Introduction

In the previous chapter, you learned the concepts related to cognition and
metacognition and the differences between these two abilities. You have also learned
strategies and methodologies in teaching that will help students develop their metacognitive
abilities to become self-regulated learners.
In this chapter, you will learn about other factors of learning which you should be
able to relate with the concepts that you have learned previously. This chapter also gives
you ideas on the ground in terms of a variety of techniques and methodologies that develop
students' cognitive and metacognitive faculties.
The learning expected of you after going through this chapter is mentioned in the
ILO below.

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)

Analyze research findings to explain cognitive an<J metacpgnitive factors in Learning.

Ill E..N GA G.E

LEARNING POINT: FACTORS IN LEARNING RELATED TO DEVELOPMENT
OF COGNITION AND METACOGNITION
1. Intelligence

Sternberg's "triarchic" theory of intelligence asserts that the "metacomponents" in

his theory are the executive processes that control other cognitive components as well
as receive feedback from these components. The other two components are practical
and experiential intelligence.. These executive processes involve planning, evaluating,
and monitoring problem-solving activities. Sternberg further asserts that the ability to

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 :.;,propriately allocate cognitive resources such as deciding how and when a given task
�ould be accomplished is basic to intelligence..

- -.\ge
This is associated with stages of cognitive development. Jean Piaget's stages of·
:ognitive development asserts that cognitive abilities for abstract thinking are higher
: uring the formal operations period. In a foreign language study determining· the
:-elationship between cognitive and metacognitive strategies, age and level of education,
Khezrlou (2012) found that a moderate and positive but significant correlation was
�bserved between metacognitive strategies and adult learners' scores in the Test of
�ish as a Foreign Language (TOEFL).
-- Level of Education
In the study conducted by Khezrlou (2012), there were differences in types of
s-rrategies according to level of education. The university students employed more
strategies in their reading of passages than the senior high school students.
_ t:se of Cognitive Strategies for Instruction
There are specific strategies which when used will improve cognition and
:netacognition. Those with greater metacognitive abilities tend to be more successful
m their cognitive endeavors. However, individuals can learn how to better regulate their
cognitive activities.. Cognitive strategy instruction is an instructional approach that
emphasizes the development of thinking skills and processes as a means to enhance
learning. CSI assumes that there are identifiable cognitive strategies previously believed
to be utilized by the best and the brightest students, and which can be taught to
stuJents. Using these strategies is ass_ociated with successful learning.
Other factors are study and practice, guidance or cognitive apprenticeship and
experience.

5iuggested Strategies to Help Students Process Information

_ Provide organized instruction. Make structure and relations of the material evident
to learners thru concept maps or other graphic representations. This is especially
important when introducing a new topic or subject matter.
Use single coherent representations. Allows the learner to focus attention rather
than split attention between two stimuli, as for example the written material and the
corresponding diagram.
:;. Link new material with what is already known. Use. mental scaffolding techniques
for the new material.

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4. Carefully analyze the attention demands. of instruction. Count the number of
elements in instructional messages. Make sure the learnerwill not attend to too many
· different elements at the same time.

5. Recognize the limits of attention. Help learners focus tl].eir attention through the
techniques such as identifying the most important poirits to be learned in advance of
studying new mater�al. Also, separating the essential from the non-essentials.

6. Recognize the litp.itations of short-term memory. Apply the concept of chunking.

For example, do not present 25 separate items. Make them five groups of 5.

7. Match encoding ·strategies with the material t9 the learned. Do not encourage use
of mnemonics unless it is very necessary to memorize the material.

8. Provide opportunities_ for both verbal and. imaginal encoding.

9. Arrange a variety of practice opportunities. The goal is to help the learner generalize
the concept, principle or skill to be learned so that it could be applied outside of the
original context of which it was taught.

10. Eliminate redundancy. Redundant information between text and diagram has been
shown to decrease learning

11. Help learners become "self-regulated." Assist students in sel!;!cting and using
strategies such as summarizing and questioning

LEARNING POINT: IMPLICATIONS OF COGNITIVE THEORIES

ON TEACHING AND LEARNING
It is important for teachers to develop to the highest possible limit the cognitive and
metacognit1ve abilities of students. This could be best achieved by applying classroom
techniques toward this objective.

Basic Characteristics of a Classroom lnstructi•on Based on Cognitive Theories

a. Emphasis on the active invo_lvement of the learner in the learning process (learner
control).
b. Metacognitive training (self-planning, monitoring and revising techniques)
c. Use of hierarchical analyses to identify and illustrate prerequisite relationships (cognitive
task analysis procedures)
d. Emphasis on structuring, organizing and sequencing information to facilitate optirral
processing (cmtlining, summaries, advanced �rganizers)
e. Creation of learning environments that allow and encourage students to make
connections with previously learned materials.

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Teaching Methods Based on Principles of Cognitive Learning Theory
1. Cognitive Apprenticeship. A method of helping students grasp concepts and ,
procedures under the guidance of teacher or expert. Following are the phases o(
instruction.
a. Modeling. The teacher does the task-or explains.the process.
b. Coaching. The students do the same task and teacher observes the students,
give feedback on how to do it.
c. Articulation. Students are asked to think out loud about how they performed
the task and offers reasons for the strategies. Teachers can give feedback and
determines if there are misconception.
d. Reflection. Students retrospectively think of their performance in completing
the task.
e. Exploration. Teacher urges the students to identify the problem, formulate
hypothesis apd seek needed information to solve it.
2. Reciprocal Teaching. An instructional activity in the form of dialogue or exchange
I •
between teachers and students about certain parts of the lesson. The purpose is to
derive meaning out of that part of the lesson to facilitate understanding and learning.
Four strategies to the dialogue, include,'summarizing, question-generating, clarifying
and predicting.

3. Anchored Instruction. Involves the use of anchors while doing instruction, like
stories, cases or situations. It is essentially problem-based.
f

4. Inquiry Learning. Resembles the scientific inquiry method. Helps the students
develop their higher order thinking skills by engaging them in investigating an issue or
fo�mulating hypothesis to find solutions to a problem.

5. Discovery Learning. An approach where students interact with their environment,

manipulate things, explore, do experiments for them to discover principles and
important relationships.
6. Problein-hased Learning. A real-life problem, ·or\an ill-structured question is
presented to the students, having many possible solutions, and they are asked to find
or come up with the most appropriate or best solution.

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pjmLORE
Activity
Surf the net. Look for at least 2 research studies about cognitive an d
metacognitive abilities.

Research Title 1
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

Findings:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Research Title 2
______________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

Findings
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________

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 '\II,

:fl°PPLY

Name: ___________________ Date: ________

1. Observe two classes in two different subjects. Take note of the following:
• The class activities conducted
The questions asked by the teacher
• The direction of the exchange of communication between teacher and students
• How the teacher led the students to answer questions or solve a problem
2. Compare the two classes based on the above points. Evaluate which of the classes
have more opportunities for developing cognitive and nietacognitive abilities of the
students.

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�ums
Name:------------------ Date: _______

Answer the following questions.

1. What are the assertions of Sternberg's theory of cognitive development regarding
metacognition? E�ound or explain further the assertions.

2. Piaget's theory of intellectual development contends that cognitive skills grow and
develop with age. Therefore ,it is expected that concrete thinking characterizes
early stages of development; while abstract thinking is associated with l_ater stage of
development. ·What is the implication of this theory to the development of cognitive
skills of students?

3. In a ,study by Khezrlou, he found that university students employed more strategies

in reading than secondary school students. From this finding, what do you draw to
be the factor/s related to cognitive and metacognitive ability?