MA2104 Week 2

1 Functions of Two Variables

Level curves
Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

2 Functions of Three Variables

3 Limits

4 Continuity

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Functions of Two Variables

So far we have seen functions of one variable, i.e. the domain

is a subset of R
function Domain D Range R
(scalar) f (t) D⊆R R⊆R
(vector) r(t) D⊆R R ⊆ V2 or V3

Here, V2 and V3 denote the set of 2D and 3D vectors in R2 and

R3 respectively.

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Functions of Two Variables

Definition 1 (Two-variable functions)

A function f of two variables is a rule that assigns to each
ordered pair of real numbers (x, y) in a set D ⊆ R2 = R × R a
unique real number denoted by f (x, y ).

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Functions of Two Variables

If a function f is given by a formula and no domain is specified,

then the domain of f is understood to be:
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the set of all pairs (x, y ) for which

the given expression is a well-
defined real number.
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Functions of Two Variables

Example 1
Find the domain of

f (x, y ) = x ln(y 2 − x).

Solution. The function ln is only defined for positive real. So

f (x, y ) is defined for all x, y such that

y 2 − x > 0.

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Functions of Two Variables

The domain of f is

D = {(x, y ) : x < y 2 }.

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Functions of Two Variables

How do we visualise f (x, y )??

The graph of a function f of two variables is also called the
surface S with equation z = f (x, y).

We can visualize the graph S of f as lying directly above or

below its domain D in the xy-plane.

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Functions of Two Variables

Graphing functions f (x, y ) is not easy!

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Functions of Two Variables

Traces:

Horizontal traces (level curves): resulting curves when we

intersect the surface z = f (x, y) with horizontal planes.

Vertical traces: resulting curves when we intersect the surface

z = f (x, y) with vertical planes.

Sometimes, to visualise the graph for f (x, y), we can take hints
from its horizontal and vertical traces.

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Functions of Two Variables

Example 2
Match the functions f (x, y ) = ln(x 2 + y 2 ) and
g(x, y) = cos(x 2 + y 2 ) to the surfaces shown below:

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Level curves

Definition 2 (Level Curve)

A level curve of f (x, y) is the two-dimensional graph of the
equation f (x, y ) = k for some constant k .

Definition 3 (Contour Plot)

A contour plot of f (x, y ) is a graph of numerous level curves
f (x, y ) = k , for representative values of k.

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Level curves

To sketch contour plots, we use values of k that are equally

spaced. The surface is:

steep where the level curves are close together.

flatter where the level curves are farther apart.

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Level curves

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Level curves

Example 3
Sketch some level curves of h(x, y ) = 4x 2 + y 2 .

Solution.

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

Our goal here is to identify and sketch some special type

surfaces, namely the cylinders and quadric surfaces.

These surfaces will be used later on to explain the theory.

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

When we mention the word cylinder, we probably think of the

following object

We will use the term cylinder to mean something more general.

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

Definition 4 (Cylinders)
A surface is a cylinder if there is a plane P such that all the
planes parallel to P intersect the surface in the same curve
(when viewed in 2-dimension).

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

Example 4
The surface given by
y 2 + z2 = 1
is a cylinder.

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

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In fact, any equation in x, y and z where one of the variable is
missing is a cylinder.

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

Example 5
Sketch the graph of the surface z = x 2 .

Solution.

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

Definition 5 (Quadric Surface)

A quadric surface is the graph of a second-degree equation in
three variables x, y and z:

Ax 2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + Dxy + Eyz + Fxz + Gx + Hy + Iz + J = 0

where A, B, . . ., J are constants.

By translation and rotation, a quadric surface can be brought

into one of the two standard forms:
#

Ax 2 + By 2 + Cz 2 + J = 0 or Ax 2 + By 2 + Iz = 0
" !

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

Excluding cylinders, there are six basic quadric surfaces:

Equation Standard form

(symmetric about z-axis)
x2 y2 z
a2
+ b2
= c Elliptic paraboloid
x2 y2 z
a2
− b2
= c Hyperbolic paraboloid
x2 y2 z2
a2
+ b2
+ c2
=1 Ellipsoid
x2 y2 z2
a2
+ b2
− c2
=0 (Elliptic) cone
x2 y2 z2
a2
+ b2
− c2
=1 Hyperboloid of one sheet
x2 y2 z2
a2
+ b2
− c2
= −1 Hyperboloid of two sheets

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

Definition 6 (Elliptic paraboloid – symmetric about the z-axis)

x2 y2 z
2
+ 2 =
a b c
Horizontal traces: ellipses.

