MA2104 Week 12

1 Divergence and Gauss’ Theorem

Interpreting divergence

2 Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

Visualizing the curl vector

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Divergence and Gauss’ Theorem

Definition 1 (Divergence)
Let F(x, y, z) = P(x, y , z) i + Q(x, y, z) j + R(x, y , z) k be a
vector field in space, where P, Q and R have first order
derivatives in some region D. The divergence of F is the scalar
function defined by

∂P ∂Q ∂R
div F = + + .
∂x ∂y ∂z

In 2-dimensional space,

∂P ∂Q
F(x, y) = P(x, y)i + Q(x, y)j, div F = + .
∂x ∂y

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Divergence and Gauss’ Theorem

We introduce the vector differential operator ▽ (read as ‘del’)

defined by

∂ ∂ ∂
▽= i+ j+ k.
∂x ∂y ∂z

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂P ∂Q ∂R
▽·F=⟨ , , ⟩ · ⟨P, Q, R⟩ = + + = div F.
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z

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Divergence and Gauss’ Theorem

Interpretation of divergence:

The field is F = ⟨x, y ⟩ and div F = 2. There is a net outflow

through every circle.

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Divergence and Gauss’ Theorem

The field is F = ⟨y − 2x, x − 2y ⟩ and div F = −4. There is a net

inflow into every circle.

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Divergence and Gauss’ Theorem

The field is F = ⟨x, −y ⟩ and div F = 0. The net flow through

every circle is zero.

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Divergence and Gauss’ Theorem

Conclusion:

Divergence is positive =⇒ There is a net outflow.

Divergence is negative =⇒ There is a net inflow.

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Divergence and Gauss’ Theorem

Recall that Green’s Theorem turns a line integral into a double

integral:
Z ZZ  
∂Q ∂P
F · dr = − dA
C D ∂x ∂y

Gauss’ Theorem turns a surface integral into a triple integral!!

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Divergence and Gauss’ Theorem

Thanks to Gauss!

Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) – Prince of Mathematicians

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Divergence and Gauss’ Theorem

Theorem 2 (The Divergence Theorem / Gauss’ Theorem)

Let E be a solid region where the boundary surface S of E is
piecewise smooth with positive (outward) orientation.
Let F(x, y , z) be a vector field whose component functions have
continuous partial derivatives on an open region that contains
E.
Then,
ZZ ZZZ
F · dS = div F dV .
S E

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Divergence and Gauss’ Theorem

Example 1
Find the flux of the vector field F(x, y, z) = zi + y j + xk across
the unit sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 with positive orientation.

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Divergence and Gauss’ Theorem

Solution. First compute the divergence divF:

∂z ∂y ∂x
div F = ▽ · ⟨z, y, x⟩ = + + = 1.
∂x ∂y ∂z

The unit sphere S is the boundary of the unit ball B whose

volume is 4π
3 . Therefore, using the Divergence Theorem,

ZZ ZZZ
4π
F · dS = 1 dV =
S B 3

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Divergence and Gauss’ Theorem

Example 2
ZZ
Evaluate F · dS where
S
2
F(x, y, z) = xy i + (y 2 + exz )j + sin(xy) k
and S is the surface (with positive orientation) of the region E
bounded by the parabolic cylinder z = 1 − x 2 and the planes
z = 0, y = 0 and y + z = 2.

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Divergence and Gauss’ Theorem

Solution.

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Divergence and Gauss’ Theorem

The divergence of F is

∂ ∂ 2 2 ∂
div F = (xy) + (y + exz ) + (sin(xy)) = 3y
∂x ∂y ∂z

To use the Divergence Theorem, we need to describe the solid

E for the evaluation of the triple integral. The easiest way is to
regard E as a type 3 region (projected onto the xz-plane):

E = {(x, y , z) : −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ z ≤ 1 − x 2 , 0 ≤ y ≤ 2 − z}

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Divergence and Gauss’ Theorem

Therefore, using the Divergence Theorem,

ZZ ZZZ
F · dS = div F dV
S E
ZZZ
= 3y dV
E
Z 1 Z 1−x 2 Z 2−z
= 3 y dy dz dx
−1 0 0
Z 1 Z 1−x 2
(2 − z)2
= 3 dz dx
−1 0 2

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Divergence and Gauss’ Theorem

1 1−x 2
(2 − z)3
ZZ Z
3
F · dS = − dx
S 2 −1 3 0
1 1 2
Z 
= − (x + 1)3 − 8 dx
2 −1
184
= . sweet!
35
■

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Divergence and Gauss’ Theorem

Example 3
Let F = ⟨x 2 , y 2 , z 2 ⟩, and let S be the boundary (with outward
orientation) of the solid E which is a half-cylinder defined by
q
E = {(x, y , z) : 0 ≤ x ≤ 2, −1 ≤ y ≤ 1, 0 ≤ z ≤ 1 − y 2 }.

