
sin B = sin A, C = 180° − ( A + B), c =
a sin A
Now, different cases arise here
b
(a) If A is an acute angle and a < b sin A, then sin B = sin A
a
gives sin B > 1, which is not possible, so no such triangle is
possible.
(b) When A is an acute angle and a = b sin A. In this case, only one
triangle is possible, which is right angled at B.
(c) If A is an acute angle and a > b sin A. In this case, there are
b sin A
two values of B given by sin B = , say B1 and B2 such
a
a sin C
that B1 + B 2 = 180°, side c can be calculated from c = .
sin A

Circles Connected with Triangle

1. Circumcircle
The circle passing through the vertices of the ∆ABC is called the
circumcircle and its radius R is called the circumradius.
A

O R
B C

a b c abc
∴ R= = = =
2 sin A 2 sin B 2 sin C 4∆

2. Incircle
The circle touches the three sides of the triangle internally is called the
inscribed or the incircle of the triangle and its radius r is called the
inradius of circle.
A

r
B C
 Solution of Triangles 145

∆ A
∴ r= = ( s − a ) tan
s 2
B C A B C
r = ( s − b) tan = ( s − c) tan = 4R sin sin sin
2 2 2 2 2
B C C A A B
a sin sin b sin sin c sin sin
and r= 2 2 = 2 2 = 2 2
A B C
cos cos cos
2 2 2

3. Escribed Circle
The circle touches BC and the two sides AB and AC produced of ∆ABC
externally is called the escribed circle opposite to A. Its radius is
denoted by r1.

B
r1

A
C
Similarly, r2 and r3 denote the radii of the escribed circles opposite to
angles B and C, respectively. Hence, r1 , r2 and r3 are called the exradius
of ∆ABC. Here,
B C
a cos cos
∆ A A B C 2 2
(i) r1 = = s tan = 4R sin cos cos =
s−a 2 2 2 2 cos
A
2
C A
b cos cos
∆ B B C A 2 2
(ii) r2 = = s tan = 4R sin cos cos =
s−b 2 2 2 2 cos
B
2
A B
c cos cos
∆ C C A B 2 2
(iii) r3 = = s tan = 4R sin cos cos =
s−c 2 2 2 2 cos
C
2
(iv) r1 + r2 + r3 = 4R + r
r r r
(v) r1 r2 + r2 r3 + r3r1 = 1 2 3
r
146 Handbook of Mathematics

4. Orthocentre and Pedal Triangle

The point of intersection of perpendicular drawn from the vertices on
the opposite sides of a triangle is called orthocentre.
A

F E

B D C

The ∆DEF formed by joining the feet of the altitudes is called the pedal
triangle.
(i) Distance of the orthocentre of the triangle from the angular
points are 2R cos A, 2R cos B, 2R cos C and its distances from the
sides are 2 R cos B cos C, 2 R cos C cos A, 2 R cos A cos B.
(ii) The length of medians AD, BE and CF of a ∆ABC are
1 1
AD = 2b2 + 2c2 − a 2 , BE = 2c2 + 2a 2 − b2
2 2
1
and CF = 2a 2 + 2b2 − c2
2

Radii of the Inscribed and Circumscribed

Circles of Regular Polygon

O A
D
R π π R
n n
r
B L C

a π
(i) Radius of circumcircle ( R ) = cos ec
2 n
a π
(ii) Radius of incircle (r ) = cot , where a is the length of a side of
2 n
polygon.
 Solution of Triangles 147
(iii) The area of the polygon = n (Area of ∆ABC)
1  π
= na 2 cot  
4  n
π n 2  2π 
= nr 2 tan = R sin  
n 2  n

Important Points to be Remembered

(i) Distance between circumcentre and orthocentre
= R2 [1 − 8 cos A cos B cos C]
(ii) Distance between circumcentre and incentre
 A B C
= R 2 1 − 8 sin sin sin  = R2 − 2Rr
 2 2 2
1
(iii) Distance between circumcentre and centroid = R 2 − ( a2 + b2 + c2 )
9
(iv) m-nTheorem In a ∆ABC, D is a point on the lineBC such thatBD : DC = m : n
and ∠ADC = θ, ∠BAD = α , ∠DAC = β, then
A

α β
b
c

θ
B m C
D n
(a) (m + n) cotθ = m cotα − n cotβ
(b) (m + n) cotθ = n cotB − m cotC
 13
Heights and
Distances
Height and distance is the important application of Trigonometry, in
which we measure the height and distance of different object as towers,
building etc.

Angle of Elevation
If O be the observer’s eye and OX be the horizontal line through O.
P
t
igh
fs
eo
Lin

O X
Horizontal line

If the object P is at higher level than eye, then ∠ POX is called the
angle of elevation.

Angle of Depression
If the object P is a lower level than O, then ∠ POX is called the angle
of depression.
O Horizontal line
X
θ
Lin
eo
fs
igh
t

Note P
(i) Angle of elevation and depression are always acute angle.
(ii) Angle of elevation of an object from an observer is same as angle of
depression of an observer from the object.
 Heights and Distances 149

Important Results on Height and Distance

(i) a = h (cot α − cot β )
D

A α β
a B r C

α + β
(ii) If AB = CD , then x = y tan  
 2 
A
y

α β
C E
x B

H sin(β − α )
(iii) h =
cos α sin β
h cot α
and H =
cot α − cot β
⇒ H = x cot α tan (α + β )
A

E α H
B
h β
D C

h cot β
(iv) H =
cot α
D

B
H
h
α β
A C
150 Handbook of Mathematics

(v) H = x cot α tan(α + β)

A

BH
β x
D α
x C

α sin(α + β )
(vi) H =
sin (β − α )
C

α H
D B
β
a
E A

(vii) a = h (cot α + cot β )

h = a sin α sin β cosec (α + β )
and d = h cot β = a sin α cos β cosec (α + β )
A

α β
B C
D d
a
 14
Inverse Trigonometric
Functions
Inverse Function
If y = f ( x ) and x = g ( y ) are two functions such that f ( g ( y )) = y and
g ( f ( y )) = x, then f and y are said to be inverse of each other,
i.e. g = f −1. If y = f ( x ), then x = f −1( y ).

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

As we know that trigonometric functions are not one-one and onto in
their natural domain and range, so their inverse do not exist but if we
restrict their domain and range, then their inverse may exists.

Domain and Range of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The range of trigonometric functions becomes the domain of inverse
trigonometric functions and restricted domain of trigonometric
functions becomes range or principal value branch of inverse
trigonometric functions.

Table for Domain, Range and Other Possible

Range of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Principal value
Function Domain Other possible range
branch (Range)
− π , π   −3π , − π ,  π , 3π  etc.
y = sin −1 x [ −1, 1]  2 2   2 2   2 2 

y = cos −1 x [ −1, 1] [ 0, π ] [ −π , 0], [ π , 2π ] etc.

− π , π   −3π , − π  ,  π , 3π  etc.
y = tan −1 x R      
 2 2  2 2  2 2 
π π 3π
y = sec −1 x R − ( −1, 1) [ 0, π ] −   [ −π , 0] − –  , [ π , 2π ] −   etc.
 2  2  2
 − π , π  − {0}  −3π , − π  − {– π },  π , 3π  − {π }
y = cosec −1 x R − ( −1, 1)  2 2   2 2   2 2 

y = cot −1 x R ( 0, π ) ( −π , 0), ( π , 2π ) etc.

152 Handbook of Mathematics

Graphs of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The graphs of inverse trigonometric functions with respect to line y = x
are given in the following table
Graph Graph
Function
(By interchanging axes) (By mirror image)
Y
5π
—–
2
2π Y
3π y=sin–1x
—– π y=x
2 —
π 2
1
π π y=sin x
— – — –1
2 1 2
−1
y = sin x X′ –1 X X′ π X
0π 0 1 —
–— 2
2 –1
–π π
3π –—
– —– 2
2
– 2π Y′
5π
– —–
2
Y′

Y
5π
—–
2
2π
3π Y
—– y=cos–1 x
2
π π
π/2 y=x
π/2
−1 1
y = cos x X′ X
1
–1 0 π
–—
2
y=cos x
–π X′ π X
–1 0 1 π/2
3π
– —–
2
–2π Y′
5π
– —–
2
Y′

Y 2π Y y=tan x
π
3— y=x
2 π/2
π y=tan–1 x
π –π/2
y = tan −1 x — X′ X
–2 –1 2 0 π/2
X′ –1 0 1 2 X
π –π/2
–— 2
–π
Y′ Y′
 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 153
Graph Graph
Function
(By interchanging axes) (By mirror image)

Y
2π Y
3π π
—
2
π/2
π 1 y=sec–1x
y = sec −1 π X′
x — –1 01 π/2 π X
X′ –2 –1 2
–1 0 1 2
X –1
–—π
2 y=sec x
–π Y′
Y′

Y
2π
Y y=cosec x
3π π/2
— y=x
2
1 y=cosec–1 x
π
π –π/2 –1
y = cosec −1 x — X′ X
2 0 1 π/2
–2 –1
X′ X
–1 0 1 2 –1
π π/2
–—
2
–π Y′
Y′

Y
2π
3π Y
—
2 π y=cot x y=x
π –1π
y=cot x —
−1
2
y = cot x π/2
–2 –1 X′ X
X′
–1 0 1 2
X 0 π/2
π
–—
2
–π Y′
Y′

Elementary Properties of
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Property I
 −π π 
(i) sin−1 (sin θ ) = θ; θ ∈  , 
 2 2
(ii) cos−1 (cos θ ) = θ ; θ ∈ [0, π ]
154 Handbook of Mathematics

 π π
(iii) tan−1 (tan θ ) = θ; θ ∈  − , 
 2 2
−1  π π
(iv) cosec ( cosec θ ) = θ ; θ ∈ − , , θ ≠ 0
 2 2
−1 π
(v) sec (sec θ ) = θ; θ ∈ [0, π ], θ ≠
2
(vi) cot−1 (cot θ ) = θ; θ ∈( 0, π )
Property II
(i) sin (sin−1 x ) = x ; x ∈ [− 1, 1]
(ii) cos (cos−1 x ) = x ; x ∈ [− 1, 1]
(iii) tan (tan−1 x ) = x ; x ∈ R
(iv) cosec ( cosec−1x ) = x ; x ∈ ( − ∞ , − 1| ∪|1, ∞ )
(v) sec (sec−1 x ) = x ; x ∈ ( − ∞ , − 1| ∪|1, ∞ )
(vi) cot (cot−1 x ) = x ; x ∈ R
Property III
(i) sin−1 ( − x ) = − sin−1 x; x ∈ [−1, 1]
(ii) cos−1( − x ) = π − cos−1 x; x ∈ [−1, 1]
(iii) tan−1( − x ) = − tan−1 x; x ∈ R
(iv) cosec−1 ( − x ) = − cosec−1x; x ∈ ( − ∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ )
(v) sec−1 ( − x ) = π − sec−1 x; x ∈ ( − ∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ )
(vi) cot−1 ( − x ) = π − cot−1 x; x ∈ R
Property IV
 1
(i) sin−1   = cosec−1x; x ∈ ( − ∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ )
 x
 1
(ii) cos−1   = sec−1 x ; x ∈ ( − ∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ )
 x
−1
 1   cot x ; if x > 0
(iii) tan−1   = 
 x   − π + cot−1 x ; if x < 0

Property V
π
(i) sin−1 x + cos−1 x = ; x ∈ [− 1, 1]
2
π
(ii) tan−1 x + cot−1 x = ; x ∈ R
2
π
(iii) sec−1 x + cosec−1x = ; x ∈ ( − ∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ )
2
 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 155
Property VI
 −1
 sin { x 1 − y + y 1 − x };
2 2


if − 1 ≤ x , y ≤ 1 and x + y ≤ 1 or
2 2


 if xy < 0 and x + y > 1
2 2

 −1
y =  π − sin { x 1 − y + y 1 − x } ;
2 2
(i) sin−1 x + sin−1

 if 0 < x , y ≤ 1 and x 2 + y 2 > 1

− π − sin−1 { x 1 − y 2 + y 1 − x 2 };


 if − 1 ≤ x , y < 0 and x 2 + y 2 > 1

 sin−1{ x 1 − y 2 − y 1 − x 2 };

 if − 1 ≤ x , y ≤ 1 and x + y ≤ 1
2 2

 or if xy > 0 and x 2 + y 2 > 1

 −1
(ii) sin−1 x − sin−1 y =  π − sin { x 1 − y − y 1 − x };
2 2


 if 0 < x ≤ 1, − 1 ≤ y ≤ 0 and x 2 + y 2 > 1

 − π − sin−1 { x 1 − y 2 − y 1 − x 2 };

 if − 1 ≤ x < 0 , 0 < y ≤ 1 and x 2 + y 2 > 1


Property VII
(i) cos−1 x + cos−1 y
 cos−1 { xy − 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 }; if − 1 ≤ x, y ≤ 1 and x + y ≥ 0

=
 2π − cos−1{ xy − 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 }; if − 1 ≤ x, y ≤ 1 and x + y ≤ 0

(ii) cos−1 x − cos−1 y
 cos−1{ xy + 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 }; if − 1 ≤ x , y ≤ 1 and x ≤ y
=
 − cos−1{ xy + 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 }; if − 1 ≤ y ≤ 0, 0 < x ≤ 1 and x ≥ y
156 Handbook of Mathematics

Property VIII
(i) tan−1 x + tan−1 y
 −1  x + y 
 tan  ; if xy < 1
  1 − xy 
  x+ y
=  π + tan−1  ; if x > 0, y > 0 and xy > 1
  1 − xy 
 −1  x + y 
 − π + tan  1 − xy  ; if x < 0, y < 0 and xy > 1

−1 −1
(ii) tan x − tan y
 −1  x − y 
 tan  ; if xy > − 1
  1 + xy 
  x− y
=  π + tan−1   ; if x > 0, y < 0 and xy < − 1
  1 + xy 
 −1  x − y 
 − π + tan   ; if x < 0, y > 0 and xy < − 1
  1 + xy 

Property IX
x 1 − x2
(i) sin−1 x = cos−1 1 − x 2 = tan−1 = cot−1
1 − x2 x

 1   1
= sec−1  = cosec−1   , x ∈( 0, 1)
 1 − x2   x
 
1 − x2
(ii) cos−1 x = sin−1 1 − x 2 = tan−1
x
x  
1
= cot−1 = sec−1  
1− x 2  x
 1 
= cosec−1  , x ∈( 0, 1)
 1 − x2 
 
 x   1   1
(iii) tan−1 x = sin−1  = cos−1  = cot−1  
 1 + x2   1 + x2   x
   
 1 + x2 
= cosec−1  
 x 
 
= sec−1( 1 + x 2 ), x ∈ ( 0, ∞ )
 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 157
Property X
 −1 1 1
 sin ( 2x 1 − x ); if − ≤ x≤
2
2 2

−1  −1 1
(i) 2 sin x =  π − sin ( 2x 1 − x ); if
2
≤ x≤1
 2
 − π − sin−1( 2x 1 − x 2 ); if − 1 ≤ x ≤ − 1
 2
 cos−1 ( 2x 2 − 1); if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
(ii) 2 cos−1 x =  −1
 2π − cos ( 2x − 1); if − 1 ≤ x ≤ 0
2

 −1  2x 
 tan  ; if − 1 < x < 1
  1 − x2 
  2x 
(iii) 2 tan−1 x =  π + tan−1  ; if x > 1
  1 − x2 
 −1  2x 
 − π + tan  ; if x < − 1
  1 − x2 

Property XI
 −1 1 1
 sin ( 3x − 4x ); if − ≤ x ≤
3
2 2
−1
 −1 1
(i) 3 sin x =  π − sin ( 3x − 4x );3
if < x ≤ 1
 2
 − π − sin−1 ( 3x − 4x3 ); if − 1 ≤ x < − 1
 2

