MA2104 Week 1

1 Vectors
Dot Product, Projections
Cross Product, Scalar Triple Product

2 Lines & Planes

3 Vector functions of one variable

Tangent vector
Arc length

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Vectors

Throughout, vectors will be denoted in bold letters. A vector u

is often represented as

a position vector u = ⟨a, b, c⟩, where a, b, c are called the

components of the vector; or
−→
a directed line segment u = AB when we want to
emphasize on the initial point A(a1 , a2 , a3 ) as well as the
terminal point B(b1 , b2 , b3 ):
−→
AB = ⟨b1 − a1 , b2 − a2 , b3 − a3 ⟩.

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Two vectors are the equal if they have the same length and the
same direction. The position of its initial point does not matter.

The initial point of position vectors are always placed at the

origin.

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Vectors

Adding two vectors geometrically:

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Vectors

Adding two vectors algebraically:

If a = ⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩, b = ⟨b1 , b2 , b3 ⟩ then

a + b = ⟨a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 ⟩.

The zero vector, denoted by 0, has length 0. It is the only vector

with no specific direction.

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Vectors

The length of the vector u = ⟨u1 , u2 , u3 ⟩ is

q
||u|| = u12 + u22 + u32 .

A unit vector is a vector whose length is 1.

Any 3D vector can be written as a linear combination of

standard basis vectors i = ⟨1, 0, 0⟩, j = ⟨0, 1, 0⟩ and
k = ⟨0, 0, 1⟩:

⟨a, b, c⟩ = ai + bj + ck.

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Vectors

Theorem 1
If a ̸= 0, then a unit vector in the same direction as a is given by

u = a/ ||a|| .

Proof. Notice 1/ ||a|| is a positive scalar, so u is in the same

direction as a. Also,

a 1
||u|| = = ||a|| = 1.
||a|| ||a||

So u is the unit vector in the same direction as a. ■

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Dot Product

The dot product of two vectors a = ⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩ and

b = ⟨b1 , b2 , b3 ⟩ is defined to be

a · b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 .

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Dot Product

Theorem 2 (Properties of Dot Product)

For vectors a, b and c and any scalar d,
(i) a · b = b · a (commutativity)
(ii) a · (b + c) = a · b + a · c (distributive law)
(iii) (da) · b = d(a · b) = a · (db)
(iv) 0 · a = 0
(v) a · a = ||a||2 .

Notice a · b = 0 does not imply that a = 0 or b = 0.

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Dot Product

For two nonzero vectors a and b in R3 , we define the angle θ

between them to be the smaller angle between a and b,
formed by placing their initial points at the origin.

Note that the larger angle is 2π − θ. So

0 ≤ θ ≤ π.

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Dot Product

Some special cases:

a and b have the same direction iff θ = 0.

a and b have opposite direction iff θ = π.

a and b are orthogonal (perpendicular) iff θ = π2 .

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Dot Product

Theorem 3 (Dot product angle formula)

Let θ be the angle between nonzero vectors a and b. Then

a · b = ||a|| ||b|| cos θ.

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Dot Product

Example 1
Find the angle between the vectors a = ⟨2, 1, −3⟩ and
b = ⟨1, 5, 6⟩.

Solution.
a·b −11
cos θ = =√ √ .
||a|| ||b|| 14 62
 
−11
θ = cos−1 √ √ ≈ 1.953 radian.
14 62
■

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Dot Product

Theorem 4
Two nonzero vectors a and b are orthogonal if and only if
a · b = 0.
Proof.
||a|| ||b|| cos θ = a · b = 0
if and only if cos θ = 0, if and only if θ = π2 , which is equivalent
to saying that a and b are orthogonal. ■

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Projections

Let S be the foot of the perpendicular line from R to the line

−→
containing PQ.

−→
The vector PS is called the vector projection of b onto a,
denoted by
proja b.

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Projections

The scalar projection of b onto a (also called the component of

b along a) is defined to be the signed magnitude of the vector
projection:

a·b
compa b = ||b|| cos θ = .
||a||

π
This value is negative if 2 < θ ≤ π, where θ is the angle
between a and b.

