Chapter 4 & 5

Boolean Algebra and Digital Logic

Boolean Algebra
• Boolean algebra is a mathematical system for the
manipulation of variables that can have one of two
values.
• In formal logic, these values are “true” and “false.”
• In digital systems, these values are “on” and “off,” 1 and
0, or “high” and “low.”
• Common Boolean operators include AND, OR, and NOT.
• The complement represents the inverse of a variable
and is indicated with an overbar. Thus, the complement
of A is .

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Boolean Algebra
• A Boolean operator can be
completely described using
a truth table.
• The AND operator -
Boolean product.
• The OR operator - Boolean
sum.
• The NOT operation is most
often designated by an
overbar
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Boolean Algebra
• The truth table for the
Boolean function:

is shown at the right.

• The NOT operator has
highest priority, followed
by AND and then OR.

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Laws of Boolean Algebra – Commutative
Laws
• The commutative laws are applied to addition and
multiplication. For addition, the commutative law
states - In terms of the result, the order in which
variables are ORed makes no difference.
A+B=B+A
• For multiplication, the commutative law states - In
terms of the result, the order in which variables
are ANDed makes no difference.
AB = BA
Laws of Boolean Algebra – Associative
Laws
• For addition, the associative law states - When
ORing more than two variables, the result is the
same regardless of the grouping of the variables
A + (B +C) = (A + B) + C

• For multiplication, the associative law states -

When ANDing more than two variables, the result
is the same regardless of the grouping of the
variables.
A(BC) = (AB)C
Laws of Boolean Algebra – Distributive
Laws
• The distributive law is the factoring law. A common
variable can be factored from an expression just as
in ordinary algebra. That is
AB + AC = A(B+ C)
• The distributive law can be illustrated with
equivalent circuits:
A
AB
B B
B+ C
C X
X A
A AC
C
A(B+ C) AB + AC
Rules of Boolean Algebra
1. +0= 8. · =0
2. +1=1
9. =
3. ·0=0
10. + =
4. ·1=
11. + = +
5. + =
12. + + = +
6. + =1
7. · =
Boolean Identities – DeMorgan’s
Theorems
1. The complement of two or more ANDed variables
is equivalent to the OR of the complements of
the individual variables.
= +

2. The complement of two or more ORed variables

is equivalent to the AND of the complements of
the individual variables.
+ =
SOP and POS forms
• Boolean expressions can be written in the sum-of-
products form (SOP) or in the product-of-sums
form (POS).
• An expression is in SOP form when two or more
product terms are summed as in the following
examples:
+ + + +
• A SOP expression is formed based on the output
with the value of 1
SOP and POS forms
• An expression is in POS form when two or more
sum terms are multiplied as in the following
examples:
+ + + + +

• A POS expression is formed based on the output

with the value of 0.
Logic Simplification Using Boolean
Algebra
• A logic expression can be reduced to its simplest
form or changed to a more convenient form
• Example:
+ + + +
Distributive law + + + +
Rule 7 · = + + + +
Rule 5 + = + + +
Rule 10 + = + +
Rule 10 + = +
Karnaugh Map
• The Karnaugh map – uses an
array of cells to represent binary
values of the input variables
Z = A.B  22 = 4 cells
• The number of cells in a
Karnaugh map = the total
number of possible input B
variable combinations. A 0 1
• The number of cells – 0 0 0
determined by using the formula
2n where n is the number of 1 0 1
inputs or variables.
Karnaugh Map
• The process of simplification using the Karnaugh
map – minimization – resulting an expression that
contains the fewest possible terms with the fewest
possible variables
• After mapping the SOP expression into the
Karnaugh map, the next step to produce a
simplified SOP expression is grouping the 1s.
Karnaugh Map
• The rules of Karnaugh map simplification are:
• A group can contain either 1, 2, 4, 8 or 16 – based on the
powers of two.
• Each cell in a group must be adjacent to one or more
cells in that same group
• Must group the largest possible number of 1’s group first
and followed with the others groups of 1s if more group
identify.
• Make sure each 1 on the map must be included in at
least one group. The 1s that has already in a group can
be included in another group as long as the overlapping
groups include noncommon 1s
Karnaugh Map
+ + + +
Wrap-around
C adjency
C AB 0 1
AB 0 1
00 1 0 00 1 1
01 0 1 01 1 0
11 1 1 11 0 1
10 0 0 10 1 1
Logic Gates
• A gate is an electronic device that produces a result
based on two or more input values.
• In reality, gates consist of one to six transistors, but
digital designers think of them as a single unit.
• Integrated circuits contain collections of gates suited to a
particular purpose.

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Logic Gates
• The three simplest gates are the AND, OR, and NOT
gates.

• They correspond directly to their respective

Boolean operations, as you can see by their truth
tables. 18
Logic Gates
• Another very useful gate is the exclusive OR (XOR)
gate.
• The output of the XOR operation is true only when
the values of the inputs differ.