 −1 3 1
 cos ( 4x − 3x ); if ≤ x ≤ 1
2
 1 1
(ii) 3 cos−1 x =  2π − cos−1( 4x3 − 3x ); if − ≤ x ≤
 2 2
 2π + cos−1( 4x3 − 3x ); if − 1 ≤ x ≤ − 1
 2

 −1  3x − x 
3
1 1
 tan  ; if − < x<
 1 − 3x 
2
 3 3
  3 x − x3
1
(iii) 3 tan−1 x =  π + tan−1  ; if x >
 1 − 3x 
2
 3
  3x − x 3
1
 − π + tan−1   ; if x < −
  1 − 3 x 2
 3
158 Handbook of Mathematics

Property XII
 −1  2x 
 sin  ; if − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1
  1 + x2 
  2x 
(i) 2 tan−1 x =  π − sin−1  ; if x > 1
  1 + x2 
 −1  2x 
 − π − sin   ; if x < − 1
  1 + x2 

 −1  1 − x 
2
 cos  ; if 0 ≤ x < ∞
1 + x 
2
−1 
(ii) 2 tan x = 
 − cos−1  1 − x  ;
2
if − ∞ < x < 0
 1 + x 
2


Some Important Results

 x + y + z − xyz 
(i) tan−1 x + tan−1 y + tan−1 z = tan−1  ,
 1 − xy − yz − zx 
if x > 0, y > 0, z > 0 and ( xy + yz + zx ) < 1
π
(ii) If tan−1 x + tan−1 y + tan−1 z = , then xy + yz + zx = 1
2
(iii) If tan−1 x + tan−1 y + tan−1 z = π , then x + y + z = xyz
π
(iv) If sin−1 x + sin−1 y + sin−1 z = , then x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2xyz = 1
2
(v) If sin−1 x + sin−1 y + sin−1 z = π, then
x 1 − x 2 + y 1 − y 2 + z 1 − z 2 = 2xyz
(vi) If cos−1 x + cos−1 y + cos−1 z = 3π, then xy + yz + zx = 3
(vii) If cos−1 x + cos−1 y + cos−1 z = π, then x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2xyz = 1
3π
(viii) If sin−1 x + sin−1 y + sin−1 z = , then xy + yz + zx = 3
2
(ix) If sin−1 x + sin−1 y = θ , then cos−1 x + cos−1 y = π − θ
(x) If cos−1 x + cos−1 y = θ, then sin−1 x + sin−1 y = π − θ
π
(xi) If tan−1 x + tan−1 y = , then xy = 1
2
π
(xii) If cot−1 x + cot−1 y = , then xy = 1
2
 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 159
x y x 2 2xy y2
(xiii) If cos−1 + cos−1 = θ, then 2 − cos θ + 2 = sin2 θ
a b a ab b
 S1 − S3 + S5 − ... 
(xiv) tan−1 x1 + tan−1 x2 +...+ tan−1 xn = tan−1  
 1 − S 2 + S 4 − S 6 + ...
where, S k denotes the sum of the products of x1 , x2 ,... , xn takes k
at a time.

Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

If sinh y = x , then y is called the inverse hyperbolic sine of x and it is
written as y = sinh−1 x.
Similarly, cosh−1 x , tan h−1x etc., can be defined.
Domain and Range of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Function Domain Range
sinh−1 x R R
cosh−1 x [ 1, ∞] R
tanh−1 x ( −1, 1) R
cosech −1 x R − {0} R − {0}
sech−1 x ( 0, 1] R
coth−1 x R − [ −1, 1] R − {0}

Relation between Inverse Circular Functions

and Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
(i) sinh−1x = − i sin−1( ix ) (ii) cosh−1x = − i cos−1 x
(iii) tanh−1x = − i tan−1( ix )

Some Important Results

(i) sinh−1x = loge ( x + x 2 + 1 ) (ii) cosh−1x = loge ( x + x 2 − 1 )
1  1 + x 1  x + 1
(iii) tanh−1x = loge   (iv) coth−1x = loge   ,|x|> 1
2  1 − x 2  x − 1
 1 + 1 − x2 
(v) sech−1x = loge   , x ∈ ( 0, 1]
 x 
 
 1 + 1 + x 2 
 loge  ,x > 0
  x 
  
−1
(vi) cos ech x = 
 
 loge  1 − 1 + x 2 
,x< 0
  x 
  
 15
Rectangular Axis

Coordinate Geometry
The branch of mathematics in which we study the position of any
object lying in a plane with the help of two mutually perpendicular
lines in the same plane, is called coordinate geometry.

Rectangular Axis
Let XOX ′ and YOY ′ be two fixed straight lines, which meet at right
angles at O. Then,
Y

P (x, y)
X' X
O

Y'

(i) X ′OX is called axis of X or abscissa or the X-axis.

(ii) Y ′ OY is called axis of Y or ordinate or the Y-axis.
(iii) The ordered pair of real numbers ( x , y ) is called cartesian
coordinate.
(iv) Coordinates of the origin are ( 0, 0).
(v) y-coordinate of a point on X-axis is zero.
(vi) x-coordinate of a point on Y -axis is zero.
 Rectangular Axis 161

Quadrants
The X and Y-axes divide the coordinate plane into four parts, each part
is called a quadrant which is given below
Y

(–, +) (+, +)
II Quadrant I Quadrant
x < 0, y > 0 x > 0, y > 0
X' X
(–, –) (+, –)
III Quadrant IV Quadrant
x < 0, y < 0 x > 0, y < 0

Y'

Polar Coordinates
In ∆OPQ,
Y
P (x, y)
r
y
θ
X′ X
O x Q

Y′

x y
cosθ = and sinθ = ⇒ x = r cosθ and y = r sinθ
r r
 y
where, r = x 2 + y 2 and θ = tan−1  
 x
The polar coordinate is represented by the symbol P (r , θ ).

Distance Formulae
(i) Distance between two points P ( x1 , y1 ) and Q ( x2 , y2 ), is
PQ = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 .

P (x1, y1) Q (x2, y2)

(ii) If points are (r1 , θ1 ) and (r2 , θ 2 ), then distance between them is
r12 + r22 − 2 r1r2 cos(θ1 − θ 2 ).
162 Handbook of Mathematics

(iii) Distance of a point ( x1 , y1 ) from the origin is x12 + y12 .

(iv) If the coordinate axes are inclined at an angle ω, then distance
between ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) is
= ( x1 − x2 )2 + ( y1 − y2 )2 + 2 ( x1 − x2 )( y1 − y2 ) cos ω

Section Formulae
(i) The coordinate of the point which divides the joint of ( x1 , y1 ) and
( x2 , y2 ) in the ratio m1 : m2 internally, is
 m1x2 + m2x1 m1 y2 + m2 y1 
 , 
 m1 + m2 m1 + m2 
A R C
(x1, y1) m1 m2 (x2, y2)

 m x − m2x1 m1 y2 − m2 y1 
and externally is  1 2 , .
 m1 − m2 m1 − m2 
(ii) X-axis divides the line segment joining ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) in the
ratio − y1 : y2.
Similarly, Y-axis divides the same line segment in the ratio
− x1 : x2.
 x + x2 y1 + y2 
(iii) Mid-point of the joint of ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) is  1 , .
 2 2 
(iv) Centroid of ∆ABC with vertices ( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y2 ) and ( x3 , y3 ), is
 x1 + x2 + x3 y1 + y2 + y3 
 , .
 3 3 
(v) Circumcentre of ∆ABC with vertices A( x1 , y1 ), B ( x2 , y2 ) and
C( x3 , y3 ), is
 x1 sin 2 A + x2 sin 2B + x3 sin 2C y1 sin 2 A + y2 sin 2B + y3 sin 2C 
 , .
 sin 2 A + sin 2B + sin 2C sin 2 A + sin 2B + sin 2C 
(vi) Incentre of ∆ ABC with vertices A ( x1 , y1 ), B ( x2 , y2 ) and C ( x3 , y3 )
and whose sides are a , b and c, is
 ax1 + bx2 + cx3 ay1 + by2 + cy3 
 , .
 a+ b+ c a+ b+ c 
 Rectangular Axis 163
(vii) Excentre of ∆ABC with vertices A ( x1 , y1 ), B ( x2 , y2 ), C ( x3 , y3 ) and
whose sides are a, b and c, is given by
 − ax1 + bx2 + cx3 − ay1 + by2 + cy3 
I1 =  , ,
 − a+ b+ c − a+ b+ c 
 ax − bx2 + cx3 ay1 − by2 + cy3 
I2 =  1 , 
 a− b+ c a− b+ c 
 ax + bx2 − cx3 ay1 + by2 − cy3 
and I3 =  1 , 
 a+ b− c a+ b− c 
(viii) Orthocentre of ∆ABC with vertices A( x1 , y1 ), B ( x2 , y2 ) and
C( x3 , y3 ), is
 x1 tan A + x2 tan B + x3 tan C y1 tan A + y2 tan B + y3 tan C 
 , .
 tan A + tan B + tan C tan A + tan B + tan C 

Area of Triangle/Quadrilateral
(i) Area of ∆ABC with vertices A( x1 , y1 ), B ( x2 , y2 ) and C( x3 , y3 ), is
A (x1, y1)

B (x2, y2) C (x3, y3)

x1 y1 1
1 1 x1 − x3 x2 − x3
∆= x2 y2 1 =
2 2 y1 − y3 y2 − y3
x3 y3 1
These points A, B and C will be collinear, if ∆ = 0.
(ii) Area of the quadrilateral formed by joining the vertices
1 x1 − x3 x2 − x4
( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y2 ), ( x3 , y3 ) and ( x4 , y4 ) is .
2 y1 − y3 y2 − y4

(iii) Area of trapezium formed by joining the vertices

( x1 , y1 ),( x2 , y2 ),( x3 , y3 ) and ( x4 , y4 ) is
1
|[( y1 + y2 )( x1 − x2 ) + ( y2 + y3 )( x2 − x3 ) + ( y3 + y4 )( x3 − x4 )
2
+ ( y4 + y1 )( x4 − x1 )]|
164 Handbook of Mathematics

Shifting of Origin/Rotation of Axes

Shifting of Origin
Let the origin is shifted to a point O ′ ( h , k). If P ( x , y ) are coordinates of
a point referred to old axes and P ′ ( X , Y ) are the coordinates of the
same points referred to new axes, then
Y Y
P' (X, Y)
P (x, y)
X′ X
O' (h, k)

X′ X
O

Y′ Y′

x = X + h, y = Y + k

Rotation of Axes
Let ( x , y ) be the coordinates of any point P referred to the old axes and
( X , Y ) be its coordinates referred to the new axes (after rotating the old
axes by angle θ). Then,
X = x cos θ + y sin θ and Y = y cos θ − x sin θ
Y

Y P X
θ
O M
θ
θ
X' X
O

Y'
X'

Y'
Note If origin is shifted to point (h, k) and system is also rotated by an angle θ
in anti-clockwise, then coordinate of new point P′ ( x ′ , y′ ) is obtained by
replacing
x ′ = h + x cos θ + y sin θ
and y′ = k − x sin θ + y cos θ
 Rectangular Axis 165

Locus
The curve described by a point which moves under given condition(s) is
called its locus.

Equation of Locus
The equation of curve described by a point, which moves under given
conditions(s), is called the equation of locus.

Step Taken to Find the Equation of Locus of a Point

Step I Assume the coordinates of the point say (h,k) whose locus is to be
found.
Step II Write the given condition in mathematical form involving h, k.
Step III Eliminate the variable(s), if any.
Step IV Replace h by x and k by y in the result obtained in step III. The equation
so obtained is the locus of the point, which moves under some stated
condition(s).
166 Handbook of Mathematics

16
Straight Line
A straight line is the locus of all those points which are collinear with
two given points.
General equation of a line is ax + by + c = 0
Note
l We can have one and only one line through a fixed point in a given direction.

l We can have infinitely many lines through a given point.

Slope (Gradient) of a Line

The trigonometrical tangent of the angle that a line makes with the
positive direction of the X-axis in anti-clockwise sense is called the
slope or gradient of the line.
So, slope of a line, m = tan θ
where, θ is the angle made by the line with positive direction of X-axis.

Important Results on Slope of Line

(i) Slope of a line parallel to X-axis, m = 0.
(ii) Slope of a line parallel to Y-axis, m = ∞.
(iii) Slope of a line equally inclined with axes is 1 or −1as it makes an angle of
45° or 135°, with X-axis.
(iv) Slope of a line passing through ( x1 , y1) and ( x2 , y2 ) is given by
y −y
m = tanθ = 2 1 .
x2 − x1

Angle between Two Lines

The angle θ between two lines having slopes m1 and m2, is
 m − m1 
tanθ = 2 .
1 + m1m2 
 Straight Line 167
(i) Two lines are parallel, iff m1 = m2.
(ii) Two lines are perpendicular to each other, iff m1m2 = − 1.

Equation of a Straight Line

General equation of a straight line is Ax + By + C = 0.
(i) The equation of a line parallel to X-axis at a distance b from it, is
given by
y=b
(ii) The equation of a line parallel to Y-axis at a distance a from it, is
given by
x=a
(iii) Equation of X-axis is
y=0
(iv) Equation of Y-axis is
x=0

Different Forms of the Equation of a Straight Line

(i) Slope Intercept Form The equation of a line with slope m and
making an intercept c on Y-axis, is
y = mx + c
If the line passes through the origin, then its equation will be
y = mx
(ii) One Point Slope Form The equation of a line which passes
through the point ( x1 , y1 ) and has the slope m is given by
( y − y1 ) = m ( x − x1 )
(iii) Two Points Form The equation of a line passing through the
points ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) is given by
 y − y1 
( y − y1 ) =  2  ( x − x1 )
 x2 − x1 
This equation can also be determined by the determinant
method, that is
x y 1
x1 y1 1 = 0
x2 y2 1
168 Handbook of Mathematics

(iv) Intercept Form The equation of a line which cuts off intercept
a and b respectively on the X and Y-axes is given by
x y
+ =1
a b
The general equation Ax + By + C = 0 can be converted into the
intercept form, as
x y
+ =1
− (C / A) − (C / B)
(v) Normal Form The equation of a straight line upon which the
length of the perpendicular from the origin is p and angle made
by this perpendicular to the X-axis is α, is given by
x cos α + y sin α = p
Y

B
C
p
α
X′ X
O A

Y′

(vi) Distance (Parametric) Form The equation of a straight line

passing through ( x1 , y1 ) and making an angle θ with the positive
direction of X-axis, is
x − x1 y − y1
= =r
cos θ sin θ
where, r is the distance between two points P ( x , y ) and Q( x1 , y1 ).
y)
Y (x,
P
) y–y1
, y1
(x 1
Q
x–x1 R
y1

X′ θ X
A x1 M L

Y′
 Straight Line 169
Thus, the coordinates of any point on the line at a distance r from
the given point ( x1 , y1 ) are ( x1 + r cos θ , y1 + r sin θ ). If P is on the
right side of ( x1 , y1 ), then r is positive and if P is on the left side of
( x1 , y1 ), then r is negative.

Position of Point(s) Relative to a Given Line

Let the equation of the given line be ax + by + c = 0 and let the
coordinates of the two given points be P ( x1 , y1 ) and Q( x2 , y2 ).
(i) The two points are on the same side of the straight line
ax + by + c = 0, if ax1 + by1 + c and ax2 + by2 + c have the same
sign.
(ii) The two points are on the opposite side of the straight line
ax + by + c = 0, if ax1 + by1 + c and ax2 + by2 + c have opposite
sign.
(iii) A point ( x1 , y1 ) will lie on the side of the origin relative to a line
ax + by + c = 0, if ax1 + by1 + c and c have the same sign.
(iv) A point ( x1 , y1 ) will lie on the opposite side of the origin relative to
a line ax + by + c = 0, if ax1 + by1 + c and c have the opposite sign.

