The Respiratory System

The Anatomy of the Human Respiratory System

• Air is drawn into your body via the nose and mouth
• Passes through a series of airways known as the respiratory tract to
reach the lungs.
• Divided into:
• The upper respiratory tract: nose, nasal cavity, mouth, pharynx
and larynx.
• The lower respiratory tract: trachea, bronchi and lungs.
Nasal cavity
• air →nasal cavity via the nostrils.
• Hair in the nasal cavity filter out
dust & other foreign particles
before the air passes into the
two passages of the internal
nasal cavity.
• The air is warmed & moistened
before it passes into the
nasopharynx.
• Sticky mucous layer traps smaller
foreign particles, which tiny hairs
(cilia) transport to the pharynx to
be swallowed.
• pseudostratified columnar
epithelium
Pharynx
• Also, called the throat
• A small tube (approximately 10–13 cm) from the base of the skull to the level
of the sixth cervical vertebra.
• The muscular pharynx wall is composed of skeletal muscle throughout its
length.
• The funnel-shaped pharynx connects the nasal cavity and mouth to the larynx
(air) and oesophagus (food).
• It is a passageway for food as well as air, so special adaptations are required
to prevent choking when food or liquid is swallowed.
Larynx/Voice Box
• has rigid walls of muscle and cartilage
• contains the vocal cords and connects the pharynx to the trachea
• It extends for about 5 cm from the level of the third to sixth vertebra
Trachea/Windpipe
• start of the lower respiratory tract.
• It is about 12 cm long and 2 cm in diameter.
• contains rings of cartilage to prevent it from collapsing, and it is flexible.
• It travels down the neck in front of the oesophagus and branches into the right and
left bronchi.
Epiglottis
• small flap of cartilage at the back of the tongue which closes the top of the trachea
when you swallow to ensure food and drink pass into your stomach and not your
lungs.
Lungs
• Your lungs are the organ that allows oxygen to be drawn into the body.
• The right and left lungs occupy the majority of the thoracic cavity & extend down to the
diaphragm.
• They hang suspended in the right and left pleural cavities straddling the heart.
• The left lung is smaller than the right.
Bronchi
• The bronchi branch off the trachea and carry air to the lungs.
• inhaled air reaching the bronchi, is warm, clear of most impurities & saturated with
water vapour.
• each bronchus subdivides into lobar bronchi: 3 on the right and 2 on the left.
• The lobar bronchi branch into segmental bronchi, which divide again into smaller and
smaller bronchi.
Bronchioles
• extend from the bronchi and connect the bronchi to the alveoli.
• Bronchioles are about 1mm in diameter
• the first airway branches of the respiratory system that do not contain cartilage.
Alveoli
• At the end of each bronchiole is a mass of air sacs called alveoli.
• In each lung there are approximately 300 million gas-filled alveoli.
• These are responsible for the transfer of oxygen into the blood and the removal of
waste such as carbon dioxide out of the blood.
• This process of transfer is known as gaseous exchange.
• Combined, the alveoli have a huge surface area for maximal gaseous exchange to take
place – roughly the size of a tennis court.
• Surrounding each alveolus is a dense network of capillaries to facilitate the process of
gaseous exchange.
Diaphragm
• flat muscle that is located beneath the lungs within the thoracic cavity and
separates the chest from the abdomen.
• involved in breathing, which is the mechanism of drawing air – including
oxygen – into the body (inhalation) and removing gases including carbon
dioxide (exhalation). Contraction of the diaphragm increases the volume of
the chest cavity, drawing air into the lungs, while relaxation of the diaphragm
decreases the volume of the chest cavity, pushing air out.
Thoracic cavity
• This is the chamber of the chest that is protected by the thoracic wall
(rib cage).
• It is separated from the abdominal cavity by the diaphragm.
Internal and external intercostal muscles
• The intercostal muscles lie between the ribs. They extend and contract
during inhalation and exhalation
• The internal intercostal muscles lie inside the ribcage. They draw the ribs
downwards and inwards, decreasing the volume of the chest cavity and
forcing air out of the lungs when breathing out.
• The external intercostal muscles lie outside the ribcage. They pull the
ribs upwards and outwards, increasing the volume of the chest cavity
and drawing air into the lungs when breathing in.
 Function of the Respiratory System
Major function → to supply the body with oxygen and dispose of carbon
dioxide.
1. Pulmonary ventilation/breathing: movement of air in & out of the lungs
2. External respiration: movement of oxygen from the lungs → blood and
of carbon dioxide from the blood → lungs.
3. Transport of respiratory gases: transport of oxygen from the lungs to the
tissue cells of the body, and of carbon dioxide from the tissue cells to the
lungs. This transport is accomplished by the cardiovascular system using
blood as the transporting fluid.
4. Internal respiration: movement of oxygen from blood → tissue cells and
of carbon dioxide from tissue cells → blood
 Functions of the Respiratory System
• Regulation of blood pH- Can be altered by change in carbon dioxide
levels Normal Blood pH- 7.35-7.45