Compute ZZ
F · dS.
S

Solution. See lecture.

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Divergence and Gauss’ Theorem

Interpretation of Divergence (revisited):

The Divergence/Gauss’ Theorem yields the approximation

ZZZ
flux across S = div F dV ≈ div F(P) × Volume(E)
E

provided the solid E (whose boundary is S) is very small.

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Divergence and Gauss’ Theorem

So, across very small closed surface S enclosing a point P:

flux across S (outwardly oriented)

div F(P) ≈ .
Volume(E)

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Divergence and Gauss’ Theorem

If div F(P) > 0, there is a net outflow across any small

closed surface enclosing P. Thus, fluid is ‘produced’ at P.

If div F(P) < 0, there is a net inflow across any small

closed surface enclosing P. Thus, fluid is ‘consumed’ at P.

If div F(P) = 0, there is a no net flow across any small

closed surface enclosing P.

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Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

Definition 3 (Curl)

     
∂R ∂Q ∂P ∂R ∂Q ∂P
curl F = − i+ − j+ − k.
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y

Unlike divergence, curl F is a vector field.

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Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

Using the del operator:

i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
▽×F = ∂x ∂y ∂z
P Q R

     
∂R ∂Q ∂P ∂R ∂Q ∂P
= − i+ − j+ − k
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y

= curl F

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Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

Example 4
If F(x, y, z) = xzi + xyzj − y 2 k, find curl F.

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Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

Solution.

curl F = ▽ × F
i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
= ∂x ∂y ∂z
xz xyz −y 2
   
∂ 2 ∂ ∂ 2 ∂
= (−y ) − (xyz) i − (−y ) − (xz) j
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z
 
∂ ∂
+ (xyz) − (xz) k
∂x ∂y

= (−2y − xy)i − (0 − x)j + (yz − 0)k

= −y (2 + x)i + xj + yzk.
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Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

Stokes’ Theorem can be regarded as a higher-dimensional

version of Green’s Theorem.

Green’s Theorem relates a double integral over a plane

region D to a line integral around its plane boundary curve.

Stokes’ Theorem relates a surface integral over a surface

S to a line integral around the boundary curve of S (a
space curve).

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Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

The orientation of S induces the positive orientation of the

boundary curve C.

This means that: if you walk in the positive direction around C

with your head pointing in the direction of n, the surface will
always be on your left.

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Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

Theorem 4 (Stoke’s Theorem)

Let S be an oriented piecewise-smooth surface bounded by a
simple, closed, piecewise-smooth boundary curve C with
positive orientation.
Let F be a vector field whose components have continuous
partial derivatives on an open region in R3 that contains S.
Then,
ZZ Z
curl F · dS = F · dr.
S C

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Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

Consider the special case where the surface S:

S is flat.

S lies in the xy-plane with upward orientation.

Then,
The unit normal is k.

The surface integral becomes a double integral.

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Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

Stokes’ Theorem becomes:

Z ZZ ZZ
F · dr = curl F · dS = curl F · k dA
C S S
ZZ
∂R ∂Q ∂P ∂R ∂Q ∂P
= ⟨ − , − , − ⟩ · ⟨0, 0, 1⟩ dA
S ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
ZZ
∂Q ∂P
= − dA.
S ∂x ∂y
This is precisely Green’s Theorem!

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Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

Example 5
Z
Evaluate F · dr where
C
F(x, y, z) = −y 2 i + xj + z 2 k

C is the curve of intersection of the plane y + z = 2 and

the cylinder x 2 + y 2 = 1. (Orient C to be counterclockwise
when viewed from above.)

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Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

The curve C is shown below:

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Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

First, we compute

i j k
∂ ∂ ∂
curl F = ∂x ∂y ∂z = (1 + 2y)k
−y 2 x z2

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Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

There are many surfaces with boundary C.

We choose the elliptical region S in the plane y + z = 2

that is bounded by C.

If we orient S upward, C has the induced positive

orientation.
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Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

The projection D of S on the xy-plane is the disk x 2 + y 2 ≤ 1.