Condition of Concurrency
Condition of concurrency for three given lines a1x + b1 y + c1 = 0,
a2x + b2 y + c2 = 0 and a3 x + b3 y + c3 = 0 is
a3 ( b1c2 − b2c1 ) + b3 ( c1a2 − a1c2 ) + c3 ( a1b2 − a2b1 ) = 0
a1 b1 c1
or a2 b2 c2 = 0
a3 b3 c3

Distance of a Point from a Line

The distance of a point from a line is the length of perpendicular
drawn from the point to the line. Let L : Ax + By + C = 0 be a line,
whose perpendicular distance from the point P ( x1 , y1 ) is d. Then,
| Ax1 + By1 + C|
d=
A2 + B2
Note The distance of origin from the line Ax + By + C = 0 is
|C|
d =
A2 + B 2
170 Handbook of Mathematics

Distance between Two parallel Lines

The distance between two parallel lines
y = m x + c1 …(i)
y = m x + c2 …(ii)
|c1 − c|
is given by d= 2

1 + m2

Point of Intersection of Two Lines

Let equation of lines be a1x + b1 y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2 y + c2 = 0, then
 b c − b2c1 c1a2 − c2a1 
their point of intersection is  1 2 , .
 a1b2 − a2b1 a1b2 − a2b1 

Line Parallel and Perpendicular to a Given Line

(i) The equation of a line parallel to a given line ax + by + c = 0 is
ax + by + λ = 0, where λ is a constant.
(ii) The equation of a line perpendicular to a given line
ax + by + c = 0 is bx − ay + λ = 0, where λ is a constant.

Image of a Point with Respect to a Line

Let the image of a point ( x1 , y1 ) with respect to ax + by + c = 0 be
( x2 , y2 ), then
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 −2 ( ax1 + by1 + c)
= =
a b a 2 + b2
(i) The image of the point P ( x1 , y1 ) with respect to X-axis is
Q( x1 , − y1 ).
(ii) The image of the point P ( x1 , y1 ) with respect to Y-axis is Q( − x1 , y1 ).
(iii) The image of the point P ( x1 , y1 ) with respect to mirror y = x is
Q( y1 , x1 ).
(iv) The image of the point P ( x1 , y1 ) with respect to the line mirror
y = x tanθ is
x = x1 cos 2 θ + y1 sin 2 θ
y = x1 sin 2 θ − y1 cos 2 θ
(v) The image of the point P ( x1 , y1 ) with respect to the origin is the
point ( − x1 , − y1 ).
 Straight Line 171

Equation of the Bisectors

The equation of the bisectors of the angle between the lines
a1x + b1 y + c1 = 0
and a2x + b2 y + c2 = 0
a1x + b1 y + c1 a x + b2 y + c2
are given by =± 2 .
a1 + b1
2 2
a22 + b22
To find acute and obtuse angle bisectors, first make constant terms
in the equations of given straight lines a1x + b1 y + c1 = 0 and
a2x + b2 y + c2 = 0 positive, if it is required, then find a1a2 + b1b2.
(i) If a1a2 + b1b2 > 0, then we take positive sign for obtuse and
negative sign for acute.
(ii) If a1a2 + b1b2 < 0, then we take negative sign for obtuse and
positive sign for acute.

Pair of Lines
General equation of second degree
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0.
It will represent a pair of straight line iff
abc + 2 fgh − af 2 − bg2 − ch 2 = 0
a h g
or h b f =0
g f c

Homogeneous Equation of Second Degree

An equation in two variables x and y (whose RHS is zero) is said to be
a homogeneous equation of the second degree, if the sum of the indices
of x and y in each term is equal to 2. The general form of homogeneous
equation of the second degree in x and y is ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0.
Note Any homogeneous equation of second degree in x and y represents two
straight lines through the origin.

Important Properties
(i) Let ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 be an equation of pair of straight lines.
Then,
− h + h 2 − ab
(a) Slope of first line, m1 =
b
172 Handbook of Mathematics

− h − h 2 − ab
and slope of the second line, m2 =
b
2h Coefficient of xy
∴ m1 + m2 = − =−
b Coefficient of y 2
a Coefficient of x 2
and m1m2 = =
b Coefficient of y 2
Here, m1 and m2 are
(1) real and distinct, if h 2 > ab. (2) coincident, if h 2 = ab.
(3) imaginary, if h 2 < ab.
(b) Angle between the pair of lines is given by
2 h 2 − ab
tan θ =
|a + b|
(1) If lines are coincident, then h 2 = ab.
(2) If lines are perpendicular, then a + b = 0.
Note The angle between the lines represented by
ax 2 + 2 hxy + by 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0
= angle between the lines represented by ax 2 + 2 hxy + by 2 = 0
(c) The joint equation of bisector of the angles between the lines
represented by the equation ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 is
x 2 − y 2 xy
= ⇒ hx 2 − ( a − b) xy − hy 2 = 0.
a−b h
(d) The equation of the pair of lines through the origin and
perpendicular to the pair of lines given by ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0
is bx 2 − 2hxy + ay 2 = 0.
(ii) If the equation of a pair of straight lines is ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx
+ 2 fy + c = 0, then the point of intersection is given by
 hf − bg gh − af 
 , .
 ab − h 2 ab − h 2 
(iii) The general equation ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 will
a h g
represent two parallel lines, if g2 − ac > 0 and = = and the
h b f
g2 − ac f 2 − bc
distance between them is 2 or 2 .
a ( a + b) b ( a + b)
(iv) The equation of the bisectors of the angles between the lines
represented by ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 are given by
 Straight Line 173
( x − x1 )2 − ( y − y1 )2 ( x − x1 ) ( y − y1 )
= ,
a−b h
where, ( x1 , y1 ) is the point of intersection of the lines represented
by the given equation.
(v) Equation of the straight lines joining the origin to the points of
intersection of a second degree curve ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx +
2 fy + c = 0 and a straight line lx + my + n = 0 is
2
 lx + my   lx + my   lx + my 
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx   + 2 fy   + c   = 0.
 −n   −n   −n 

Important Points to be Remembered

(i) A triangle is an isosceles, if any two of its median are equal.
(ii) In an equilateral triangle, orthocentre, centroid, circumcentre, incentre
coincide.
(iii) The circumcentre of a right angled triangle is the mid-point of the
hypotenuse.
(iv) Orthocentre, centroid, circumcentre of a triangle are collinear. Centroid
divides the line joining orthocentre and circumcentre in the ratio 2 : 1.
(v) If D , E and F are the mid-point of the sides BC , CA and AB of ∆ABC, then the
centroid of ∆ ABC = centroid of ∆DEF.
(vi) Orthocentre of the right angled ∆ABC, right angled at A is A.
(vii) The distance of a point ( x1 , y1) from the ax + by + c = 0 is
ax + by + c 
d = 1 1
.
 a2
+ b2 
(viii) Distance between two parallel lines ax + by + c1 = 0 and ax + by + c2 = 0 is
given by
 c −c 
d = 2 1 .
 a +b 
2 2

(ix) The area of the triangle formed by the lines y = m1x + c1 , y = m2 x + c2 and
y = m3 x + c3 is
1 ( c − c )2 
∆ = Σ 1 2 .
2 m1 − m2 

Cont...
174 Handbook of Mathematics

(x) Three given points A, B , C are collinear i.e. lie on the same straight line, if any
of the three points (say B) lie on the straight line joining the other two
points.
⇒ AB + BC = AC
(xi) Area of the triangle formed by the line ax + by + c = 0 with the coordinate
c2
axes is ∆ = .
2| ab |
(xii) The foot of the perpendicular(h , k ) from ( x1 , y1) to the line ax + by + c = 0 is
h − x1 k − y1 ( ax + by + c)
given by = = − 1 2 12 .
a b a +b

2c2 
(xiii) Area of rhombus formed by ax ± by ± c = 0 is .
 ab 
(xiv) Area of the parallelogram formed by the lines
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 , a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0 , a1x + b1y + d1 = 0
and a2 x + b2 y + d2 = 0 is
( d1 − c1) ( d2 − c2 ) 
 .
 a1b2 − a2b1 
(xv) (a) Foot of the perpendicular from ( a , b) on x − y = 0 is
 a + b a + b
 , .
 2 2 
(b) Foot of the perpendicular from ( a , b) on x + y = 0 is
 a − b a − b
 , .
 2 2 
(xvi) The image of the line a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 about the line ax + by + c = 0 is
2( aa1 + bb1) ( ax + by + c) = ( a2 + b2 ) ( a1x + b1y + c1).
(xvii) Given two vertices ( x1 , y1) and ( x2 , y2 ) of an equilateral ∆ABC, then its third
vertex is given by.
 x1 + x2 ± 3 ( y1 − y2 ) y1 + y2 m 3 ( x1 − x2 ) 
 , 
 2 2 
(xviii) The equation of the straight line which passes through a given point ( x1 , y1)
and makes an angle α with the given straight line y = mx + c are
m ± tanα
( y − y1) = ( x − x1)
1 m m tanα

Cont...
 Straight Line 175

Y
P(x1, y1)
y = mx + c
α
M α N

L θ1 θ2
X' θ X
O R S

Y'
(xix) The equation of the family of lines passing through the intersection of the
lines a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0 is
( a1x + b1y + c1) + λ ( a2 x + b2 y + c2 ) = 0
where, λ is any real number.
(xx) Line ax + by + c = 0 divides the line joining the points ( x1 , y1) and ( x2 , y2 ) in
 ax + by1 + c 
the ratio λ : 1, then λ = −  1 .
 ax2 + by2 + c 
If λ is positive it divides internally and if λ is negative, then it divides
externally.
(xxi) Area of a polygon of n-sides with vertices A1( x1 , y1), A 2 ( x2 , y2 ) ,... , An ( x n , y n )
1 x y x y x yn 
=  1 1 + 2 2 + ... + n
2  x2 y2 x3 y3 x1 y1 

(xxii) Equation of the pair of lines through (α , β) and perpendicular to the pair of
lines ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 is b ( x − α )2 − 2h ( x − α )( y − β) + a ( y − β)2 = 0.
 17
Circles
Circle
Circle is defined as the locus of a point which moves in a plane such
that its distance from a fixed point in that plane is constant.
P (x, y)
r

C (0, 0)

The fixed point is called the centre and the constant distance is called
the radius.

Standard Equation of a Circle

Equation of circle having centre ( h , k) and radius a is
( x − h )2 + ( y − k)2 = a 2. This is also known as central form of equation
of a circle.
Some Particular Cases of the Central Form
(i) When centre is ( 0, 0), then equation of circle is x 2 + y 2 = a 2.
Y
a

X
O a

(ii) When the circle passes through the origin, then equation of the
circle is x 2 + y 2 − 2hx − 2ky = 0.
Y

C(h, k)
a
k
O h M X
 Circles 177
(iii) When the circle touches the X-axis, the equation is
x 2 + y 2 − 2hx − 2ay + h 2 = 0.
Y

C (h, k)
a

O X
M
(iv) Equation of the circle, touches the Y-axis is
x 2 + y 2 − 2ax − 2ky + k2 = 0.
Y

C (h, k)
M a

X
O

(v) Equation of the circle, touching both axes is

x 2 + y 2 − 2ax − 2ay + a 2 = 0.
Y

M a C (a, a)

a
X
O

(vi) Equation of the circle passing through the origin and centre
lying on the X-axis is x 2 + y 2 − 2ax = 0.
Y

X' a
O X
C (a, 0)

Y'
178 Handbook of Mathematics

(vii) Equation of the circle passing through the origin and centre
lying on the Y-axis is x 2 + y 2 − 2ay = 0.
Y

C
(0, a)
X' X
O
Y'
(viii) Equation of the circle through the origin and cutting intercepts a
and b on the coordinate axes is x 2 + y 2 − ax − by = 0.
Y
b

C(h, k)
X' a X
(0, 0)

Y'

Equation of Circle When Ends Points

of Diameter are Given
Equation of the circle, when the coordinates of end points of a diameter
are ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) is ( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) + ( y − y1 ) ( y − y2 ) = 0.

Equation of Circle Passing Through Three Points

Equation of the circle passes through three non-collinear points
x2 + y2 x y 1
x 2 + y12 x1 y1 1
( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y2 ) and ( x3 , y3 ) is 12 = 0.
x2 + y22 x2 y2 1
x32 + y32 x3 y3 1
Y
Parametric Equation of a Circle
The parametric equation of
a P (x, y)
( x − h )2 + ( y − k)2 = a 2 is θ
X' X
x = h + a cos θ , y = k + a sin θ,0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π O

For circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2, parametric equation is

x = a cos θ , y = a sin θ Y'
 Circles 179
General Equation of a Circle
The general equation of a circle is given by x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0,
whose centre = ( − g,− f ) and radius = g2 + f 2 − c
(i) If g2 + f 2 − c > 0, then the radius of the circle is real and hence
the circle is also real.
(ii) If g2 + f 2 − c = 0, then the radius of the circle is 0 and the circle is
known as point circle.
(iii) If g2 + f 2 − c < 0, then the radius of the circle is imaginary. Such
a circle is imaginary, which is not possible to draw.

Position of a Point w.r.t. a Circle

A point ( x1 , y1 ) lies outside, on or inside a circle
S ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0, according as S1 > , = or < 0
where, S1 = x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2 fy1 + c

Intercepts on the Axes

The length of the intercepts made by the circle
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 with X and Y -axes are
2 g2 − c and 2 f 2 − c respectively.
(i) If g2 > c, then the roots of the equation x 2 + 2gx + c = 0 are real
and distinct, so the circle x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 meets the
X-axis in two real and distinct points.
(ii) If g2 = c, then the roots of the equation x 2 + 2gx + c = 0 are real
and equal, so the circle touches X-axis, then intercept on X-axis
is 0.
(iii) If g2 < c, then the roots of the equation x 2 + 2gx + c = 0 are
imaginary, so the given circle does not meet X-axis in real point.
Similarly, the circle x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 cuts the Y -axis in
real and distinct points, touches or does not meet in real point
according to f 2 > , = or < c.

Equation of Tangent
A line which touch only one point of a circle.
1. Point Form
(i) The equation of the tangent at the point P ( x1 , y1 ) to a circle
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 is
xx1 + yy1 + g ( x + x1 ) + f ( y + y1 ) + c = 0
180 Handbook of Mathematics

(ii) The equation of the tangent at the point P ( x1 , y1 ) to a circle

x 2 + y 2 = r 2 is xx1 + yy1 = r 2.

2. Slope Form
(i) The equation of the tangent of slope m to the circle
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 are
y + f = m ( x + g) ± ( g2 + f 2 − c) (1 + m 2 )
(ii) The equation of the tangents of slope m to the circle
( x − a )2 + ( y − b)2 = r 2 are y − b = m ( x − a ) ± r 1 + m 2 and the
coordinates of the points of contact are
 mr r 
a ± ,bm .
 1 + m2 1 + m 2 

(iii) The equation of tangents of slope m to the circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2 are
y = mx ± r 1 + m 2 and the coordinates of the point of contact
are
 rm r 
± ,m .
 1 + m2 1 + m 2 

3. Parametric Form
The equation of the tangent to the circle ( x − a )2 + ( y − b)2 = r 2 at the
point ( a + r cos θ , b + r sin θ ) is ( x − a ) cos θ + ( y − b) sin θ = r.