• Production of chemical mediators- angiotensin-converting enzyme

produced by the lungs→ responsible for regulating blood pressure
• Voice production – speech is made possible by air moving past the
vocal folds
• Olfaction- Ability to smell
• Protection- Against microorganisms and dust etc
 Breathing vs Respiration
• Breathing is the biological process of inhaling and exhaling of the gases
between the cells and the environment. The mechanism of
breathing involves respiratory structures like the windpipe, lungs and
nose.
• Respiration, is a chemical process that takes place in the cell. The air
that we inhale brings oxygen to the lungs and is carried by the blood to
the cells, where it helps in the breakdown of glucose which results in
the generation of energy. This energy is used by the cells to carry out
their respective functions.
 Breathing
• The mechanism of drawing air – including oxygen – into the body by
inhalation and removing gases including carbon dioxide by exhalation
 Mechanisms of Breathing- Inspiration
• Inspiration is the process of breathing air into the lungs

Intercostal muscles
contract to lift the Diaphragm is forced Expansion of the
ribs upwards and downwards thorax
outwards

Decrease in pressure
within the lungs to
Air drawn into lungs
below atmospheric
pressure
 Mechanisms of Breathing- Expiration

diaphragm the ribs move

The intercostal downwards and
relaxes, moving
muscles relax
upwards inwards

Pressure within
air is expelled the lungs is
increased
Lung Volume and Capacity
• Tidal volume
• volume of air breathed in and out with each breath.
• Under normal conditions volume= 500cm3 of air breathed (inhaled and
exhaled). Of this, approximately 2/3 reaches the alveoli in the lungs
where gaseous exchange takes place.
• The remaining 150cm3 fills the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and
bronchioles and is known as dead or stationary air.
• Minute volume
• The volume of air passing through the lungs each minute
• Determined by the breathing rate and the amount of air taken in with
each breath.
• Residual volume
• The air that remains in the lungs after maximal expiration
• Vital capacity
• the amount of air that can be forced out of the lungs after maximal inspiration.
• TV+IRV+ERV
• Inspiratory reserve volume
• By breathing in deeply, it is possible to take in more air than usual so that more
oxygen can reach the alveoli.
• important during exercise.
• You can breathe in additional air + the normal tidal volume
• Expiratory reserve volume
• the amount of additional air that can be breathed out after normal expiration.
• At the end of a normal breath, the lungs contain the residual volume + the expiratory
reserve volume.
• If you then exhale as much as possible, only the residual volume remains.
• Total lung volume
• total lung capacity after you have inhaled as deeply and as much as you can, after
maximal inspiration.
 Aerobic Respiration
• Aerobic Respiration requires oxygen to fully break down food in the
form of glucose into water, carbon dioxide and energy,
• glucose + oxygen → energy + water + carbon dioxide
 Anaerobic Respiration
• Anaerobic respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen. In mammalian
muscles the glucose is broken down to lactic acid.
glucose → energy + lactic acid
• Less energy is released during anaerobic respiration in the muscles, and
so they begin to feel tired.
• Anaerobic respiration also occurs in yeast. The yeast acts on the
glucose and without oxygen it will break down the sugar into alcohol.
glucose → alcohol + carbon dioxide + energy
• This is also known as fermentation.
 External vs Internal Respiration
• External Respiration: occurs in the lungs to oxygenate the blood and
remove CO2 from the deoxygenated blood. O2 diffuses from the
alveoli → capillaries, while CO2 diffuses from the capillaries → alveoli.
• Internal respiration (tissue respiration). occurs in the body tissues to
provide O2 to tissue cells and remove CO2 from the cells. Oxygen is
critical in the release of energy molecules, in a process called cellular
respiration, while CO2 is a byproduct of metabolism which can
become harmful to tissue cells in large quantities.
• O2 diffuses from the capillaries into tissue cells, while CO2 diffuses
from tissue cells into capillaries.
Gaseous Exchange
3 layers thick < 1ml- squamous
epithelium, basement substance,
endothelium of capillary.