Vertical traces: parabolas.

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

x2 y2 z
The graph of the elliptic paraboloid a2
+ b2
= c when c > 0.

The point (0, 0, 0) is called the vertex of the elliptic paraboloid

above .

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

Definition 7 (Hyperbolic paraboloid – symmetric about the

z-axis)

x2 y2 z
2
− 2 = .
a b c
Horizontal traces: hyperbolas.

Vertical traces: parabolas.

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

The case c < 0 is illustrated below:

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

Definition 8 (Ellipsoid)

x 2 y 2 z2
+ 2 + 2 =1
a2 b c

If a = b = c, then the ellipsoid is a sphere.

Horizontal traces: ellipses.

Vertical traces: ellipses.

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

Definition 9 (Elliptic cone – symmetric about the z-axis)

x 2 y 2 z2
+ 2 − 2 =0
a2 b c
Horizontal traces: ellipses.

Vertical traces in the planes x = k and y = k are hyperbolas if

k ̸= 0; if k = 0 then the trace is a pair of lines.

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

Definition 10 (Hyperboloid of one sheet – symmetric about the

z-axis)

x 2 y 2 z2
+ 2 − 2 =1
a2 b c
Horizontal traces: ellipses.
Vertical traces: hyperbolas.

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

Definition 11 (Hyperboloid of Two Sheets - symmetric about the

z-axis)

x 2 y 2 z2
+ 2 − 2 = −1
a2 b c
Horizontal traces in z = k are ellipses if k > c or k < −c.
Vertical traces: hyperbolas.

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

Example 6
Identify and sketch the surface

x 2 + 2z 2 − 6x − y + 10 = 0.

Solution. By completing squares, we rewrite the equation as

z2
(y − 1) = (x − 3)2 +
1/2

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

This surface is an elliptic paraboloid.

Its vertex is the point (3, 1, 0), and

It is symmetric about the line which is parallel to the y -axis

and passes through (3, 1, 0).

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

Example 7
Identify and sketch the surface

x2 z2
− y2 − = 1.
4 2

Solution. Rearranging, we have

z2 x 2
y2 + − = −1.
2 4
This is a hyperboloid of two sheets symmetrical about the
x-axis.

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Cylinders and Quadric Surfaces

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Functions of Three Variables

Definition 12
A function f of three variables is a rule that assigns to each
ordered triple of real numbers (x, y, z) in a set
D ⊆ R3 = R × R × R a unique real number denoted by f (x, y , z).

It is even more difficult to visualize a function f of three

variables by its graph.

That would lie in a four-dimensional space!!!

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Functions of Three Variables

Definition 13 (Level Surface)

A level surface of f (x, y , z) is the three-dimensional graph of
the equation f (x, y , z) = k for some constant k.

If the point (x, y , z) moves along a level surface, the value of

f (x, y , z) remains fixed.

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Functions of Three Variables

Example 8
Find the level surfaces of the function

f (x, y, z) = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 .

Each level surface f (x, y, z) = t for some t can be regarded as

one instance of the function at time t. We can then think of
f (x, y , z) as evolving spheres.

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Functions of Three Variables

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Limits

If we write
lim f (x, y ) = L
(x,y)→(a,b)

we mean as (x, y) gets closer and closer (but not equal) to

(a, b), f (x, y ) gets closer and closer to L.

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Limits

for one variable function f (x), we can get close to a point c

in the domain from two (only two) different directions, i.e.
either from the left or from the right of c.

for two variable function f (x, y), we can get close to a point
(a, b) in the domain via infinitely many directions!

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Limits

Here is the formal definition:

Definition 14 (Limit: A formal definition)
Let f be a function of two variables whose domain D contains
points arbitrarily close to (a, b). We say that the limit of f (x, y )
as (x, y) approaches (a, b) is L ∈ R, denoted by

lim f (x, y ) = L
(x,y)→(a,b)

if for any number ϵ > 0 there exists

p a number δ > 0 such that
|f (x, y ) − L| < ϵ whenever 0 < (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 < δ.

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Limits

Remark:
(1) f is not required to be defined at (a, b) (i.e the domain D
might not contain (a, b)).

(2) |f (x, y) − L| is the distance between the numbers f (x, y )

and L.
p
(3) (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 is the distance between the point
(x, y ) and the point (a, b).