Equation of Normal
A line which is perpendicular to the tangent is known as a normal.
1. Point Form
(i) The equation of normal at the point ( x1 , y1 ) to the circle
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 is
y +f
y − y1 = 1 ( x − x1 )
x1 + g
or ( y1 + f ) x − ( x1 + g) y + ( gy1 − fx1 ) = 0.
(ii) The equation of normal at the point ( x1 , y1 ) to the circle
x y
x 2 + y 2 = r 2 is = .
x1 y1
2. Slope Form
The equation of a normal of slope m to the circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2 is
my = − x ± r 1 + m 2 .
 Circles 181
3. Parametric Form
The equation of normal to the circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2 at the point
(r cos θ , r sin θ ) is
x y
= or y = x tan θ.
r cos θ r sin θ

Important Points to be Remembered

(i) If ( x1 , y1) is one end of a diameter of the circle x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0,
then the other end will be ( −2g − x1 , − 2f − y1).
(ii) If a line is perpendicular to the radius of a circle at its end points on the
circle, then the line is a tangent to the circle and vice-versa.
(iii) Normal at any point on the circle is a straight line which is perpendicular
to the tangent to the curve at the point and it passes through the centre
of circle.
(iv) The line y = mx + c meets the circle in unique real point or touch the
 c 
circle x 2 + y 2 = r2 , if r = 
 1+ m 
2

 ± mr m r 
and the point of contacts are  , .
 1 + m2 1 + m2 
 
(v) The line lx + my + n = 0 touches the circle x 2 + y 2 = r2 , if r2 ( l2 + m2 ) = n2 .
(vi) Tangent at the point P ( r cosθ , r sinθ) to the circle x 2 + y 2 = r2 is
x cosθ + y sinθ = r.
(vii) The point of intersection of the tangent at the points P(θ1) and Q(θ2 ) on
the circle x 2 + y 2 = r2 is given by
θ + θ  θ + θ 
r cos  1 2  r sin 1 2 
 2   2 
x= and y = .
 θ1 − θ2   θ1 − θ2 
cos   cos  
 2   2 
(viii) A line intersect a given circle at two distinct real points, if the length of the
perpendicular from the centre is less than the radius of the circle.
(ix) Length of the intercept cut off from the line y = mx + c by the circle
a2 (1 + m2 ) − c2
x 2 + y 2 = a2 is 2
1 + m2
(x) If P is a point and C is the centre of a circle of radius r, then the maximum
and minimum distances of P from the circle are CP + r and |CP − r |
respectively.
(xi) Power of a point ( x1 , y1) with respect to the circle
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c.
182 Handbook of Mathematics

Pair of Tangents
(i) The combined equation of the pair of tangents drawn from a
point P ( x1 , y1 ) to the circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2 is
Q

P O
(x1, y1)
R
(x + y − r
2 2 2
) ( x12 + y12 − r ) = ( xx1 + yy1 − r 2 )2
2

or SS1 = T 2
where, S = x 2 + y 2 − r 2 , S1 = x12 + y12 − r 2
and T = xx1 + yy1 − r 2
(ii) The length of the tangents from the point P ( x1 , y1 ) to the circle
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 is equal to

x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2 fy1 + c = S1

(iii) Chord of contact QR of two tangents, drawn from P ( x1 , y1 ) to
the circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2 is xx1 + yy1 = r 2 or T = 0.
Similarly, for the circle
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 is
xx1 + yy1 + g( x + x1 ) + f ( y + y1 ) + c = 0
(iv) Let AB is a chord of contact of tangents from C to the circle
x 2 + y 2 = r 2. M is the mid-point of AB.
B

O M α C(x1, y1)

 r 2x r 2y 
(a) Coordinates of M  2 1 2 , 2 1 2 
 x1 + y1 x1 + y1 

x12 + y12 − r 2
(b) AB = 2r
x12 + y12

(c) BC = x12 + y12 − r 2

(d) Area of quadrilateral OACB = r x12 + y12 − r 2

 Circles 183
r
(e) Area of ∆ ABC = ( x12 + y12 − r 2)3/ 2
x12 + y12
r3
(f) Area of ∆ OAB = x12 + y12 − r 2
x12 + y12
r
(g) Angle between two tangents ∠ ACB is 2 tan−1 .
S1
(v) In general, two tangents can be drawn to a circle from a given
point in its plane. If m1 and m2 are slope of the tangents drawn
from the point P ( x1 , y1 ) to the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2, then
2x1 y1 y12 − a 2
m1 + m2 = and m1 × m2 =
x12 − a 2 x12 − a 2
(vi) The pair of tangents from ( 0, 0) to the circle
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 are at right angle, if g 2 + f 2 = 2c.

Equation of Chord Bisected at a Given Point

The equation of chord of the circle S ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0
bisected at the point ( x1 , y1 ) is given by T = S1.
i.e. xx1 + yy1 + g ( x + x1 ) + f ( y + y1 ) + c = x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2 fy1 + c

Director Circle
The locus of the point of intersection of two perpendicular tangents to a
given circle is called a director circle. For circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2, the
equation of director circle is x 2 + y 2 = 2r 2.

Pole and Polar

If through a point P ( x1 , y1 ) (within or outside a circle) there be drawn
any straight line to meet the given circle at Q and R, the locus of the
point of intersection of tangents at Q and R is called the polar of P and
point P is called the pole of polar.

R
P (x1, y1)

T (h, k) Q
184 Handbook of Mathematics

(i) Equation of polar to the circle

x 2 + y 2 = r 2 is xx1 + yy1 = r 2.
(ii) Equation of polar to the circle x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 is
xx1 + yy1 + g ( x + x1 ) + f ( y + y1 ) + c = 0
(iii) Conjugate Points Two points A and B are conjugate points
with respect to a given circle, if each lies on the polar of the other
with respect to the circle.
(iv) Conjugate Lines If two lines be such that the pole of one lies
on the other, then they are called conjugate lines with respect to
the given circle.

Common Tangents of Two Circles

Let the centres and radii of two circles are c1 , c2 and r1 , r2 respectively.
Then, the following cases of intersection of these two circles may arise.
(i) When two circles are separate, four common tangents are
possible.
Condition, C1C2 > r1 + r2
Transverse common tangents
A
P′
B
r1 Q
r2
C1 T C2 D
Q′
P B′
A′ Direct common tangents

C1D r1
Clearly, = [externally]
C2D r2
C1T r1
and = [internally]
C2T r2
Length of direct common tangent
AB = A′ B′ = (C1C2 )2 − (r1 − r2 )2
Length of transverse common tangent
PQ = P ′Q ′ = (C1C2 )2 − (r1 + r2 )2
(ii) When two circles touch externally, three common tangents are
possible.
Condition, C1C2 = r1 + r2
 Circles 185
A
B
r1
T r2 D
C1 C2

Direct common tangent

Transverse
common tangent
S1 – S2 = 0
C1D r1
Clearly, = [externally]
C2D r2
C1T r1
and = [internally]
C2T r2
(iii) When two circles intersect, two common tangents are possible.
Condition, |r1 − r2|< C1C2 < (r1 + r2 )
A
B Direct common tangent

C1 C2 D

Common chord
(S1 – S2 = 0)
(iv) When two circles touch internally, one common tangent is
possible.
Condition, C1C2 =|r1 − r2|

r2
C1 C2

r1 Common tangent
S1 – S2 = 0
(v) When one circle contains another circle, no common tangent is
possible.
Condition, C1C2 <|r1 − r2|

C1 C2
186 Handbook of Mathematics

Angle of Intersection of Two Circles

The angle of intersection of two circles is Tangents
defined as the angle between the tangents to
the two circles at their point of intersection is r1 r2
θ
given by d
c1 c2
r 2 + r22 − d 2
cosθ = 1
2 r1r2

Orthogonal Circles
Two circles are said to be intersect orthogonally, if their angle of
intersection is a right angle.
If two circles
S1 ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2g1x + 2 f1 y + c1 = 0 and
S 2 ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2g2x + 2 f2 y + c2 = 0 are orthogonal, then
2g1g2 + 2 f1 f2 = c1 + c2

Common Chord
The chord joining the points of intersection of two given intersecting
circles is called common chord.
Common chord
Y M
P
c1
Q c2
X′ X
O

Y′
(i) If S1 = 0 and S 2 = 0 be two intersecting circles, such that
S1 ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2g1x + 2 f1 y + c1 = 0
and S 2 ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2g2x + 2 f2 y + c2 = 0,
then their common chord is given by S1 − S 2 = 0
(ii) If C1 , C2 denote the centre of the given intersecting circles, then
their common chord
PQ = 2 PM = 2 (C1P )2 − (C1M )2
(iii) If r1 and r2 be the radii of two orthogonally intersecting circles,
2 r1r2
then length of common chord is .
r12 + r22
 Circles 187

Family of Circles
(i) The equation of a family of circles passing through the
intersection of a circle S = x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 and line
L = lx + my + n = 0 is S + λL = 0
where, λ is any real number.
(ii) The equation of the family of circles passing through the point
A( x1 , y1 ) and B ( x2 , y2 ) is
x y 1
( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) + ( y − y1 ) ( y − y2 ) + λ x1 y1 1 = 0.
x2 y2 1
(iii) The equation of the family of circles touching the circle
S ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 at point P ( x1 , y1 ) is
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c + λ [xx1 + yy1 + g( x + x1 ) + f ( y + y1 ) + c] = 0
or S + λL = 0, where L = 0 is the equation of the tangent to
S = 0 at ( x1 , y1 ) and λ ∈ R.
(iv) Any circle passing through the point of intersection of two circles
S1 and S 2 is S1 + λ S 2 = 0, (where λ ≠ − 1).

Radical Axis
The radical axis of two circles is the locus P (h, k)
of a point which moves in such a way
Radical axis
that the length of the tangents drawn
from it to the two circles are equal. A
system of circles in which every pair has
the same radical axis is called a coaxial Q R
system of circles. The equation of radical C1 C2
axis of two circles S1 = 0 and S 2 = 0 is
given by S1 − S 2 = 0.
(i) The radical axis of two circles is always perpendicular to the line
joining the centres of the circles.
(ii) The radical axes of three circles, whose centres are non-collinear
taken in pairs are concurrent.
(iii) The centre of the circle cutting two given circles orthogonally,
lies on their radical axis.
(iv) Radical Centre The point of intersection of radical axis of
three circles whose centre are non-collinear, taken in pairs, is
called their radical centre.
188 Handbook of Mathematics

Coaxial System of Circles

A system of circle is said to be coaxial system of circles, if every pair of
the circles in the system has same radical axis.
(i) The equation of a system of coaxial circles, when the equation of
the radical axis P ≡ lx + my + n = 0 and one of the circle of the
system S ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0, is S + λP = 0.
where λ is an arbitrary constant.
(ii) Since, the lines joining the centres of two circles is perpendicular
to their radical axis. Therefore, the centres of all circles of a
coaxial system lie on a straight line, which is perpendicular to
the common radical axis.

Limiting Points
Limiting points of a system of coaxial circles are the centres of the
point circles belonging to the family.
Let equation of circle be x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + c = 0
∴ Radius of circle = g2 − c
For limiting point, r = 0
∴ g2 − c = 0 ⇒ g = ± c
Thus, limiting points of the given coaxial system as ( c , 0) and ( − c , 0).

Important Points to be Remembered

 a2 l a2m
(i) Pole of lx + my + n = 0 with respect to x 2 + y 2 = a2 is  − ,− .
 n n 
S1 S2
(ii) Let S1 = 0 , S2 = 0 be two circles with radii r1 , r2 , then ± = 0 will meet at
r1 r2
right angle.
(iii) Family of circles touching a line L = 0 at a point ( x1 , y1) on it is
( x − x1)2 + ( y − y1)2 + λL = 0.
(iv) Circumcircle of a ∆ with vertices ( x1 , y1), ( x2 , y2 ), ( x3 , y3 ) is
x y 1
x1 y1 1
( x − x1) ( x − x2 ) + ( y − y1) ( y − y2 ) x2 y2 1
=
( x3 − x1) ( x3 − x2 ) + ( y3 − y1) ( y3 − y2 ) x3 y3 1
x1 y1 1
x2 y2 1
 Circles 189

Image of the Circle by the Line Minor

Let the circle be x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0

C1 r r
C2
(– g, – f )

lx + my + n = 0

and line minor is lx + my + n = 0.

Then, the image of the circle is
( x − x1 )2 + ( y − y1 )2 = r 2
where, ( x1 , y1 ) is mirror image of centre ( − g, − f ) with respect to mirror
line lx + my + n = 0 and r = g2 + f 2 − c.

Diameter of a Circle
The locus of the middle points of a system of parallel chords of a circle
is called a diameter of the circle.
(i) The equation of the diameter bisecting parallel chords
y = mx + c of the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 is x + my = 0.
(ii) The diameter corresponding to a system of parallel chords of a
circle always passes through the centre of the circle and is
perpendicular to the parallel chords.
 30
Statistics
Statistics is the Science of collection, organisation, presentation,
analysis and interpretation of the numerical data.

Useful Terms
1. Primary and Secondary Data The data collected by the
investigator himself is known as the primary data, while the
data which are not originally collected but rather obtained from
some sources is known as secondary data.
2. Variable or Variate A characteristics that varies in
magnitude from observation to observation. e.g. weight, height,
income, age, etc are variables.
3. Grouped and Ungrouped Data The data which is organised
into several groups is called grouped data where as ungrouped
data is present in original form, i.e. it is just a list of numbers.
4. Class-Intervals The groups which used to condense the data
are called classes or class-intervals.
5. Limit of the Class The starting and ending values of each
class are called Lower and Upper limits, respectively.
6. Class Size or Class Width The difference between upper and
lower boundary of a class is called size of the class.
7. Class Marks The class marks of a class is given by
Lower limit + Upper limit
.
2
8. Frequency The number of times an observation occurs in the
given data, is called the frequency of the observation.
9. Frequency Distribution It is a tabular summary of data
showing the frequency of observations.
10. Discrete Frequency Distribution A frequency distribution
is called a discrete frequency distribution, if data are presented
in such a way that exact value of the data are clearly shown.
 Statistics 321
11. Continuous Frequency Distribution A frequency
distribution in which data are arranged in classes (or groups)
which are not exactly measurable.
12. Cumulative Frequency Distribution In this type of
distribution, the frequencies of each class intervals are added
successively from top to bottom or from bottom to top.
A cumulative frequency distribution is of two types
(i) Less than cummulative frequency distribution In
this frequencies are added successively from top to bottom
and we represent the cumulative number of observation less
than or equal to the class frequency to which it relates.
(ii) More than cummulative frequency distribution In
this frequencies are added successively from bottom to top
and we represent the cummulative number of observation
greater than or equal to the class frequency to which it
relates.

Graphical Representation of
Frequency Distributions
(i) Bar Diagrams In bar diagrams, only the length of the bars
are taken into consideration. To draw a bar diagram, we first
mark equal lengths for the different classes on the horizontal
axis, i.e. on X-axis.
On each of these lengths on the horizontal axis, we erect
(vertical) a rectangle whose heights are proportional to the
frequency of the class.
Y

40

30
Frequency

Bikes
Cars

20
Scooters
Bus

10

0 X
Registered vehicles

(ii) Histogram To draw the histogram of a given continuous

frequency distribution, we first mark off all the class intervals
along X-axis on a suitable scale. On each of these class intervals
322 Handbook of Mathematics

on the horizontal axis, we erect (vertical) a rectangle whose

height is proportional to the frequency of that particular class,
so that the area of the rectangle is proportional to the frequency
of the class.
Y
50
40
30
Frequency

20
10
0 X
10 20 30 40 50 60
Class interval
If however the classes are of unequal width, then the height of
the rectangles will be proportional to the ratio of the frequencies
to the width of the classes.
(iii) Pie Diagrams Pie diagrams are used to represent a relative
frequency distribution. A pie diagram consists of a circle divided
into as many sectors as there are classes in a frequency
distribution. The area of each sector is proportional to the
relative frequency of the class.
Now, we make angles at the centre proportional to the relative
frequencies. And in order to get the angles of the desired sectors,
we divide 360° in the proportion of the various relative
frequencies, i.e.
 Frequency 
Central angle =   × 360°
Total frequency

Cars
120° Bus
60°
105° 75° rs
te
Bikes oo
Sc

The above pie diagram represent an illustration of types of

vehicles and their share in the total number of vehicles of a city.
(iv) Frequency Polygon To draw the frequency polygon of an
ungrouped frequency distribution, we plot the points with
abscissae as the variate values and the ordinate as the
 Statistics 323
corresponding frequencies. These plotted points are joined by
straight lines to obtain the frequency polygon.
Y

14 D
12
Number of students

10
8 B
C
6
4 E G
F
2
A H
0 X
25.5 30.5 35.5 40.5 45.5 50.5 55.5 60.5 65.5
Weights (in kg)

(v) Cumulative Frequency Curve (Ogive) The curve given by

the graphical representation of cummulative frequency
distribution is called on ogive or commulative frequency curve.
There are two methods of constructing an ogive, (i) ‘less than’
type ogive (ii) ‘more than’ type ogive.