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Projections

Therefore,
' $

 
a a·b a a·b a·b
proja b = compa b × = = 2
a= a.
||a|| ||a|| ||a|| ||a|| a·a
& %

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Projections

Example 2
Let a = ⟨−2, 3, 1⟩ and b = ⟨1, 1, 2⟩. Find the scalar projection
and vector projection of b onto a.

Solution.
a·b (−2)(1) + 3(1) + 1(2) 3
compa b = = √ =√ .
||a|| 14 14
3 a 3 3 9 3
proja b = √ = a = ⟨− , , ⟩.
14 ||a|| 14 7 14 14
■

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Cross Product

For two vectors a = ⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩ and b = ⟨b1 , b2 , b3 ⟩, define the

cross product of a and b to be

i j k
a×b = a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
= i− j+ k
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
= (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )i − (a1 b3 − a3 b1 )j + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )k.

To compute a × b, we must write the components of a in the

second row of the determinant, and the components of b in the
third row. The order is important!

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Cross Product

Theorem 5
The vector a × b is orthogonal to both a and b.

Proof. To show a × b is orthogonal to a, we compute their dot

product as follows:

a2 a3 a1 a3 a1 a2
(a × b) · a = a1 − a2 + a3
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
= 0.

A similar computation shows that (a × b) · b = 0. ■

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Cross Product

The vector a × b points in a direction perpendicular to a and b.

This can be given by the right-hand rule as follows:

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Theorem 6 (Properties of cross product)
If a, b and c are vectors and d is a scalar, then
(i) a × b = −b × a
(ii) (da) × b = d(a × b) = a × (db)
(iii) a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c
(iv) (a + b) × c = a × c + b × c

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Cross Product

Theorem 7 (Cross product angle formula)

If θ is the angle between a and b then

||a × b|| = ||a|| ||b|| sin θ.

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Cross Product

We can use cross product

to find the area of a parallelogram

to find the distance from a point to a line in R3 .

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Cross Product

The area of the parallelogram is given by

||a|| ||b|| sin θ = ||a × b|| .

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Cross Product

The distance from Q to the line through P and R is

−→ −→
−→ PQ × PR
PQ sin θ = −→ .
PR

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Scalar Triple Product

Note that if a = ⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩, b = ⟨b1 , b2 , b3 ⟩, c = ⟨c1 , c2 , c3 ⟩ then

a · (b × c)

= a1 (b2 c3 − b3 c2 ) + a2 (b3 c1 − b1 c3 ) + a3 (b1 c2 − b2 c1 )

a1 a2 a3
= b1 b2 b3 .
c1 c2 c3

The scalar a · (b × c) is called the scalar triple product of the

vectors a, b and c.

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Scalar Triple Product

The geometric significance of the scalar triple product can be

seen by considering the parallelepiped determined by the
vectors a, b and c:

The area of the base parallelogram is

A = ||b × c|| .

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Scalar Triple Product

If θ is the angle between a and b × c, then the height h of the

parallelepiped is:
h = ||a|| | cos θ|.
Therefore, the volume of the parallelepiped is

V = Ah
= ||b × c|| ||a|| | cos θ|
= |a · (b × c)|.

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Scalar Triple Product

Example 3
Determine whether the vectors are coplanar: a = ⟨2, 3, 1⟩,
b = ⟨1, 0, 2⟩, c = ⟨0, 3, −3⟩.

Solution. Compute the volume of the parallelepiped

determined by these vectors:

2 3 1
|a · (b × c)| = 1 0 2
0 3 −3
= |2(−6) − 3(−3) + 1(3)|
= 0.

Therefore, a, b and c are coplanar.

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Lines

To locate a particular line L in space, we need

A point say P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) on the line L.

A vector v whose direction is parallel to the line L.

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Lines

So let P(x, y, z) denote an arbitrary point on the line L.

Let r and r0 denote the position vectors of P and P0

respectively.

Our aim is to describe r, the position vector of an arbitrary point

on L.