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Limits

Thus, the definition says that the distance between f (x, y) and
L can be made arbitrarily small by making the distance from
(x, y ) to (a, b) sufficiently small (but not 0).

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Limits

It can be proved from the definition that if

lim(x,y)→(a,b) f (x, y ) = L then

its value L is unique, and

L is independent of the choice of path approaching (a, b).

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Limits

Questions about limits usually fall into two types:

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(1) Show that the limit f (x, y) exists at (a, b).

(2) Show that the limit f (x, y) does not exist at (a, b).
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Methods used to solve them are different.

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Limits

Theorem 15 (How to show limit does not exist)

If f (x, y) approaches L1 as (x, y ) approaches (a, b) along a
path P1 and f (x, y) approaches L2 as (x, y) approaches (a, b)
along a path P2 and L1 ̸= L2 , then

lim f (x, y)
(x,y)→(a,b)

does not exist.

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Limits

In practice, when we suspect that a limit does not exist, we

check the limit along some paths and show that they are
different!

If we suspect the limit of f (x, y) does not exist at (a, b), some
paths to try (for obtaining different limits) are
x = a, y → b (vertical lines);
y = b, x → a (horizontal lines);
y = g(x), x → a where g(x) is some simple function such
that g(a) = b;
x = g(y), y → b where g(x) is some simple function such
that g(a) = b.

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Limits

Example 9
Determine whether the following limit exists.
y
lim .
(x,y)→(1,0) x + y − 1

Solution. Consider the vertical line (path) x = 1, and compute

the limit as y → 0 along this path:
y
lim = lim 1 = 1.
(1,y)→(1,0) 1 + y − 1 y→0

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Limits

Next, consider the path along the horizontal line y = 0, and

compute the limit as x → 1 along this path:

0
lim = lim 0 = 0.
(x,0)→(1,0) x + 0 − 1 x→1

Since the function approaches different values along two

different paths passing through (1, 0), the limit does not exist at
(1, 0).
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Limits

Example 10
Determine whether the following limit exists.
xy
lim 2
.
(x,y)→(0,0) x + y2

Solution. Consider the limit along the path x = 0. We have

0
lim = lim 0 = 0.
(0,y)→(0,0) 0 + y 2 y→0

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Limits

Similarly, for the path y = 0, we have

0
lim = lim 0 = 0.
(x,0)→(0,0) x 2 + 0 x→0

Be careful! Just because these two limits are the same does
not mean that the limit exists.

For a limit to exist, the limit must be the same for ALL paths
through (0, 0), not just the two we had considered.

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Limits

There is another simple path through (0, 0): the path y = x.

Using this path, we have

x2 1 1
lim 2 2
= lim = .
(x,x)→(0,0) x + x x→0 2 2

Since this limit does not match the limit along the first two paths
we considered, the limit does not exist.
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Limits

Example 11
xy 2
Let f (x, y ) = . Show that lim(x,y)→(0,0) f (x, y) does not
x2 + y4
exist.

Solution. Lets approach (0, 0) along the path y = mx, where

m is a real number.

x · (mx)2
lim f (x, y ) = lim
(x,mx)→(0,0) x→0 x 2 + (mx)4

x 3 m2
= lim
x→0 x 2 (1 + m4 x 2 )

xm2
= lim = 0.
x→0 1 + m4 x 2
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Limits

Now, approach (0, 0) along the path y 2 = x. We have

y2 · y2 1
lim f (x, y ) = lim = .
(y 2 ,y)→(0,0) y→0 y 4 + y 4 2

Since f has two different values as (x, y ) approaches (0, 0)

along different paths, the limit does not exist.
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Limits

The procedure we followed in the preceding examples was

used to show that a limit does not exist.

What if the limit exists?

Then we cannot use the same procedure; there are infinitely

many paths through a given point and we can never exhaust all
the possibilities!

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Limits

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To show limit exists:

(1) we can deduce it from known/simple functions using

properties of limits or continuity; or

(2) we can use the Squeeze theorem.

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Limits

Theorem 16 (Limit Theorems)

Suppose f (x, y ) and g(x, y) both have limits as (x, y)
approaches (a, b). Then

lim (f (x, y) ± g(x, y)) = lim f (x, y )± lim g(x, y ).