60 60
‘More than’ ogive
50 50
Cumulative frequency

Cumulative frequency

‘Less than’ ogive

40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10
O O
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Upper limits Lower limits

Measures of Central Tendency

A single value which describes the characteristic of the entire data is
known as the average. Generally, average value of a distribution lies in
the middle part of the distribution, such type of values are known as
measures of central tendency.
The following are the five measures of central tendency
1. Arithmetic Mean 2. Geometric Mean 3. Harmonic Mean
4. Median 5. Mode
324 Handbook of Mathematics

1. Arithmetic Mean
The arithmetic mean (or simple mean) of a set of observations is
obtained by dividing the sum of the values of observations by the
number of observations.
(i) Arithmetic Mean for Unclassified (Ungrouped or Raw)
Data If there are n observations, x1 , x2 , x3 , K , xn , then their
arithmetic mean
n

x1 + x2 + K + xn
∑ xi
i =1
A or x = =
n n
(ii) Arithmetic Mean for Discrete Frequency Distribution
or Ungrouped Frequency Distribution Let f1 , f2 , K , fn
be corresponding frequencies of x1 , x2 ,. .. , xn . Then, arithmetic
mean
n

x1 f1 + x2 f2 + K + xn fn
∑ xi fi
i =1
A= =
f1 + f2 + K + fn n
∑ fi
i =1

(iii) Arithmetic Mean for Classified (Grouped) Data or

Grouped Frequency Distribution For a classified data,
we take the class marks x1 , x2 , K , xn of the classes, then
arithmetic mean by
n
∑ xi fi
i =1
(a) From Direct Method A = n
∑ fi
i =1

(b) From Shortcut Method Or Deviation Method

 n 
 ∑ fi di 
A = A1 +  i =1n  h
 
 ∑ fi 
 i =1 
where, A1 = assumed mean, di = deviation = xi − A1
h = width of interval
 Statistics 325
n
∑ fi u i
i =1
(c) Step Deviation Method is x = A 1 + n
×h
∑ fi
i =1
where, A1 = assumed mean
xi − A1
u i = step deviation = and h = width of interval.
h
(iv) Combined Mean If A1, A 2 ,... , A r are means of n1 , n 2 ,... , n r
observations respectively, then arithmetic mean of the
combined group is called the combined mean of the
observation
r

n 1A 1 + n 2A 2 + K + n r A r ∑ ni A i
i =1
A= =
n1 + n 2 +K + n r r
∑ ni
i =1

(v) Weighted Arithmetic Mean If w1 , w2 ,... , wn are the

weights assigned to the values x1 , x2 ,... , xn respectively, then the
weighted arithmetic mean is
n
∑ wi xi
i =1
Aw = n
∑ wi
i =1

Properties of Arithmetic Mean

(i) Mean is dependent of change of origin and change of scale.
(ii) Algebraic sum of the deviations of a set of values from their
arithmetic mean is zero.
(iii) The sum of the squares of the deviations of a set of values is
minimum when taken from mean.

2. Geometric Mean
(i) If x1 , x2 ,... , xn be n positive observations, then their geometric
mean is defined as
G = n x1 x2 K xn
 log x1 + log x2 + K + log xn 
or G = antilog  
 n
326 Handbook of Mathematics

(ii) Let f1 , f2 ,... , fn be the corresponding frequencies of positive

observations x1 , x2 ,... , xn , then geometric mean is defined as
1
G = ( x1f1 x2f2K xnfn ) N
1 
or G = antilog  ( f1 log x1 + f2 log x2 + K + fn log xn ,
 N 
n
where N = ∑ fi
i =1

3. Harmonic Mean (HM)

The harmonic mean of n non-zero observations x1 , x2 , ... , xn is
defined as
n n
HM = = n
1 1 1 1
+
x1 x2
+ ... +
xn ∑x
i =1 i

If their corresponding frequencies are f1 , f2 , ... , fn respectively, then

n

f1 + f2 + ... + fn
∑ fi
i =1
HM = =
 f1 f f  n
f
 + 2 + ...+ n 
 x1 x2 xn 
∑ xi
i =1 i

4. Median
The median of a distribution is the value of the middle observation,
when the observations are arranged in ascending or descending order.

(i) Median for Simple Distribution or Raw Data

Firstly, arrange the data in ascending or descending order and then
find the number of observations n.
 n + 1
(a) If n is odd, then   th term is the median.
 2 
 n
(b) If n is even, then there are two middle terms namely   th and
 2
n 
 + 1 th terms.
2 
 Statistics 327
 n n 
Hence, Median = Mean of   th and  + 1 th observations
 2 2 
1  n  n  
=   th +  + 1 th of observations
2  2  2  

(ii) Median for Unclassified (Ungrouped) Frequency

Distribution
n
N
(i) Firstly, find
2
, where N = ∑ fi .
i =1

(ii) Find the cumulative frequency which is equal to or just greater

N
than .
2
(iii) Take the value of variable corresponding to cummulative
frequency obtained in step (ii).
(iv) This value of the variable is the required median.

(iii) Median for Classified (Grouped) Data

or Grouped Frequency Distribution
If in a continuous distribution, the total frequency be N , then the class
whose cumulative frequency is either equal to N/2 or is just greater
than N/2 is called median class.
For a continuous distribution, median
N
−C
Md = l + 2 ×h
f
where, l = lower limit of the median class
f = frequency of the median class
n
N = total frequency = ∑ fi
i =1
C = cumulative frequency of the class just before the median
class
h = length of the median class
Note The intersection point of less than ogive and more than ogive is the
median.
328 Handbook of Mathematics

Quartiles
The median divides the distribution in two equal parts. Similarly, quartiles
divide the distribution in four equal parts.

Q1 Q2 = Md Q3

Quartiles for a continuous distribution is given by

N
−C
Q1 ( first quartile) = l + 4 ×h
f
N
−C
Similarly, Q2 (second quartile) = l + 2 × h = median,
f
3N
−C
Q3 ( third quartile) = l + 4 ×h
f
where, N = total frequency
l = lower limit of the quartile class
f = frequency of the quartile class
C = the cumulative frequency corresponding to the class just
before the quartile class
h = the length of the quartile class.

5. Mode
The mode ( M O ) of a distribution is the value at the point about which
the observations tend to be most heavily concentrated. It is generally
the value of the variable which appears to occur most frequently in the
distribution.

(i) Mode for a Simple Data or Raw Data

The value which is repeated maximum number of times, is the
required mode.
e.g. Mode of the data 70, 80, 90, 96, 70, 96, 96, 90 is 96 as 96 occurs
maximum number of times.

(ii) Mode for Unclassified (Ungrouped) Frequency

Distribution
Mode is the value of the variate corresponding to the maximum
frequency.
 Statistics 329
(iii) Mode for Classified (Grouped) Distribution or
Grouped Frequency Distribution
The class having the maximum frequency is called the modal class
and the middle point of the modal class is called the crude mode.
The class just before the modal class is called pre-modal class and the
class after the modal class is called the post-modal class.
Mode for classified data (Continuous Distribution) is given by
f0 − f1
MO = l + ×h
2 f0 − f1 − f2
where, l = lower limit of the modal class
f0 = frequency of the modal class
f1 = frequency of the pre-modal class
f2 = frequency of the post-modal class
h = length of the class interval

Relation between Mean, Median and Mode

(i) Mean − Mode = 3 (Mean − Median)
(ii) Mode = 3 Median − 2 Mean

Symmetric and Anti-symmetric Distribution

A distribution is symmetric, if the
frequencies are symmetrically distributed
on both sides of the centre point of the
frequency curve. In this, frequency curve is
bell shaped.
In symmetrical distribution,
Mean = Median = Mode, i.e. A = M d = MO A = Md = MO

A distribution which is not symmetric is called anti-symmetric

(or skew-symmetric).

Measure of Dispersion
The degree to which numerical data tend to spread about an average
value is called the dispersion of the data. The four measure of
dispersion are
1. Range 2. Mean deviation
3. Standard deviation 4. Root mean square deviation
330 Handbook of Mathematics

1. Range
The difference between the highest and the lowest observation of a
data is called its range.
i.e. Range = X max − X min
X max − X min
∴ The coefficient of range =
X max + X min
It is widely used in statistical series relating to quality control in
production.
(i) Inter quartile range = Q3 − Q1
Q3 − Q1
(ii) Semi-inter quartile range (Quartile deviation) =
2
Q3 − Q1
and coefficient of quartile deviation =
Q3 + Q1
2. Mean Deviation (MD)
The arithmetic mean of the absolute deviations of the values of the
variable from a measure of their average (mean, median, mode) is
called Mean Deviation (MD). It is denoted by δ.
n
∑ |xi − x|
i =1
(i) For simple (raw) distribution δ =
n
where, n = number of terms, x = A or M d or MO
n
∑ fi |xi − x|
i =1
(ii) For unclassified frequency distribution δ = n
∑ fi
n i =1
∑ fi |xi − x|
i =1
(iii) For classified distribution δ = n
∑ fi
i =1

where, xi is the class mark of the interval.

Note The mean deviation is the least when measured from the median.

Coefficient of Mean Deviation

It is the ratio of MD and the average from which the deviation is
measured.
δ δMd δ MO
Thus, the coefficient of MD = A or or
A Md MO
 Statistics 331
Limitations of Mean Deviation
(i) If the data is more scattered or the degree of variability is very
high, then the median is not a valid representative.
(ii) The sum of the deviations from the mean is more than the sum of
the deviations from the median.
(iii) The mean deviation is calculated on the basis of absolute values
of the deviations and so cannot be subjected to further algebraic
treatment.
3. Standard Deviation and Variance
Standard deviation is the square root of the arithmetic mean of the
squares of deviations of the terms from their AM and it is denoted by σ.
The square of standard deviation is called the variance and it is
denoted by the symbol σ 2.
(i) For simple distribution
n
∑ ( xi − x )2 1 n n 
2
i =1
n ∑ xi −  ∑ xi 
2
σ= =
n n i =1  i =1 
where, n is a number of observations and x is mean.
(ii) For discrete frequency distribution
n
∑ f ( xi − x )2 1 n n 
2
i =1
N ∑ fi xi −  ∑ fi xi 
2
σ= =
N N i =1  i =1 
2
1 n n 
N ∑ fi di −  ∑ fi di 
2
Shortcut Method σ =
N i =1  i =1 
where, di = deviation from assumed mean = xi − A and A = assumed
mean
(iii) For continuous frequency distribution
n
∑ fi ( xi − x )2
i =1
σ=
N
where, xi is class mark of the interval.
2
h n n 
Shortcut Method σ =
N
N ∑ fi u i2 −  ∑ fi u i 
i =1 i =1
xi − A
where, u i = , A = assumed mean and h = width of the class
h
332 Handbook of Mathematics

Standard Deviation of the Combined Series

If n1, n 2 are the sizes, X1 , X 2 are the means and σ1 , σ 2 are the standard
deviation of the series, then the standard deviation of the combined
series is
n1(σ12 + d12 ) + n 2(σ 22 + d22 )
σ=
n1 + n 2
where, d1 = X1 − X , d2 = X 2 − X
n1X + n 2X 2
and X = .
n1 + n 2

Effects of Average and Dispersion on

Change of origin and Scale
Change of origin Change of scale
Mean Dependent Dependent
Median Dependent Dependent
Mode Dependent Dependent
Standard Deviation Not dependent Dependent
Variance Not dependent Dependent

Note (i) Change origin means either subtract or add in observations.

(ii) Change of scale means either multiply or divide in observations.

Important Points to be Remembered

(i) The ratio of SD ( σ) and the AM ( x ) is called the coefficient of standard
 σ
deviation   .
x
 σ
(ii) The percentage form of coefficient of SD i. e.   × 100 is called
x
coefficient of variation.
(iii) The distribution for which the coefficient of variation is less is more
consistent.
n2 − 1
(iv) Standard deviation of first n natural numbers is .
12
(v) Standard deviation is independent of change of origin, but it is depend
on change of scale.
2
(vi) Quartile deviation = Standard deviation
3
4
(vii) Mean deviation = Standard deviation
5
 Statistics 333

4. Root Mean Square Deviation (RMS)

The square root of the AM of squares of the deviations from an
assumed mean is called the root mean square deviation.
Thus,
(i) For simple (discrete) distribution

S=
∑ ( x − A′ )2 , where A′ = assumed mean
n
(ii) For frequency distribution

S=
∑ f ( x − A′ )2
∑f
Note If A′ = A (mean), then S = σ

Important Points to be Remembered

(i) The RMS deviation is the least when measured from AM.

(ii) σ 2 + A2 =
∑ f x2 .
∑f
∑x
2

(iii) For discrete distribution, if f = 1, then σ + A

2 2
.=
n
(iv) The mean deviation about the mean is less than or equal to the SD. i. e.
MD ≤ σ.

Correlation
The tendency of simultaneous variation between two variables is called
correlation (or covariation). It denotes the degree of inter-dependence
between variables.

Types of Correlation
1. Perfect Correlation
If the two variables vary in such a manner that their ratio is always
constant, then the correlation is said to be perfect.
2. Positive or Direct Correlation
If an increase or decrease in one variable corresponds to an increase or
decrease in the other, then the correlation is said to be positive.
3. Negative or Indirect Correlation
If an increase or decrease in one variable corresponds to a decrease or
increase in the other, then correlation is said to be negative.
334 Handbook of Mathematics

Covariance
Let ( xi , yi ), i = 1, 2, 3, K , n be a bivariate distribution, where
x1 , x2 ,K , xn are the values of variable x and y1 , y2 , K , yn those of y,
then the cov ( x , y ) is given by
n
1
(i) cov ( x , y ) =
n
∑ ( xi − x )( yi − y )
i =1

where, x and y are mean of variables x and y.

1 n 1 n  1 n 
(ii) cov ( x , y ) = ∑ xi yi −  n ∑ xi   n ∑ yi 
n i =1  i =1   i =1 

Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of Correlation

Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation is based on the products of the
deviations from the average of the respective variables and their
respective standard deviations.
The correlation coefficient r( x , y ) between the variables x and y is given
cov( x , y ) cov ( x , y )
r( x , y ) = or
var ( x ) var ( y ) σ xσ y
n
∑ ( xi − x ) ( yi − y )
i =1
=
n n
∑ ( xi − x )2 ∑ ( yi − y )2
i =1 i =1
n n

n ∑ xi ∑ yi
∑ xi yi − i =1
n
i =1

i =1
=
2 2
n  n 
 ∑ xi   ∑ yi 
n
  n
 
∑ xi − i =1 ∑ yi − i =1
2 2

i =1 n i =1 n
n n n
n ∑ xi yi − ∑ xi ∑ yi
i =1 i =1 i =1
=
2 2
n   n n n 
n ∑ xi −  ∑ xi  n ∑ yi −  ∑ yi 
2 2

i =1  i =1  i =1  i =1 
 Statistics 335
Properties of Correlation
(i) − 1 ≤ r ≤ 1
(ii) If r = 1, then coefficient of correlation is perfectly positive.
(iii) If r = − 1, then correlation is perfectly negative.
(iv) The coefficient of correlation is independent of the change of
origin and scale.
(v) Correlation coefficient has no unit and it is a pure number.
(vi) If − 1 < r < 1, it indicates the degree of linear relationship
between x and y, whereas its sign tells about the direction of
relationship.
(vii) If x and y are two independent variables, then r = 0
(viii) If r = 0, x and y are said to be uncorrelated. It does not imply
that the two variates are independent.
(ix) If x and y are random variables and a , b, c and d are any
numbers such that a ≠ 0, c ≠ 0, then
|ac|
r( ax + b, cy + d ) = r( x , y ).
ac
(x) Probable Error and Standard Error If r is the
correlation coefficient in a sample of n pairs of observations,
1 − r2
then it standard error is given by .
n
And the probable error of correlation coefficient is given by
1 − r2
( 0.6745)  .
 n 

Rank Correlation (Spearman’s)

Let d be the difference between paired ranks and n be the number of
items ranked. The coefficient of rank correlation is given by
(i) When ranks are not repeated
n
6 ∑ d2
i =1
r =1−
n( n 2 − 1)
336 Handbook of Mathematics

(ii) When ranks are repeated If n ranks are repeated

m1 m2 mr
, ,. ...., times,n then rank rcorrelation is given by
 1 
6 ∑ d 2 + ∑ ( mi − mi )
3
12
r = 1 − i =1 i =1 
n( n 2 − 1)
(a) The rank correlation coefficient lies between − 1 and 1.
(b) If two variables are correlated, then points in the scatter
diagram generally cluster around a curve which we call the
curve of regression.