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Lines

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Lines

−−→ −−→
Note that P0 P = tv for some scalar t since P0 P and v are
parallel. So

−−→
r = r0 + P0 P,
so that
r = r0 + tv
which is a vector equation of L.

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Lines

We can write the vector equation in the component form:

v = ⟨a, b, c⟩, r0 = ⟨x0 , y0 , z0 ⟩, r = ⟨x, y , z⟩.

Then

r = r0 + tv
⟨x, y, z⟩ = ⟨x0 , y0 , z0 ⟩ + t⟨a, b, c⟩.

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Lines

Theorem 8 ( Parametric Equation of Line)

x = x0 + at, y = y0 + bt, z = z0 + ct.

Usually the parameter t (in the parametric equation of line)

takes values on the entire R or an interval I.

The numbers a, b and c are called direction numbers of

the line L. These numbers are not unique.

The vector equation and parametric equations of a line are

not unique.

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Lines

Example 4
Find an equation of the line passing through P(1, 2, −1) and
Q(5, −3, 4).

Solution. A vector parallel to the line is

−→
PQ = ⟨5 − 1, −3 − 2, 4 − (−1)⟩ = ⟨4, −5, 5⟩.

A fixed point on the line is P(1, 2, −1). Thus a set of parametric

equations for the line is

x = 1 + 4t, y = 2 − 5t, z = −1 + 5t.

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Lines

Let L1 and L2 be two lines in R3 , with direction vectors a and b,

respectively, and let θ be the angle between a and b.
The lines L1 and L2 are parallel whenever a and b are
parallel.

If L1 and L2 intersect then θ is an angle between L1 and L2 .

Notice π − θ is also an angle between the lines.

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Lines

In 2-D, two lines are either parallel or intersect.

In 3-D, two lines are either

parallel;

non-parallel and intersect; or

non-parallel and non-intersecting (skew lines)

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Lines

Example 5
Show that the lines

L1 : x − 2 = −t, y − 1 = 2t, z − 5 = 2t,

L2 : x − 1 = s, y − 2 = −s, z − 1 = 3s,
are skew.
Solution. A vector parallel to L1 is a = ⟨−1, 2, 2⟩ and a vector
parallel to L2 is b = ⟨1, −1, 3⟩. Since a is not a scalar multiple of
b, these lines are not parallel.

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Lines

Assume for a contradiction that L1 and L2 intersect. Then there

must exist a choice of the parameter t and s such that the
values of x, y and z are the same.

The x-coordinate must satisfy

2 − t = 1 + s,

so that s = 1 − t.
The y -coordinate must satisfy

y = 1 + 2t = 2 − s.

Substituting s = 1 − t into the last equation, we have

t = 0, s = 1.
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Lines

Now, the z-coordinate must satisfy

z = 5 + 2t = 0,

z = 1 + 3s = 4,
which is absurd!

Hence our assumption that L1 and L2 intersects was wrong. So

the lines are skew, as desired. ■

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Planes

To locate a particular plane in space, we need

A point say P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) on the plane.

A vector n whose direction is perpendicular to the plane.

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Planes

How do we describe an arbitrary point P(x, y , z) on the plane?

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Planes

Let r and r0 denote the position vectors of P and P0

respectively.

−−→
Then r − r0 is represented by P0 P.

The normal vector n (which is orthogonal to the plane) is

always orthogonal to r − r0 .

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Planes

Theorem 9 (Vector Equation of Plane)

n · (r − r0 ) = 0
which can be written as

n · r = n · r0 .

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Planes

In terms of the components:

n = ⟨a, b, c⟩, r = ⟨x, y, z⟩, r0 = ⟨x0 , y0 , z0 ⟩.

Then n · r = n · r0 becomes

⟨a, b, c⟩ · ⟨x, y, z⟩ = ⟨a, b, c⟩ · ⟨x0 , y0 , z0 ⟩

ax + by + cz = ax0 + by0 + cz0 .

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Planes

Theorem 10 (Linear Equation of Plane)

ax + by + cz = d,
where
d = ax0 + by0 + cz0 .

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Planes

Example 6
Find an equation of the plane that passes through the points
P(1, 3, 2), Q(3, −1, 6), R(5, 2, 0).