Basement membrane
• extracellular sheets of
proteins that surround tissues
• provides structural support,
filtration function, and a
surface for cell attachment,
migration, and differentiation
 Internal Respiration
• between blood and the metabolizing tissue
• E.g. skeletal muscle tissues require oxygen for cellular respiration whereby
the cells produce energy → ATP by burning food/glucose. ATP used for
cellular functions.
• Cellular respiration occurs in the mitochondria.
• Carbon dioxide produced during cellular respiration (waste product).
• metabolizing cells within the tissue→ high demand for oxygen when
carbon dioxide is being removed from the cells. PP of oxygen is low &
carbon dioxide is high in the tissue. However, in the blood, PO is high &
PCO is low. Therefore, oxygen diffuses out of the blood → tissue & carbon
dioxide diffuses out from the tissue→ blood.
 External Respiration
• gas exchange in lungs
• deoxygenated blood transported from metabolizing tissues→ pulmonary
capillaries → oxygen diffuses from the alveolar air → blood. Carbon
dioxide diffuses out of the blood → alveolar air.
• PO in the blood increases up →100 mmHg.
• PCO in the blood is 45 mmHg & in the alveolar air it is 40 mmHg.
Therefore, the exchange of carbon dioxide occurs from the blood →
alveolar air.
• oxygen and carbon dioxide exchanges occur until equilibrium→ PO is 100
mmHg and PCO is 40 mmHg in the blood which leaves the lungs.
oxygenated blood → metabolizing tissues
• Both oxygen + carbon dioxide are transported through the blood by
binding with hemoglobin
• Some of the carbon dioxide is transported by dissolving in the plasma as
well.
 Adaptations of Exchange Surfaces
Large surface area - allows more efficient diffusion. The alveoli allow the
lungs to have a huge surface area of 80-100 square meters.
Thin surface - this means that there is a short diffusion distance, thus
exchange can occur more rapidly.
Good blood supply - Maintains concentration gradient by carrying away
substances which have diffused across already.
Good ventilation with air - this means that waste gases can diffuse out of
the blood into the air in the lungs whilst oxygen diffuses into the blood.
Moist - Allows gases to dissolve before diffusing across the membrane
 Uses of Energy from Respiration
• Growth and repair of cells
• Using small molecules to build larger ones i.e. amino acids into proteins
• Allowing chemical reactions to take place
• Active transport
• Maintaining body temperature

NOTE: Respiration occurs in the mitochondria of cells. Cells that require more
energy contain more mitochondria so that more respiration can take place.
 Gas Transport - Oxygen
• 98% of oxygen is transported by binding to hemoglobin in red blood cells
→ oxyheamoglobin
• 2% of oxygen is dissolved in the blood plasma.
• oxyhemoglobin is unstable and releases O2 in regions where (PO2) is low.
• More O2 is released as the blood concentration of CO2 increases & the
blood increases in acidity and temperature.
• The efficiency of oxyheamoglobin releasing O2 to tissue cells during
internal respiration is shown on the Oxygen Haemoglobin Dissociation
curve which shows a distinctive sigmoid shape.
Oxygen Transport
Oxygen-Haemoglobin Dissociation Curve
 Bohr & Haldane Effect
Bohr Effect→ dissociation curve shifts to the right
• less Hb saturation occurs and more O2 is released from oxyhemoglobin.