(x,y)→(a,b) (x,y)→(a,b) (x,y)→(a,b)

  
lim f (x, y )g(x, y ) = lim f (x, y) lim g(x, y) .
(x,y)→(a,b) (x,y)→(a,b) (x,y)→(a,b)

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Limits

Theorem 17 (Limit Theorems: continued)

f (x, y ) lim(x,y)→(a,b) f (x, y)

lim = ,
(x,y)→(a,b) g(x, y) lim(x,y)→(a,b) g(x, y )
provided
lim g(x, y) ̸= 0.
(x,y)→(a,b)

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Limits

Example 12
Find the limit
sin(xπ) + cos(yπ)
lim .
(x,y)→(1,1) x2 + y2

Solution.

lim(x,y)→(1,1) sin(xπ) + lim(x,y)→(1,1) cos(yπ) −1

2 2
= .
lim(x,y)→(1,1) x + lim(x,y)→(1,1) y 2
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Limits

Theorem 18 (Squeeze)
Suppose that |f (x, y ) − L| ≤ g(x, y) for all (x, y) in the interior
of some circle centered at (a, b), except possible at (a, b). If
lim(x,y)→(a,b) g(x, y) = 0, then

lim f (x, y ) = L.
(x,y)→(a,b)

Proof is omitted.

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Limits

Example 13
Show that
3x 2 y
lim = 0.
(x,y)→(0,0) x 2 + y 2

3x 2 y
Solution. We begin by finding an upper bound for x 2 +y 2
−0 :

3x 2 y x2
− 0 = 3 |y| ≤ 3|y|.
x2 + y2 x2 + y2
Since lim(x,y)→(0,0) |y| = 0, the result follows from the Squeeze
theorem.
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Continuity

Definition 19 (Definition of Continuity)

We say that f is continuous at (a, b) if

lim f (x, y ) = f (a, b). (1)

(x,y)→(a,b)

If f (x, y ) is not continuous at (a, b), then we call (a, b) a

discontinuity (point) of f .

f is said to be continuous on D ⊆ R2 if f is continuous at each

point in D.

The defining equation (1) is called the substitution property.

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Continuity

Theorem 20 (Continuity Theorems)

If f (x, y) and g(x, y ) are continuous at (a, b), then f ± g, f · g
are all continuous at (a, b).
f
Further, g is continuous at (a, b), provided g(a, b) ̸= 0.

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Continuity

Subsequently, the following classes of functions are continuous

in its domain.
Polynomial in x and y;
Trigonometric and exponential functions in x and y;
Rational function in x and y. E.g.

x 2 + x 3y
f (x, y) =
x +y

is continuous on

D = {(x, y) : x + y ̸= 0}.

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Continuity

Example 14
Find all points where the given function is continuous:
(
x4
(x 2 +y 2 )
if (x, y) ̸= (0, 0),
g(x, y) =
0 if (x, y) = (0, 0).

Solution. Notice g(x, y ) is a rational function when

(x, y ) ̸= (0, 0), so it is continuous at (x, y) ̸= (0, 0).

It remains to check continuity at (0, 0).

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Continuity

For (x, y ) ̸= (0, 0),

x4 x4
|g(x, y )| = ≤ = |x 2 | = x 2 .
(x 2 + y 2 ) (x 2 )
Since lim(x,y)→(0,0) x 2 = 0, we deduce that (by Squeeze
theorem)
lim g(x, y ) = 0 = g(0, 0).
(x,y)→(0,0)

Therefore, g(x, y ) is continuous at (0, 0).

Hence, g(x, y ) is continuous on the entire plane R2 .

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Continuity

Composition is another way of combining two continuous

functions to get a third.

Theorem 21 (Continuity and Composition)

Suppose f (x, y ) is continuous at (a, b) and g(x) is continuous
at f (a, b). Then

h(x, y) = (g ◦ f )(x, y) = g(f (x, y))

is continuous at (a, b).

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Continuity

Example 15
2
Discuss the continuity of the function f (x, y) = ex y .

Solution. Notice f (x, y) = g(h(x, y )) where g(t) = et and

h(x, y) = x 2 y .

g is continuous for all values of t.

h is a polynomial in x and y , so it is continuous for all x, y .
Therefore, f is continuous on R2 .
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Continuity

Example 16 (revisited)
Find the limit
sin(xπ) + cos(yπ)
lim .
(x,y)→(1,1) x2 + y2

Solution. All the functions are continuous. By the substitution

property (1):

sin(xπ) + cos(y π) sin(1 · π) + cos(1 · π) −1

lim = = .
(x,y)→(1,1) x2 + y2 12 + 12 2

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