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Planes

Solution. First, we need a vector n orthogonal to the plane.

This can be given by
−→ −→
n = PQ × PR
Notice
−→ −→
PQ = ⟨2, −4, 4⟩, PR = ⟨4, −1, −2⟩.
So
i j k
n = 2 −4 4
4 −1 −2
= 12i + 20j + 14k.

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Planes

With the point P(1, 3, 2) and the normal vector n, an equation

of the plane is:

12(x − 1) + 20(y − 3) + 14(z − 2) = 0

or after simplifications,

6x + 10y + 7z = 50.

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Planes

Two planes are parallel if their normal vectors are parallel.

If two planes are not parallel, then

They intersect in a straight line.

An angle between the two planes is the angle θ between

their normal vectors. Notice π − θ is also an angle between
the planes.

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Planes

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Planes

Example 7

(a) Find the angle between the planes x + 2y + z = 3 and

x − 4y + 3z = 5.

(b) Find the line of intersection of these two planes.

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Planes

Solution. (a) The normal vectors of these planes are

n1 = ⟨1, 2, 1⟩, n2 = ⟨1, −4, 3⟩.

So, if θ is the angle between them, then

n1 · n2
θ = cos−1
||n1 || ||n2 ||
1(1) + 2(−4) + 1(3)
= cos−1 √ √
1 + 4 + 1 1 + 16 + 9
−4
= cos−1 √ ≈ 108.7◦
156
An angle between the planes is 108.7◦ . You can also give the
other angle, which is 71.3◦ .

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Planes

(b) Solving both equations for x,

x = 3 − 2y − z and x = 5 + 4y − 3z.

Setting them to be equal:

3 − 2y − z = 5 + 4y − 3z

z = 3y + 1
x = 3 − 2y − (3y + 1) = −5y + 2.
Let y = t be the parameter, we obtain a parametric equation for
the line of intersection

x = −5t + 2, y = t, z = 3t + 1.
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Planes

Example 8
Find an equation of the plane containing the point (0, 1, 2) and
the line given by

x = t, y = t, z = 2t + 5, t ∈ R.

Solution. A point on the line is (0, 0, 5) (choose t = 0).

Two vectors on the plane are ⟨0, 0, 5⟩ − ⟨0, 1, 2⟩ = ⟨0, −1, 3⟩,
and ⟨1, 1, 2⟩.

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Planes

A normal to the plane is

⟨1, 1, 2⟩ × ⟨0, −1, 3⟩ = ⟨5, −3, −1⟩.

So, the equation of the plane is

⟨5, −3, −1⟩ · ⟨x, y , z − 5⟩ = 0,

5x − 3y − z + 5 = 0.
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Planes

Example 9
Find the (shortest) distance between the following planes:

x + 2y + 5z = 6, x + 2y + 5z = 11.

Solution. A point on the plane x + 2y + 5z = 6 is (6, 0, 0). A

point on the plane x + 2y + 5z = 11 is (11, 0, 0).

Let
u = ⟨11, 0, 0⟩ − ⟨6, 0, 0⟩ = ⟨5, 0, 0⟩.
A normal vector to the planes is

n = ⟨1, 2, 5⟩.

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Planes

Let θ be the angle between u and n.

The distance is (why?)

u·n 5
||u|| | cos θ| = =√ .
||n|| 30
■

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Planes

Example 10
Find the angle between adjacent sides i.e. the angle between
the plane OPTS and the plane PQUT of the following
symmetric-looking chute.

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Planes

Here is the view from the top of the symmetric-looking chute:

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Planes

Place the chute in our coordinate system so that O(0, 0, 0),

P(6, 0, 0), Q(6, 6, 0) and R(0, 6, 0).

Then we have:

S(−1, −1, 8), T (7, −1, 8), U(7, 7, 8), V (−1, 7, 8).

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Planes

We need to find the angle between the plane Π1 which contains

−→ −→
the vector OP and OS and the plane Π2 which contains the
−→ −→
vector PQ and PT .