Haldane Effect → dissociation curve shifts to the left

• more Hb saturation occurs and less O2 is released.
 4 main factors that can shift the O2 -Hb dissociation curve:
• O2 pressure decrease → shifts the curve to the right.
• CO2 pressure increase → shifts the curve to the right.
• Decrease of PH in blood → shifts the curve to the right.
• Body temperature increase → shifts the curve to the right
 Gas Transport – Carbon Dioxide
• 7% of Carbon dioxide is dissolved in the blood plasma.
• 23% of Carbon dioxide binds with haemoglobin in red blood cells.
CO2 and haemoglobin → carbaminohaemoglobin
• 70% of CO2 reacts with water and forms carbonic acid in red blood cells
CO2+ H2O → H2CO3
• Carbonic acid is broken down by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase (CA), to
become hydrogen ion and bicarbonate ion.
H2CO3→H + HCO3
• Where H+ quickly binds with Hb to prevent it from affecting blood pH and
HCO3 - diffuses into blood plasma and maintains an ionic balance with
chloride anion (Cl- ).
Carbon Dioxide Transport
 Effect of Smoking on the Respiratory System
• Effects on the air passages: However, cigarette smoke contains harmful chemicals
that damage the epithelial cells with the cilia, leading to a build-up of mucus and a
smoker’s cough. Smoke irritates the bronchi, causing bronchitis.
• Effects on the alveoli: Smoke damages the walls of the alveoli. The alveoli walls
break down and join to form larger air spaces. This reduces the efficiency of gas
exchange, so people with the lung disease emphysema carry less oxygen in their
blood.
• Carbon monoxide: Carbon monoxide, combines with the haemoglobin in red blood
cells. This reduces the ability of the blood to carry oxygen
• Lung cancer: Carcinogens are substances that cause cancer. Tobacco smoke
contains many carcinogens, including tar. Smoking increases the risk of lung cancer
• Other cancers: cancer of the mouth, throat and oesophagus.
 Asthma
Airways constrict, becomes narrow due to swelling
Excess mucus production
 Types of Asthma- Nocturnal
• Nocturnal asthma:
• Most common
• symptoms occur during the night.
• coughing, wheezing with chest pains.
• increased exposure to allergens, cooling of air passages, reclining/lying sleep
position & hormone cycles during the night; heartburns as well
• Doctors may recommend- changes to diet, eye drops, nasal decongestants, &
saline nasal wash/drop to wash out allergens.
Types of Asthma- Exercise-Induced /bronchoconstriction

• Exercise-induced asthma/bronchoconstriction
• exercise can trigger asthma in some cases.
• Symptoms: Coughing and wheezing.
• Air passage narrowing occurs between 5-20 minutes during exercise
• Symptom worsen a few minutes after exercise has stopped.
• asthma inhaler or bronchodilator can be used
 Types of Asthma- Allergic or Seasonal
• Allergic/seasonal asthma- allergens, seasonal & occupational
• Inhaling allergens- dust mites, pet dander, pollen or mold/fungi
• Some drugs may also cause asthma. E.g. Aspirin- Aspirin induced asthma
• Winter- cold may trigger asthma attacks.
• Inhalers
 Types of Asthma- Occupational

• Occupational asthma
• This is common in carpenters, painters, hairdressers,
farmers/animal breeders who are exposed to allergens at their
workplace.
 Types of Asthma- Cough Variant
• Cough variant asthma:
• Severe coughing is the main feature of this asthma rather than
wheezes. It may be triggered by infections or exercises.
Bronchitis & Bronchiolitis
Emphysema
Pneumonia
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T1G9Rl65M-Q
 Covid-19 & the Respiratory System

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZL1z3Uju-I0
Gaseous Exchange in Insects
Gaseous Exchange in Fishes