Regression
Regression helps to estimate or predict the unknown value of one
variable from the known values of the other related variables.

Lines of Regression
A line of regression is the straight line which gives the best fit in the
least square sense to the given sets of data.

Regression coefficient of y on x and x on y

The regression coefficient shows that with a unit change in the value of
x (or y) variable, what will be the average change in the value of y (or
x) variable.
It is denoted by byx (or bxy ).
σ y cov ( x , y )
byx = r =
σx σ 2x
σ x cov ( x , y )
and bxy = r =
σy σ 2y

Regression Analysis
Regression Equation Regression equations are the algebraic
formulation of regression lines.
(i) Line of regression of y on x is
σy
y− y =r (x − x )
σx
 Statistics 337
(ii) Line of regression of x on y is
σ
x − x = r x ( y − y)
σy
(iii) Angle between two regression lines is given by
 1 − r 2   σ x σ y    1 − r2 
θ = tan−1    2   = tan−1 
2 
 r   σ x + σ y    bxy + byx 
π
(a) If r = 0, i.e. θ = , then two regression lines are
2
perpendicular to each other.
(b) If r = 1 or − 1, i.e. θ = 0, then two regression lines coincide.

Properties of the Regression Coefficients

(i) Both regression coefficients and r have the same sign.
(ii) Coefficient of correlation is the geometric mean between the
regression coefficients.
(iii) 0 <|bxy byx|≤ 1, if r ≠ 0 i.e. if|bxy|> 1, then|byx|< 1
(iv) Regression coefficients are independent of the change of origin
but not of scale.
(v) If two regression coefficient have different sign, then r = 0.
(vi) Arithmetic mean of the regression coefficients is greater than
the correlation coefficient.
byx + bxy
i.e. ≥ r.
2
338 Handbook of Mathematics

31
Mathematical
Reasoning
In mathematical language, there are two kinds of reasoning—inductive
and deductive. Here, we will discuss some fundamentals of deductive
reasoning.

Statement (Proposition)
A statement is an assertive sentence which is either true or false but
not both. Statements are denoted by the small letters i.e. p, q , r ... etc.
e.g. p : A triangle has four sides.
Note
(i) A true statement is known as a valid statement and a false statement
is known as an invalid statement.
(ii) Imperative, exclamatory, interrogative, optative sentences are not
statements.

1. Simple Statement
A statement which cannot be broken into two or more statements is
called a simple statement.
e.g. p : 2 is a real number.

2. Open Statement
A sentence which contains one or more variable such that when certain
values are given to the variable it becomes a statement, is called an
open statement.
e.g. p : ‘He is a great man’ is an open statement because in this
statement, he can be replaced by any person.
 36
Elementary Algebra
Polynomial
An expression of the form a0x n + a1x n −1 + a2x n − 2 +...+ an −1x + an ,
where a0 , a1 ,... , an are real numbers and n is a non-negative integer, is
called a polynomial in the variable x. Polynomial in the variable x are
usually denoted by f ( x ), g ( x ) and h( x ) etc.
Thus, f ( x ) = a0x n + a1x n −1 + a2x n − 2 + ... + an −1x + an .
(i) If a0 ≠ 0, then n is called the degree of the polynomial f ( x ); it is
written as deg f ( x ) = n.
(ii) a0x n , a1x n −1 , a2x n − 2 ,... , an −1x, an are called the terms of the
polynomial f ( x ); an is called the constant term.
(iii) a0 , a1 , a2 ,... , an −1 , an are called the coefficients of the polynomial
f ( x ).
(iv) If a0 ≠ 0, then a0x n is called the leading term and a0 is called
the leading coefficient of the polynomial.
(v) If all the coefficients a0 , a1 , a2 ,... , an −1 , an are zero, then f ( x ) is
called a zero polynomial. It is denoted by the symbol 0. The
degree of the zero polynomial is never defined.

Degree of a Polynomial
(i) In One Variable The highest power of the variable is called
the degree of the polynomial.
(ii) In Two Variables The sum of the powers of the variables in
each term is obtained and the highest sum, so obtained is the
degree of that polynomial.

Types of Polynomials
(i) Constant Polynomial A polynomial having degree zero.
(ii) Linear Polynomial A polynomial having degree one.
(iii) Quadratic Polynomial A polynomial having degree two.
(iv) Cubic Polynomial A polynomial having degree three.
(v) Biquadratic Polynomial A polynomial having degree four.
 Elementary Algebra 399
Fundamental Operations on Polynomial
(i) Addition of Polynomials To calculate the addition of two
or more polynomials, we collect different groups of like powers
together and add the coefficients of like terms.
(ii) Subtraction of Polynomials To find the subtraction of two
or more polynomials, we collect different groups of like powers
together and subtract the coefficient of like terms.
(iii) Multiplication of Polynomials Two polynomials can be
multiplied by applying distributive law and simplifying the like
terms.
(iv) Division of Polynomials When a polynomial p ( x ) is
divided by a polynomial q( x ) ≠ 0, we get two polynomials g( x ) and
r( x ) such that
p ( x ) = q( x )g( x ) + r( x )

Synthetic Division Method (Horner’s Method)

This method is to find the quotient and the remainder when a
polynomial is divided by a binomial.

Rule for Synthetic Division

1. First complete the given polynomial f ( x ) by adding the missing
term with zero coefficients.
2. Write the successive coefficients a0 , a1 , a2 ,... , an of the
polynomial f ( x ).
3. If we want to divide the polynomial by x − h, then write h in the
left corner.
4. In third row write b0 below a0, where b0 = a0 and then multiply b0
by h to get the product hb0.
5. Adding hb0 to a1, we get b1. Similarly by adding hb1 to a2, we get
b2 and so on
h a0 a1 a2 ……… an
+ hb0 + hb1 ………
b0 b1 b2 ………

6. Repeat this till you get last term which is remainder R.

If R = 0, then h is the root of the polynomial f ( x ) = 0 and the
equation can be reduced by one dimension.
400 Handbook of Mathematics

Factorisation of Polynomials
(i) ( x − a )2 = x 2 − 2xa + a 2
(ii) ( x + a )2 = x 2 + 2xa + a 2
(iii) ( x + a )3 = x3 + 3x 2a + 3a 2x + a3
(iv) ( x − a )3 = x3 − 3x 2a + 3a 2x − a3
(v) ( x + y + z )2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2xy + 2 yz + 2zx
(vi) ( w + x + y + z )2 = w2 + x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2w( x + y + z )
+ 2x( y + z ) + 2 yz
(vii) a + b + c − 3abc = ( a + b + c) ⋅ ( a + b + c − ab − bc − ca )
3 3 3 2 2 2

(viii) If a + b + c = 0 ⇒ a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc

Some Special Products

(i) ( x − a )( x + a ) = x 2 − a 2
(ii) ( x − a )( x 2 + xa + a 2 ) = x3 − a3
(iii) ( x + a )( x 2 − xa + a 2 ) = x3 + a3
(iv) ( x − a )( x + a )( x 2 + a 2 ) = x 4 − a 4
(v) ( x 2 + xa + a 2 )( x 2 − xa + a 2 ) = x 4 + x 2a 2 + a 4
(vi) If n is a natural number, then
( x − a )( x n − 1 + x n − 2a + x n − 3 a 2 + K + a n − 1 ) = x n − a n
(vii) If n is an even natural number, then
( x + a )( x n − 1 − x n − 2a + x n − 3 a 2 − K − a n − 1 ) = x n − a n
(viii) If n is an odd natural number, then,
( x + a )( x n − 1 − x n − 2a + x n − 3 a 2 − K + a n − 1 ) = x n + a n

Some Important Results

1. x + a = ( x + a) − 2xa = ( x − a)2 + 2xa 2. x 3 + a3 = ( x + a)3 − 3xa( x + a)
2 2 2

3. x 3 − a3 = ( x − a)3 + 3xa( x − a) 4. ( x + a)2 = ( x − a)2 + 4 xa

5. ( x − a) = ( x + a) − 4 xa
2 2
6. ( x + a)2 + ( x − a)2 = 2( x 2 + a2 )

7. ( x + a)2 − ( x − a)2 = 4 xa 8. ( x + a)3 + ( x − a)3 = 2x ( x 2 + 3a2 )

2
1  1
9. ( x + a)3 − ( x − a)3 = 2a( 3x 2 + a2 ) 10. x 2 + = x +  − 2
x2  x
Contd. …
 Elementary Algebra 401
2 2 2
1  1  1  1
11. x 2 + = x −  + 2 12.  x −  =  x +  − 4
x2  x  x  x
2 2
 1  1 1  1
13.  x +  =  x −  + 4 14. x + =  x2 + 2  + 2
 x  x x  x 
2 2
1  1  1  1  1
15. x − =  x2 + 2  − 2 16.  x +  +  x −  = 2  x 2 + 2 
x  x   x   x   x 
2 2 3
 1  1 1  1  1
17.  x +  −  x −  = 4 18. x 3 + = x +  − 3 x + 
 x   x x 3  x   x
3
1  1  1
19. x 3 − = x −  + 3 x − 
x 3  x   x

Value of a Polynomial f ( x ) at x = α
Let f ( x ) = a0x n + a1x n −1 + a2x n − 2 +...+ an be a polynomial in x and α be
a real number, then the real number
a0α n + a1α n −1 + a2α n − 2 +...+ an is called the value of f ( x ) at x = α.
Thus, if f ( x ) is a polynomial in x and α is a real number, then the value
obtained by replacing x by α in f(x) is called the value of f ( x ) at x = α. It
is denoted by f(α ).

Remainder Theorem
If p ( x ) is a polynomial in x of degree ≥ 1 and a be any real number such
that, if p ( x ) is divided by a polynomial of the form ( x − a ), then the
remainder is p ( a ).

Factor Theorem
If p ( x ) is a polynomial in x of degree ≥ 1 and a be any real number such
that p ( a ) = 0, then ( x − a ) is a factor of p ( x ).

Zeroes/Roots of a Polynomial
A real number α is a zero of the polynomial p ( x ), if and only if f(α ) = 0.
If p ( x ) is a polynomial of order n, such that
p ( x ) = a0x + a1x n − 1 + a2x n − 2 + K + an − 1x + an = 0,
where a0 , a1 , a2 , K , an ∈ R and p ( x ) have roots α1 , α 2 , α3 , K , α n , then
(i) Sum of roots
a
α1 + α 2 + K + α n = ( − 1)1 1
a0
402 Handbook of Mathematics

(ii) Sum of product of two roots at a time,

a2
α1α 2 + α1α3 + K = ( − 1)2
a0
(iii) Sum of product of three roots at a time,
a3
α1α 2 α3 + α 2α3α 4 + K = ( − 1)3
a0
(iv) Product of all roots
an
α1α 2 α3K α n = ( − 1)n
a0

Number of Zeroes of a Polynomial

(i) A quadratic polynomial can have atmost 2 zeroes.
(ii) A cubic polynomial can have atmost 3 zeroes.
(iii) A polynomial of degree ( n > 1) can have atmost n zeroes.

Important Points to be Remembered

(i) If a polynomial p ( x ) is divided by ( ax − b), then remainder is p (b /a).
(ii) If a polynomial p ( x ) is divided by ( ax + b), then remainder is p ( − b /a).
(iii) If a polynomial p ( x ) is divided by (b − ax ), then remainder is p (b /a).
(iv) The set of polynomials has closure, commutative and associative
properties under addition as well as multiplication.
Note Subtraction is not commutative in the set of polynomials.
(v) 0 is the identity element under addition.
(vi) 1is the identity element under multiplication.
(vii) Every polynomial has an additive and multiplicative inverse.

HCF of Monomials
To find the HCF of two or more monomials, we multiply the HCF of
the numerical coefficients of the monomials by the highest power of
each of the letters common to both the polynomials.

LCM of Monomials
To find the LCM of two monomials, we multiply the LCM of the
numerical coefficient of the monomials by all the factors raised to the
highest power which it has in either of the given polynomials.
 Elementary Algebra 403
Important Points to be Remembered
Product of polynomials
(i) LCM of two polynomials =
HCF of polynomials
Product of polynomials
(ii) HCF of two polynomials =
LCM of polynomials
(iii) For any two polynomials p ( x ) and q( x );
p ( x ) × q ( x ) = [HCF of p( x ) and q ( x )] × [LCM of p ( x ) and q( x )]

Linear Equations
(i) Equation A statement of equality of two algebraic expressions
involving two or more unknown variable, is called equation.
(ii) Linear Equation An equation involving the variables in
maximum of order 1 is called a linear equation. Graph of linear
equation is a straight line.
Linear equation in one variable is of the form ax + b = 0.
Linear equation in two variables is of the form ax + by + c = 0.
(iii) Solution of an Equation A particular set of values of the
variables, which when substituted for the variables in the
equation makes the two sides of the equation equal, is called the
solution of an equation.
(iv) Simultaneous Linear Equation A set of linear equation in
two variables is said to form a system of simultaneous linear
equation, if both equations have same solution.
(v) Consistency of Simultaneous Linear Equation If a
system of simultaneous linear equation has atleast one solution,
then the system of linear equation is called consistent.
(vi) Inconsistency of Simultaneous Linear Equation If a
system of simultaneous linear equation has no solution, then
the system of linear equation is called inconsistent.

Solving Linear Equation of One Variable

1. Rules for Solving a Linear Equation
(a) Same quantity can be added/subtracted both sides of an
equation without changing the equality.
(b) Both the sides of an equation, can be multiplied/divided by
the same non-zero number, without changing the quantity.
404 Handbook of Mathematics

2. Steps for Solving Linear Equation

Step I Obtain the linear equation and do cross-multiplication, if
necessary.
Step II Transpose the terms involving the variables on the left
hand side and those not involving the variables to the
right hand side.
Step III Simplify the two sides to obtain the equation of the form
ax = b.
b
Step IV Find the value of x as x = .
a

Solving Linear Equation of Two Variables

1. Elimination by Substitution
Step I Find the value of one variable (say y) in terms of another
variable (say x).
Step II Substitute this value in another equation to obtain the
value of another variable (say x).
Step III Substituting this obtained value of variable (x) in the first
equation, the value of first variable to be obtained.

2. Elimination by Equating the Coefficient

Step I Multiply the equations by suitable non-zero constants so to
make the coefficients of one of the variable same.
Step II Add or subtract the equations obtained, to eliminate one of
the variable.
Step III Solve the linear equation in one variable obtained step II
and get the value of one variable.
Step IV Substitute the value of the variable obtained in above step
in any of the given equations and find the second value.