−→ −→
u = OP × OS = ⟨0, −48, −6⟩,
−→ −→
v = PQ × PT = ⟨48, 0, −6⟩.
The angle between u and v is
   
u·v 36
cos−1 = cos−1 ≈ 89◦ .
||u|| ||v|| 482 + 36
■

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Vector functions of one variable

A vector-valued function is

r(t) = ⟨f (t), g(t), h(t)⟩ = f (t)i + g(t)j + h(t)k

where f (t), g(t) and h(t) are scalar functions of t.

The scalar function f , g and h are called the component

functions of r.

Special case: If each component if a linear function of t, then

r(t) is just the vector equation of a line.

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Vector functions of one variable

The vector function r(t) traces out the curve C.

We say that r(t) is a parametrization of C.

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Vector functions of one variable

A curve C can have more than one parameterizations.

For example, both

r(t) = ⟨t, t 2 ⟩, t ∈ R

r(t) = ⟨t 3 , t 6 ⟩, t ∈ R

parameterize the same parabola f (x) = x 2 on the xy-plane.

Then, what’s the difference?

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Vector functions of one variable

Example 11
Sketch the curve traced out by the vector-valued function

r(t) = sin ti − 3 cos tj + 2tk.

Solution.
 y 2
x2 + = sin2 t + cos2 t = 1
3
which is the equation of an ellipse in 2-D.

In 3-D, however, it becomes the equation of an elliptic cylinder

whose axis is the z-axis.

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Vector functions of one variable

The curve will wind its way up the cylinder anticlockwise as t

increases. We call this curve an elliptical helix.

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Tangent vector

Just like single variable function f (x) where the derivative

f (a + △x) − f (a)
f ′ (a) = lim
△x→0 △x

can be regarded as the rate of change of f at x = a, the

derivative of r(t) at t = a defined by

r(a + △t) − r(a)

r′ (a) = lim .
△t→0 △t
can be regarded as the rate of change of r(t) at t = a.

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Tangent vector

Notice that for △t > 0, the vector r(a+△t)−r(a)

△t points in the
same direction as r(a + △t) − r(a).

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Tangent vector

r(a+△t)−r(a)
As △t → 0, △t approaches r′ (a).

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Tangent vector

This is a vector tangent to the curve at r(a). We also call r′ (a) a

tangent vector to the curve at t = a.

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Tangent vector

We seldom compute r′ (a) from the definition.

It turns out that we can just differentiate

#

‘component-wise’!!!
" !

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Tangent vector

Theorem 11 (Derivative of Vector-valued Function)

Let r(t) = ⟨f (t), g(t), h(t)⟩ and suppose that the components f ,
g and h are all differentiable at t = a.

Then r is differentiable at t = a and its derivative is given by

r′ (a) = ⟨f ′ (a), g ′ (a), h′ (a)⟩.

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Tangent vector

Theorem 12 (Derivative Rules)

Suppose r(t) and s(t) are differentiable vector-valued functions,
f (t) is a differentiable scalar function and c is a scalar constant.
Then
d
(i) dt (r(t) + s(t)) = r′ (t) + s′ (t)
d
(ii) dt (cr(t)) = cr′ (t)
d
(iii) dt f (t)r(t) = f ′ (t)r(t) + f (t)r′ (t)
d
(iv) dt r(t) · s(t) = r′ (t) · s(t) + r(t) · s′ (t)
d
(v) dt (r(t) × s(t)) = r′ (t) × s(t) + r(t) × s′ (t).

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Tangent vector

Example 12
Find the tangent line L to the curve r(t) = ⟨cos t, sin t, t⟩ at
(0, 1, π/2).

Solution. At point (0, 1, π/2), we have t = π/2.

Since r′ (t) = ⟨− sin t, cos t, 1⟩, a direction of the tangent line L

is given by the tangent vector

r′ (π/2) = ⟨− sin(π/2), cos(π/2), 1⟩ = ⟨−1, 0, 1⟩.

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Tangent vector

So a parametric equation of L is

x = 0 + (−1)t, y = 1 + (0)t, z = π/2 + (1)t,

that is
x = −t, y = 1, z = π/2 + t.
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Arc length

A natural question about a curve in space is ‘How long is it?’.