So, using x and y as parameters for the surface S, we have the

following parametrisation for S:

r(x, y) = ⟨x, y , 2 − y⟩, (x, y) ∈ D = {(x, y ) : x 2 + y 2 ≤ 1}

Also,
rx × ry = ⟨0, 1, 1⟩
is pointing upwards.

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Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

Subsequently,
Z ZZ
F · dr = curl F · dS
C S
ZZ
= ⟨0, 0, 1 + 2y⟩ · (rx × ry ) dA
Z ZD
= (1 + 2y) dA
D
Z 2π Z 1
= (1 + 2r sin θ)r dr dθ
0 0
2π 1
r2 r3
Z 
= + 2 sin θ dθ
0 2 3 0
1
= (2π) + 0 = π.
2
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Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

Example 6
ZZ
Use Stokes’ Theorem to compute curl F · dS where:
S
F(x, y, z) = xzi + yzj + xyk

S is the part of the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 4, oriented

upwards, that lies inside the cylinder x 2 + y 2 = 1 and
above the xy-plane.

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Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

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Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

A vector equation of C is:

√
r(t) = ⟨cos t, sin t, 3⟩, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π
Therefore,

r′ (t) = ⟨− sin t, cos t, 0⟩.

Also, we have
√ √
F = ⟨ 3 cos t, 3 sin t, cos t sin t⟩.

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Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

Therefore, by Stoke’s Theorem

ZZ Z
curl F · dS = F · dr
S C
Z 2π
= F · r′ (t) dt
0
Z 2π  √ √ 
= − 3 cos t sin t + 3 sin t cos t dt
0
= 0.

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Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

Remark:

In general, if S1 and S2 are oriented surfaces with the same

oriented boundary curve C and both satisfy the hypotheses of
Stokes’ Theorem, then
ZZ Z ZZ
curl F · dS = F · dr = curl F · dS
S1 C S2

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Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

Example 7
Let F = ⟨y 2 , x 2 , z 2 ⟩. Show that
Z Z
F · dr = F · dr
C1 C2

for any two closed curves lying on the cylinder x 2 + y 2 = 1 as

shown below:

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Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

Solution. Consider the surface S1 and S2 indicated below:

S1 is the surface oriented upwards so that its boundary is C1

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Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

S2 is part of the cylinder bounded between C1 and C2 , and is

oriented outward.

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Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

Applying Stokes’ Theorem to S1 and S1 ∪ S2 , we obtain

Z ZZ
F · dr = curl F · dS, (1)
C1 S1
Z ZZ
F · dr = curl F · dS
C2 S1 ∪S2
ZZ ZZ
= curl F · dS + curl F · dS (2)
S1 S2

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Curl and Stokes’ Theorem

However, notice that curl F · n = 0 on S2 (since the k-th

component of n is 0 and the i-th and j-th component of curl F is
always 0), so ZZ
curl F · dS = 0.
S2

It follows immediately from (1) and (2) that

Z Z
F · dr = F · dr. divine!
C1 C2

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Visualizing the curl vector

Consider the line integral

Z Z
v · dr = v · T ds
C C
where
C is a closed curve with some orientation.
T is the unit tangent vector to the curve C.

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Visualizing the curl vector

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Visualizing the curl vector

Z
v · dr is a measure of the tendency of the fluid to move
C
around C.

Think of it as the circulation of v around C.

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Visualizing the curl vector

Let P0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ) be a point in the fluid, and let Sa be a small

disk with radius a and center P0 .

Then, for all points on Sa we have

curl F(P) ≈ curl F(P0 )

because curl F is continuous and Sa is very small.

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Visualizing the curl vector

By Stokes’ Theorem, we get the following approximation to the

circulation around the boundary circle Ca :

Z ZZ
v · dr = curl v · dS
Ca Sa
ZZ
= curl v · n dS
Z ZSa
≈ curlv(P0 ) · n(P0 ) dS
Sa
= curl v(P0 ) · n(P0 )πa2 .

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Visualizing the curl vector

This approximation becomes better as a → 0. Thus, we have

Z
1
curl v(P0 ) · n(P0 ) = lim v · dr.
a→0 πa2 Ca

It shows that curl v · n is a measure of the rotating effect of the

fluid about the axis n.

This curling effect is greatest about the axis parallel to curl v.

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Visualizing the curl vector

The paddle wheel rotates fastest when its axis is parallel to

curl v.

Phew!

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