3. Cross-multiplication Method
Step I Consider the system of simultaneous linear equations, in
two variables x and y.
i.e. a1x + b1 y + c1 = 0
and a2x + b2 y + c2 = 0
 Elementary Algebra 405
Step II Now, cross-multiply the terms, according to the arrow,
given below.
b1 c1 c1 a1 a1 b1

b2 c2 c2 a2 a2 b2

Step III Now, find the value of x and y according to the following
relation
x y 1
= =
b1c2 − b2c1 c1a2 − c2a1 a1b2 − a2b1
which gives
b1c2 − b2c1
x=
a1b2 − a2b1
c1a2 − c2a1
and y=
a1b2 − a2b1

4. Graphical Method
When we draw the graph of each of the two equations, we have the
following possibilities.
(a) If two lines intersect at one point, then it has a unique solution
and point of intersection gives the solution.
(b) If two lines are parallel, then it has no solution.
(c) If two lines are coincide, then it has infinite solutions.

Solution for Linear Equation in Two Variables

When two linear equations a1x + b1 y = c1 and a2x + b2 y = c2 are given
a1 b1
Case I If ≠ , then the system is consistent with unique
a2 b2
solution.
a1 b1 c1
Case II If = ≠ , then the system is inconsistent with no
a2 b2 c2
solution.
a1 b1 c1
Case III If = = , then the system is consistent (dependent),
a2 b2 c2
with infinitely many solutions.
406 Handbook of Mathematics

Rational Expression
f(x)
If f ( x ) and g( x ) are two polynomials and g( x ) ≠ 0, then quotient is
g( x )
called a rational expression.
Every polynomial is a rational expression but every rational expression
f(x)
is not a polynomial. is said to be in lowest form, if f ( x ) and g( x )
g( x )
have no common factor.

Properties of Rational Expression

f(x) p (x)
(i) Addition Addition of and is defined as
g( x ) r( x )
f ( x ) p ( x ) f ( x ) ⋅ r( x ) + p ( x ) ⋅ g( x )
+ =
g( x ) r( x ) g( x ) ⋅ r( x )
f(x) p (x)
(ii) Subtraction When we subtract from , then
g( x ) r( x )
p ( x ) f ( x ) p ( x ) ⋅ g( x ) − f ( x ) ⋅ r( x )
− =
r( x ) g( x ) r( x ) ⋅ g( x )
f(x) p (x)
(iii) Multiplication When and are multiplied, then
g( x ) r( x )
f(x) p (x) f(x) ⋅ p (x)
as × =
g( x ) r( x ) g( x ) ⋅ r( x )
f(x) p (x)
(iv) Division When is divided by , we get it as
g( x ) r( x )
f ( x ) p ( x ) f ( x ) r( x )
÷ = ⋅
g( x ) r( x ) g( x ) p ( x )
 37
Logarithms
If a is a positive real number other than 1 and a x = m , then x is called
the logarithm of m to the base a, written as loga m. In loga m , m
should be always positive.
(i) If m < 0, then loga m will be imaginary and if m = 0, then
loga m will be meaningless.
(ii) loga m exists only, if m , a > 0 and a ≠ 1.

Types of Logarithms
1. Natural (or Napier) Logarithms The logarithm with base ‘ e ’
( e = 2 .718) is called natural logarithms.
e.g. loge x , loge 25 etc.
Note The another way of loge x can be represented as ln.
2. Common (or Brigg’s) Logarithms The logarithm with base 10 is
called common logarithm.
e.g. log10 x , log10 75 etc.
Note In a logarithmic expression when the base is not mentioned,
it is taken as 10.

Characteristic and Mantissa of a Logarithm

The logarithm of positive real number n consists of two parts.
(i) The integral part is known as the characteristic. It is always
an integer positive, negative or zero.
(ii) The decimal part is called as the mantissa. The mantissa is
never negative and is always less than one.

Method to Find the Characteristic

Case I When number is greater than 1.
The characteristic is one less than the number of digits in
the left of decimal point in the given number.
408 Handbook of Mathematics

Number (x) : 6.125 61.321 725.132

Number of digits in
: 1 2 3
the integral part of x
Characteristic of log x : 1− 1 = 0 2−1= 1 3−1= 2

Case II When number is less than 1.

The characteristic of the logarithm of a positive number less
than 1 is negative and is numerically greater by 1 than the
number of zeroes between the decimal sign and the first
significant figure of the number.
e.g.
Number (x) : 0.7684 0.06712 0.00031
Number of zeroes
: 0 1 3
after the decimal point
− (0 + 1) − (1 + 1) − (3 + 1)
Characteristic of log x :
= −1 = 1 = −2 = 2 = −4 = 4

Note In place of −1 or −2 etc., we use 1 (one bar) and 2 (two bar) etc.

Properties of Logarithms
(i) A negative number can never be expressed as the power of 10,
mantissa should always be kept positive. Hence, whenever
characteristic is negative, minus sign is placed above the
characteristic and not to its left to show that the mantissa is
always positive.
(ii) Mantissa of the logarithm of all the numbers having same digits
in the same order will be the same, irrespective of the position of
the decimal point.

Anti logarithm
The positive number a is called the anti logarithm of a number b, if a is
anti logarithm of b, then we write a = antilog b.
So, a = antilog b ⇔ log a = b.

Important Results on Logarithms

(i) a log a x = x ; a ≠ 0, ≠ ± 1, x > 0
(ii) a logb x = x logb a ; a > 0, b > 0, ≠ 1, x > 0
(iii) loga a = 1, loga 1 = 0; a > 0, ≠ 1
1
(iv) loga x = ; x , a > 0, ≠ 1
logx a
 Logarithms 409
logb x
(v) loga x = loga b × logb x = ; a , b > 0, ≠ 1, x > 0
logb a
(vi) For m , n > 0, a > 0 and a ≠ 1
(a) loga ( mn ) = loga m + loga n
 m
(b) loga   = loga m − loga n
 n
(c) loga ( m )n = n loga m
(vii) For x > 0, a > 0, ≠ 1
1
(a) loga n ( x ) = loga x
n
m
(b) loga n x m = loga x
n
(viii) For x > y > 0
(a) loga x > loga y , if a > 1
(b) loga x < loga y , if 0 < a < 1
(ix) If a > 1, then
(a) loga x > p ⇒ x > a p
(b) 0 < loga x < p ⇒ 0 < x < a p
(x) If 0 < a < 1, then
(a) loga x > p ⇒ 0 < x < a p
(b) 0 < loga x < p ⇒ a p < x < 1
(xi) (a) loga x > 0 ⇔ x > 1, a > 1 or 0 < x < 1, 0 < a < 1
(b) loga x < 0 ⇔ x > 1, 0 < a < 1 or 0 < x < 1, a > 1
(xii) (a) logb a → − ∞ , if b > 1 and a → 0+
(b) logb a → ∞ , if b > 1 and a → ∞
(c) logb a → ∞ , if 0 < b < 1 and a → 0+
(d) logb a → − ∞ , if 0 < b < 1 and a → ∞
Graph of y = logb a is as follows
Y Y b>1

0<b<1
(1, 0) (1, 0)
X' X X' X
O O

Y' Y'
 38
Geometry
Point
A fine dot on paper or a location on plane is called point. Point has no
length, breadth or thickness.

Line
A line is defined as a line of points that extends infinitely in both
directions.
P Q

Line Segment
A line segment is a part of line that is bounded by two distinct end
points and contains every point on the line between its end points.

A B
Ray
If a line segment is extended to unlimited length on one of the end
points, then it is called a ray.
A B

Important Points to be Remembered

(i) A line contains infinite points.
(ii) Infinite lines can pass through a point.
(iii) Two distinct lines in a plane cannot have more than one point common.

Angle
If two rays are drawn in different directions from y
a common initial point, then they are said to form Ra
an angle. Angle
O
(i) An angle of 90° is a right angle and an Ray
angle less than 90° is an acute angle.
(ii) An angle between 90° and 180° is an obtuse angle.
(iii) An angle between 180° and 360° is a reflex angle.
 Geometry 411
(iv) The sum of all angles on one side of a straight line AB at a point
O by any number of lines joining the line AB at O is 180°.
(v) When any number of straight lines joining at a point, then the
sum of all the angles around that point is 360° which is called as
complete angle.
(vi) Two angles whose sum is 90° are said to be complementary to
each other and two angles whose sum is 180° are said to be
supplementary to each other.

Intersecting Lines
When two straight lines intersect each other, then vertically opposite
angles are equal.
l2
1
2 O 4
3
l1
i.e. ∠ 1 = ∠ 3, ∠ 2 = ∠ 4

Parallel Lines
When a straight line XY cuts two parallel lines l1 and l2 as shown in
the figure, the line XY is called the transversal line.
X
2 1
l2
3 4

6 5
l1
7 8

Y
The following are the relationships between various angles that are
formed.
(i) Alternate angles are equal.
i. e. ∠ 1 = ∠ 7,∠ 2 = ∠ 8, [alternate exterior angles]
∠ 3 = ∠ 5 and ∠ 4 = ∠ 6. [alternate interior angles]
(ii) Corresponding angles are equal.
i. e. ∠ 1 = ∠ 5, ∠ 2 = ∠ 6, ∠ 3 = ∠ 7 and ∠ 4 = ∠ 8.
(iii) Sum of interior angles on the same side of the transversal line is
equal to 180°.
i. e. ∠ 3 + ∠ 6 = 180° and ∠4 + ∠5 = 180°
This is also known as cointerior angles.
412 Handbook of Mathematics

(iv) Sum of exterior angles on the same side of the transversal is

equal to 180°.
i.e. ∠ 1 + ∠ 8 = 180° and ∠ 2 + ∠ 7 = 180°.
This is also known as coexterior angles.

Triangles
A figure bounded by three line segments in a plane is called a triangle.
It has three vertices, three sides and three angles.
A

B C

(i) Acute Triangle A triangle having all angles are acute, is

called an acute triangle.
(ii) Obtuse Triangle A triangle having one angle of a triangle is
obtuse, is called an obtuse triangle.
(iii) Scalene Triangle A triangle having all the sides are of
different lengths is called a scalene triangle. i.e. AB ≠ BC ≠ AC.
(iv) Isosceles Triangle A triangle having two opposite sides or
two opposite angles are equal, is called an isosceles triangle.
(v) Equilateral Triangle A triangle having all sides or its each
angle is 60° are equal, is called an equilateral triangle.
A

60°

60° 60°
B C

i.e. AB = BC = AC
or ∠A = ∠B = ∠C = 60°

(vi) Right Angled Triangle A triangle A

H
Perpendicular

having one of the angles measures 90° is yp

ote
called a right angled triangle. The side nus
opposite to the right angle is called its e
hypotenuse and the remaining two sides are
called as perpendicular and base. B Base C
Here, AC 2 = AB2 + BC 2
 Geometry 413
Important Properties of Triangles
(i) Sum of the three angles of a triangle is 180°.
(ii) Sides opposite to equal angles are equal and vice-versa
(iii) In an isosceles right angled triangle one angle is 90° and other
two angles are 45° each.
(iv) The exterior angle of a triangle (at each vertex) is equal to the
sum of the two opposite interior angles (exterior angle is the
angle formed at any vertex, by one side and the extended portion
of the second side at that vertex) ∠Z = ∠X + ∠Y .

Y Z

(v) Side opposite to the greatest angle is the longest side and
vice-versa.
Also, side oppest to the smallest angle is the smallest side and
vice-versa.
(vi) If the sides are arranged in the ascending order of their
measurement, then the angles opposite to the side ( in the same
order) will also be in ascending order ( i. e. greater angles has
greater side opposite to it). If the sides are arranged in descending
order of their measurement, then the angles opposite to the side
in the same order will also be in descending order
( i. e. smaller angle has smaller side opposite to it).
(vii) There can be only one right angle or only one obtuse angle in any
triangle.

Different Centre of a Triangle

1. Circumcentre
The three perpendicular bisectors of the sides of A
a triangle meet at a point is called circumcentre
of the triangle. The circumcentre of a triangle is R
equidistant from its vertices and the distance of S
circumcentre from each of the three vertices is R R
called circumradius (R) of the triangle. The
B C
circle passes through all the three vertices of the
triangle is called circumcircle.
414 Handbook of Mathematics

2. Incentre and Excentre

∠A
If I is the centre, then ∠BIC = 90° + .
2
The internal bisectors of the three angles of a triangle meet at a point
is called incentre (I) of the triangle. Incentre is equidistant from the
three sides of the triangle. i.e. the perpendicular’s drawn from the
incentre to the three sides are equal in length and this length is called
the inradius of the triangle.
A

F r r E
I
r
B D C

The circle drawn with incentre as centre and touches all three sides on
the inside is called incircle. The point of intersection of two external
angle bisectors and one internal angle bisector is called an excentre.
Any triangle has three excentres, one opposite to each vertex.
3. Orthocentre
The perpendicular is drawn from a vertex to the opposite side is called
an altitude. The three altitudes meet at a point is called orthocentre.
A

B C

4. Centroid
Median is the line joining the mid-point of a side to the opposite
vertex. The three medians of a triangle meet at a point is called the
centroid G. Centroid divides the median in the ratio 2 : 1.
A

E
F G

C
B D
 Geometry 415
Important Points about Centres of Triangles
(i) In a right angled triangle, the vertex where the right angle is
formed ( i. e. the vertex opposite to the hypotenuse) is the
orthocentre.
(ii) In an obtuse angled triangle, the orthocentre lies outside the
triangle.
(iii) Centroid divides each of the medians in the ratio 2 : 1, the part of
the median towards the vertex being twice in length to the part
towards the side.
(iv) In a right angled triangle, the length of the median drawn to the
hypotenuse is equal to half the hypotenuse. This median is also
the circumradius and the mid-point of the hypotenuse is the
circumcentre. In an obtuse angled triangle, the circumcentre
lies outside the triangle.
(v) In an isosceles triangle, centroid, orthocentre, circumcentre
and incentre all lie on the median to the base.
(vi) In an equilateral triangle, centroid, orthocentre, circumcentre
and incentre all coincide.
(vii) The ratio of circumradius and inradius of an equilateral triangle
is 2 : 1.

Congruency of Triangles
Two triangles that are identical in all respects are said to be congruent
and it is denoted by the symbol ≅. In two congruent triangles,
(i) the corresponding sides are equal.
(ii) the corresponding angles are equal.
Two triangles will be congruent, if atleast one of the following
conditions is satisfied.
(i) Three sides of one triangle are respectively equal to the three
sides of the second triangle. (SSS)
(ii) Two sides and the included angle of one triangle are respectively
equal to two sides and the included angle of the second triangle.
(SAS)
(iii) Two angles and the included side of a triangle are respectively
equal to two angles and the corresponding side of the second
triangle. (ASA) or (AAS)
(iv) Two right angled triangles are congruent, if the hypotenuse and
one side of one triangle are respectively equal to the hypotenuse
and one side of the second right angled triangle. (RHS)
416 Handbook of Mathematics

Similarity of Triangles
Two triangles are said to be similar, if they are alike in shape only and
it is denoted by the symbol (~). The corresponding angles of two similar
triangles are equal but the corresponding sides are only in proportional
but not equal. Two triangles are similar, if
(i) the three angles of one triangle are respectively equal to the
three angles of the second triangle. (AAA) or (AA)
(ii) two sides of one triangle are proportional to two sides of the
other and the included angles are equal. (SAS)
(iii) the corresponding sides of two triangles are in the same ratio,
then triangles are similar. (SSS)

Some Important Theorems

1. Pythagoras Theorem In ∆ABC, if ∠B = 90°, then
AC 2 = AB2 + BC 2.
A

90°
C B

2. In ∆ABC, if AD is the angle bisector intersecting BC at D, then

AB BD
= .
AC DC
A

B D C
3. If D and E divide AB and AC in the ratio m : n respectively, then
m
DE = BC.
m+n
4. Mid-point Theorem The line segment A
joining mid-points of two sides of a triangle
is parallel to the third side and equal to
half of it. D E

1
i.e. BC|| DE and DE = BC B C
2
 Geometry 417
5. In ∆ABC, if D and E are the points on AB and AC, respectively
AD AE
such that DE is parallel to BC, then = .
AB AC
6. In ∆ABC, if AD is the median from A to side BC meeting BC at
its mid-point D, then 2 ( AD 2 + BD 2 ) = AB2 + AC 2. This is called
the Apollonius theorem.
7. The ratio of areas of two similar triangles is equal to the ratio of
the squares of any two corresponding sides.
8. The areas of two similar triangles are in the ratio of the squares
of corresponding altitudes.
9. The areas of two similar triangles are in the ratio of the squares
of the corresponding medians.
10. The areas of two similar triangles are in the ratio of the squares
of the corresponding angle bisector segments.
11. If the areas of two similar triangles are equal, then the triangle
are congruent and vice-versa.