Note the special symbol 

for the XOR operation.

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Logic Gates
• NAND and NOR
are two very
important gates.
Their symbols
and truth tables
are shown at the
right.

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Logic Gates
• NAND and NOR
are known as
universal gates
because they are
inexpensive to
manufacture and
any Boolean
function can be
constructed using
only NAND or only
NOR gates.
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Logic Gates
• Gates can have multiple inputs and more than one
output.
• A second output can be provided for the complement of
the operation.
• We’ll see more of this later.

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Digital Components
• The main thing to remember is that combinations
of gates implement Boolean functions.
• The circuit below implements the Boolean
function:

We simplify our Boolean expressions so

that we can create simpler circuits. 23
Combinational Circuits
• We have designed a circuit that implements the
Boolean function:

• This circuit is an example of a combinational logic

circuit.
• Combinational logic circuits produce a specified
output (almost) at the instant when input values
are applied.
• In a later section, we will explore circuits where this is
not the case.
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Combinational Circuits
• One of the simplest example is the half adder,
which finds the sum of two bits.
• As we see, the sum can be found using the XOR
operation and the carry using the AND operation.

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Combinational Circuits
• We can change our half adder into to a full adder
by including gates for processing the carry bit.

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Combinational Circuits - Decoders
• Decoders are another important type of combinational
circuit.
• Among other things, they are useful in selecting a memory
location according a binary value placed on the address
lines of a memory bus.
• Address decoders with n inputs can select any of 2n
locations.
• Apply in CPU control (advance topic – will not covered in
this subject)

This is a block
diagram for a
decoder.
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Combinational Circuits - Decoders
• This is what a 2-to-4 decoder looks like on the
inside.

If x = 0 and y = 1,
which output line
is enabled?

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Combinational Circuits - Multiplexer
• A multiplexer does just the
opposite of a decoder.
• It selects a single output
from several inputs.
• The particular input chosen
for output is determined by
the value of the
multiplexer’s control lines.
• To be able to select among This is a block
n inputs, log2n control diagram for a
lines are needed. multiplexer.

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Combinational Circuits - Multiplexer
• This is what a 4-to-1 multiplexer looks like on the
inside.

If S0 = 1 and S1 = 0,
which input is
transferred to the
output?
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Sequential Circuits
• As the name implies, sequential logic circuits require a
means by which events can be sequenced.
• State changes are controlled by clocks.
• A “clock” is a special circuit that sends electrical pulses
through a circuit.
• Clocks produce electrical waveforms such as the one
shown below.

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Sequential Circuits
• State changes occur in sequential circuits only
when the clock ticks.
• Circuits that change state on the rising edge, or
falling edge of the clock pulse are called edge-
triggered.
• Level-triggered circuits change state when the clock
voltage reaches its highest or lowest level.

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Sequential Circuits
• To retain their state values, sequential circuits rely
on feedback.
• Feedback in digital circuits occurs when an output
is looped back to the input.
• A simple example of this concept is shown below.
• If Q is 0 it will always be 0, if it is 1, it will always be 1.
Why?

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Sequential Circuits
• To retain their state values, sequential circuits rely
on feedback.
• Feedback in digital circuits - an output is looped back to
the input.
• Example of feedback - the most basic sequential
logic components, the SR flip-flop.
• The “SR” stands for set/reset.

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Sequential Circuits (video)
• The behavior of an SR flip-flop is described by a
characteristic table.
• Q(t) means the value of the output at time t.
Q(t+1) is the value of Q after the next clock pulse.

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Sequential Circuits (video)
• The SR flip-flop actually
has three inputs: S, R,
and its current output, Q.
• Thus, we can construct a
truth table for this circuit,
as shown at the right.
• Notice the two undefined
values. When both S and
R are 1, the SR flip-flop is
unstable.

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Sequential Circuits
• The SR flip-flop can be
modified to provide a
stable state when
both inputs are 1.
• This modified flip-flop
is called a JK flip-flop,

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Sequential Circuits (video)
• Another modification of
the SR flip-flop - the D
flip-flop - the
fundamental circuit of
computer memory.
• D flip-flops are usually
illustrated using the
block diagram shown
below.
• The characteristic table
for the D flip-flop is
shown at the right.
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Chapter 3 Conclusion
• Computers are implementations of Boolean logic.
• Boolean functions are completely described by
truth tables.
• Logic gates are small circuits that implement
Boolean operators.
• The basic gates are AND, OR, and NOT.
• The XOR gate is very useful in parity checkers and
adders.
• The “universal gates” are NOR, and NAND.

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Chapter 3 Conclusion
• Computer circuits consist of combinational logic
circuits and sequential logic circuits.
• Combinational circuits produce outputs (almost)
immediately when their inputs change.
• Sequential circuits require clocks to control their
changes of state.
• The basic sequential circuit unit is the flip-flop: The
behaviors of the SR, JK, and D flip-flops are the
most important to know.

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