This is the arc length of the curve.

Our formula for arc length only applies to smooth curves, i.e.
curves that do not have sharp corners at their interior points.

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Arc length

Our assumption:

Suppose that a smooth curve is traced out by the endpoint of

r(t) = ⟨f (t), g(t), h(t)⟩ where
f , f ′ , g, g ′ , h, h′ are all continuous for t ∈ [a, b]; and
the curve is traversed exactly once as t increases from a to
b.

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Arc length

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Arc length

We can approximate the arc length of this curve as follows:

Step 1.

Partition the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal size:

a = t0 < t1 < · · · < tn = b, where ti − ti−1 = △t = b−an for all
i = 1, 2, . . . , n.

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Arc length

Step 2.

Let si denote the arc length of that portion of the curve traced
out as t increases from ti−1 to ti .

We can approximate si by the distance of the point

(f (ti ), g(ti ), h(ti )) from (f (ti−1 ), g(ti−1 ), h(ti−1 )) (since f , g and h
are continuous).

By the distance formula,

q
si ≈ (f (ti ) − f (ti−1 ))2 + (g(ti ) − g(ti−1 ))2 + (h(ti ) − h(ti−1 ))2 .

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Arc length

On the other hand, we have (why?)

f (ti ) − f (ti−1 ) = f ′ (ci )(ti − ti−1 ) = f ′ (ci )△t

g(ti ) − g(ti−1 ) = g ′ (di )(ti − ti−1 ) = g ′ (di )△t
h(ti ) − h(ti−1 ) = h′ (ei )(ti − ti−1 ) = h′ (ei )△t

for some points ci , di and ei in the interval (ti−1 , ti ).

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Arc length

This yields

q
si ≈ (f (ti ) − f (ti−1 ))2 + (g(ti ) − g(ti−1 ))2 + (h(ti ) − h(ti−1 ))2
q
≈ (f ′ (ci )△t)2 + (g ′ (di )△t)2 + (h′ (ei )△t)2
q
≈ f ′ (ci )2 + g ′ (di )2 + h′ (ei )2 △t.

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Arc length

Notice that when △t is small, ci , di and ei are very close to

each other.

So we can further approximate si as

q
si ≈ f ′ (ci )2 + g ′ (ci )2 + h′ (ci )2 △t

for each i = 1, 2, . . . , n (since we assume f ′ , g ′ and h′ are

continuous).

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Arc length

The total arc length is then approximately

n q
X
s≈ f ′ (ci )2 + g ′ (ci )2 + h′ (ci )2 △t
i=1

where the total error in the approximation tends to 0 as △t → 0.

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We can make △t → 0 by taking n → ∞. This gives exact

length:
n q
X
s = lim f ′ (ci )2 + g ′ (ci )2 + h′ (ci )2 △t
n→∞
i=1

provided the limit exists.

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Theorem 13 (Arc Length Formula)

Let C be the curve given by

r(t) = ⟨f (t), g(t), h(t)⟩, a ≤ t ≤ b

where f ′ , g ′ and h′ are continuous. If C is traversed exactly

once as t increases from a to b, then its length is
Z b q
s = f ′ (t)2 + g ′ (t)2 + h′ (t)2 dt
a
Z b
= r′ (t) dt
a

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Example 13
Find the arclength of the curve traced out by the endpoint of the
vector-valued function r(t) = ⟨2t, ln t, t 2 ⟩ for 1 ≤ t ≤ e.

Solution. Note that

1
r′ (t) = ⟨2, , 2t⟩.
t

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s
Z e  2
1
s = 22 + + (2t)2 dt
1 t
r
e
1 + 4t 2 + 4t 4
Z
= dt
1 t2
r
e
(1 + 2t 2 )2
Z
= dt
1 t2
Z e Z e
1 + 2t 2

1
= dt = + 2t dt
1 t 1 t
h ie
= ln |t| + t 2
1

= (ln e + e2 ) − (ln 1 + 1) = e2 .
■
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