Quadrilaterals
A plane closed figured bounded by four segments is called
quadrilateral.
A

B D

1. The sum of four angles of a quadrilateral is equal to 360°.

2. If the four vertices of a quadrilateral lie on the circumference of
a circle i.e. if the quadrilateral can be inscribed in a circle) it is
called a cyclic quadrilateral. In a cyclic quadrilateral,
the sum of opposite angles is 180°
i.e. A + C = 180° and B + D = 180°.
418 Handbook of Mathematics

Parallelogram
A quadrilateral having opposite sides are A B
parallel is called a parallelogram. In a
parallelogram,
(i) opposite sides are equal.
(ii) opposite angles are equal. D C
E
(iii) each diagonal divides the
parallelogram into two congruent triangles.
(iv) sum of any two adjacent angles is 180°.
(v) the diagonals bisect each other.

Rhombus
A parallelogram is a rhombus in which every pair of adjacent sides are
equal (all four sides of a rhombus are equal).
A B

D C
E

Since, a parallelogram is a rhombus, all the properties of a

parallelogram apply to a rhombus. Further, in a rhombus, the
diagonals are perpendicular to each other.

Rectangle
A parallelogram is a rectangle in which each of the angles is equal to
90°. The diagonals of a rectangle are equal.
A B

90°
D C

A rectangle is also a special type of parallelogram and hence all

properties of a parallelogram apply to rectangles also.
 Geometry 419
Square
A rectangle is a square in which all four sides are equal (a rhombus in
which all four angles are equal, all are right angles).
A B

D C

Hence, the diagonals are equal and they bisect at right angles.

Trapezium
If one pair of opposite sides of a quadrilateral are parallel, then it is
called a trapezium.
D A

P Q

C E F B

In the figure, side AD is parallel to BC. Any trapezium is said to be an

isosceles trapezium, if CD = AB.

Important Points to be Remembered

(i) The quadrilateral formed by joining the mid-points of the consecutive
sides of a rectangle is a rhombus and vice-versa.
(ii) The figure formed by joining the mid-points of the pairs of consecutive
sides of a quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
(iii) The quadrilateral formed by joining the mid-points of the sides of a
square, is a square.
(iv) Two parallelograms on the same base and between the same parallel
lines have equal areas.
(v) One parallelogram and one rectangle on the same base and between
same parallel lines have equal areas.
(vi) Two triangles on the same base and between the same parallel lines have
equal areas.
420 Handbook of Mathematics

Polygon
Any figure bounded by three or more line segments is called a polygon.
A regular polygon is one in which all sides are equal and all angles are
equal. A regular polygon can be inscribed in a circle.
The name of polygons with three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine and
ten sides are respectively triangle, quadrilateral, pentagon, hexagon,
heptagon, octagon, nonagon and decagon.

Convex Polygon
In a convex polygon, a line segment between two points on the
boundary never goes outside the polygon.
D

F G
E C

A B

Concave Polygon
In a concave polygon, a line segment between two points on the
boundary goes outside the polygon.
Or
In concave polygon atleast one of the interior angle is more than 180°.
D

E F C

G
A

(i) The sum of all the angles in a convex polygon is ( 2n − 4)90°.

 Geometry 421
360°
(ii) Exterior angle of a regular polygon is .
n
 360° 
(iii) Interior angle of a regular polygon is 180° − 
 n 
n( n − 3)
(iv) Number of diagonals of a convex polygon with sides is .
2
Circles
A circle is a set of points which lie in a plane which area at a constant
distance from a fixed point in the plane.
1. Radius Radius is the shortest distance between the centre of
the circle and a point on the circumference of the circle.
2. Chord A chord is a line joining two points on the circumference
of a circle.
3. Diameter Diameter is the largest chord of a circle.
4. Secant A secant is a line intersecting a circle in two distinct
points.
5. If two chords APB and CPD intersect at P, then
PA ⋅ PB = PC ⋅ PD.

D B

A P C

6. Tangent A line that touches the circle at only one point is called
a tangent to the circle (RR ′ is a tangent touching the circle at R).

P Y

90° A X
R
O
Q

Y'

R'
422 Handbook of Mathematics

7. A tangent is perpendicular to the radius drawn at the point of

tangency (RR ′ ⊥ OR) i. e. at R.
8. Two tangents can be drawn to the circle from any point outside
the circle and these two tangents are equal in length ( in figure
X is the external point and the two tangents XY and XY ′ are
equal.)
9. One and only one circle passes through any three given
non-collinear points.
10. Two circles are said to touch each other, if a common tangent can
be drawn touching both the circles at the same point. This is
called the point of contact of the two circles. When two circles
touch each other, then the point of contact and the centres of the
two circles are collinear.
11. If two circles touch internally, then the distance between two
centres is equal to the difference of their radii.
12. If two circles touch externally, then the distance between two
centres is equal to the sum of their radii.
13. A common tangent drawn to two circles is called a direct
common tangent, if the tangent cuts the line passing through
the centres not between the two circles but on one side of the
circles.

Direct common tangent

Com
m
tang on
ent

14. The maximum number of common tangents that can be drawn

for two non-intersecting circles is four. The number of common
tangents that can be drawn for two intersecting circle is 2.
 Geometry 423
Arc and Sector
An arc is a segment of a circle. In the figure, ACB is called minor arc
and ADB is called major arc. In general, when we say it is an arc AB,
we refer to the minor arc. The closed figure AOBCA is called the
sector. ∠AOB is called the angle of the sector.
X
Y

D
O

B
A

C
(i) Angles in the same segment are equal. In the figure,
∠AXB = ∠AYB.
(ii) The angle subtended by an arc at the centre is double the angle
subtended by the arc in the remaining part of the circle. In the
figure, ∠AOB = 2 × ∠AXB = 2 × ∠AYB.

Some Important Theorems

1. If two arcs of a circle are congruent, then the corresponding
chords are equal.
2. The perpendicular from the centre of a circle to a chord bisects
the chord.
3. The line joining the centre to the mid-point of a chord is
perpendicular to the chord.
4. Chords which are equidistant from the corresponding centres
are equal.
5. Equal chords of a circle are equidistant from the centre.
6. The angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.
7. Alternate Segment Theorem The segment opposite to the
angle formed by the chord of a circle with the tangent to a point
is called alternate segment for that angle, i.e. ∠ BAT = ∠ ADB.

D B

P A T
424 Handbook of Mathematics

Important Points to be Remembered

(i) In a ∆ABC, if E and F are the points on AB and AC, respectively and EF is
AE AF
parallel to BC, then = .
AB AC
A

E F

B C

(ii) In a ∆ABC, if AD is the median, then AB2 + AC2 = 2( AD2 + BD2 ).

A

B D C

(iii) In parallelogram, rectangle, rhombus and square, the diagonals bisect

each other.
(iv) If two circles touch each other internally, then the distance between the
two centres is equal to the difference in the radii of the two circles.
(v) If PAB is a secant to a circle intersecting the circle at A and B and PT is a
tangent segment, then PA × PB = PT 2 .
 39
Mensuration
Perimeter and Area of Plane Figure
Plane Figure A figure enclosed by three or more sides or by a
circular boundary.
Perimeter Total length of the sides of a plane figure.
Area Space covered by a plane figure.

Triangle
For any triangle having sides a, b and c, then A

Perimeter = a + b + c = 2 s b
c
1 h
Area = Base × Height = ( a × h )
2
B a C
or Area = s( s − a )( s − b)( s − c), it is called
Heron’s formula.
a+ b+ c
where, s = = semi-perimeter of the triangle.
2

Different Types of Triangles

(i) Right Angled Triangle A

Perimeter = b + d + h d
h
1
Area = ( b × h )
2
C
B b
Hypotenuse = d = h 2 + b2
(ii) Equilateral Triangle A
Perimeter = 3a
a a
3
Altitude = Height ( h ) = a h
2
3 2 B a C
Area = a
4
426 Handbook of Mathematics

(iii) Isosceles Triangle A

Perimeter = a + 2b
4b2 − a 2 b b
Altitude = Height (h) = h
2
a
Area = 4b2 − a 2 B
a
C
4
(iv) Isosceles Right Triangle A

Perimeter = 2a + 2a
b
Hypotenuse (b) = 2a a

1 2
Area = a
2 B C
a

(v) Triangle having Two Sides a

B C
and One Angle γ
β
Perimeter = a + b + c c
b
α
1 1 1
Area = ab sin γ = bc sin α = ac sin β A
2 2 2
B
(vi) Acute Angled Triangle
Perimeter = a + b + c c
a
h
2
bh b  a 2 + b2 − c2 
Area = = a2 −   A C
2 2  2b  b

B
(vii) Obtuse Angled Triangle
Perimeter = a + b + c
c h
2 a
bh h c − a − b
2 2 2
Area = = a2 −  
2 2  2b  A
b C

D
Quadrilateral
Perimeter = AB + BC + CD + DA A
h1 h2
1
Area = ( h1 + h2 )BD
2 B
C
 Mensuration 427
Different Types of Quadrilaterals
(i) Rectangle A l D
Let l = length, b = breadth
Perimeter = 2( l + b)
b b
Area = l × b
Diagonal, AC = BD = l 2 + b2
B l C

(ii) Rectangular Path

Let w be the width of the path.
Perimeter of outer path
= 2 [( l + 2w) + ( b + 2w)] b
Area of outer rectangle l
= ( l + 2w)( b + 2w) w

Area of path = ( l + 2w)( b + 2w) − lb

(iii) Square A a B
Perimeter = 4a
Diagonal AC = BD = 2a = 2 × Area a a
Area = a 2

1 1 1
Area = ( AC )( BD ) = ( AC )2 = ( BD )2 D a C
2 2 2
A D
(iv) Parallelogram
d1
Perimeter = 2( a + b) h
d2
b
Area = a × h
Also, d12 + d22 = 2( a 2 + b2 ) or B a C

Area = 2 s( s − a )( s − b)( s − d )
a+ b+ d
where, s =
2
(v) Rhombus
Perimeter of rhombus = 4a A a D
d1
Area of rhombus = a × h d2
a h a
1
Area of rhombus = d1 d2
2
B a C
Also, d12 + d22 = 4a 2
428 Handbook of Mathematics

(vi) Trapezium A a B
Let a and b are the length of the
parallel sides and h = height h

1
Area = ( a + b) × h D b C
2
Area of trapezium, when the lengths A a B
of parallel and non-parallel sides are
given c h d
a+b
= s( s − k)( s − c)( s − d ) D b
C
k
k+ c+ d
where, k = ( b − a ) and s =
2
Perpendicular distance (h) between the two parallel sides
2
= s( s − k)( s − c)( s − d )
k
(vii) Trapezoid
D
A

h1 h2

B C
a b c

( h1 + h2 )b + ah1 + ch2
Area =
2
A trapezoid can also be divided into two triangles. The area of
each of these triangles is calculated and the result added to find
the area of trapezoid.

Circle
Let radius of circle = r, diameter = d r

Perimeter = 2πr = πd (Q d = 2 r) O
Area = πr 2

(i) Semi-circle
36
Perimeter = ( π + 2)r = πr + d = r
7 r
1
Area = πr 2 A O B
2
 Mensuration 429
(ii) Quarter Circle
π  B
Perimeter =  + 2 r
2 
r
1
Area = πr 2 O A
4
(iii) Sector of a Circle
2πr A
Length of the arc AB = θ r
360°
θ
2πrθ O r
Perimeter of the sector AOB = 2r + B
360°
πr 2
Area of the sector AOB = θ
360°
1
Area of the sector AOB = × arc AB × r
2
(iv) Segment of a Circle
A
Minor
segment
θ
B
O
Major
segment

r 2  θπ 
Area of minor segment =  − sin θ
2 180° 
r 2 ( 360° − θ )n 
Area of major segment = + sin θ
2  180° 

Concentric Circles
Perimeter = 2π (r1 + r2) r2
Area of the shaded region r1
= π (r22 − r12 )
= π (r2 + r1 )(r2 − r1 )
430 Handbook of Mathematics

Some Important Results

(i) Path Around a Garden/Verandah Around a Room
Area of the verandah
l
= 2 (Width of verandah) × [Length d
b
+ Breadth of room + 2 (Width of verandah)]
= 2 × d × [l + b + 2d ]
(ii) If area of the verandah is A and the width of the verandah is d,
then area of the ‘square shaped’ garden/room is given by
2
 A − 4d 2 
Area of garden/room =  
 4d 
(iii) If area of a rectangle is A and the ratio of its sides is a : b, then
First side = Area × Ratio = A × ( a : b)
Second side = Area × Inverse ratio = A × (b : a)
(iv) Regular Polygon
1
Area of a regular polygon = × Number of sides
2
× Radius of the inscribed circle
3 3
(a) Area of regular hexagon = × (Side)2
2
(b) Area of regular octagon = 2 ( 2 + 1 )(Side)2
(v) If the area of the square is A, then area of the circle formed by
4A
the same perimeter = .
π
(vi) If all the measuring sides of a plane figure, is
increased/decreased by x%, then
(a) Its perimeter increases/decreases by x %.
 x2   x2 
(b) Its area increases or decreases by  2x +  % or  2x −  %.
 100  100
(vii) Area of room = Length × Breadth
(viii) Area of 4 walls of a room = 2(Length + Breadth) × Height
a
(ix) Radius of incircle of an equilateral triangle of side ‘a’ =
2 3
a
(x) Radius of circumcircle of an equilateral triangle of side ‘a’ =
3
 Mensuration 431
(xi) Angle inscribed by minute hand in 60 min = 360°
(xii) Angle inscribed by hour hand in 12 h = 360°
(xiii) Angle inscribed by minute hand in 1 min = 6°
(xiv) Distance moved by a wheel in one revolution = Circumference of
the wheel = 2πr, where r is the radius of a circle
(xv) If the length of a square/rectangle is increased by x% and the
breadth is decreased by y%, the net effect on the area is given by
 xy 
Net effect = x − y − %
 100
(xvi) If the side of a square/rectangle/triangle is doubled the area is
increased by 300%, i.e. the area becomes four times of itself.
(xvii) If the radius of a circle is decreased by x %, the net effect on the
 x2   x2 
area is  −  %, i.e. the area is decreased by   %.
 100  100
(xviii) If a floor of dimensions ( l × b) is to be covered by a carpet of width
 lb
w metre the length of the carpet is   m.
 w
(xix) If a floor of dimensions ( l × b) m is to be covered by a carpet of
width w metre at the rate ` X per metre, then the total amount
 Xlb
required is `  .
 w 
(xx) If a room of dimensions ( l × b)m is to be paved with square tiles,
then
(a) the side of the square tile = HCF of l and b
l×b
(b) the number of tiles required =
(HCF of l and b)2
(xxi) If the sides of a rectangular field of area x sq m are in the ratio
m n
m:n, then the sides are given by x ⋅ and x ⋅ .
n m
(xxii) If the side of a regular polygon is a and the polygon has n sides,
n  π 
then the area of the polygon is  cot    a 2 sq units.
 4  n
(xxiii) Area of a square inscribed in a circle of radius r is 2r 2 and the
side of a square inscribed in a circle of radius r is 2r.
(xxiv) The area of the largest triangle inscribed in a semi-circle of
radius r is r 2.