Chapter 1: Introduction

- Development: changes from conception through life span

- Social policy: government’s actions for citizen welfare
o Concern for children in poverty & strategies to improve their lives
o Government intervention when families fail.
o Poor children face more stressors (family problems, violence)
- Resilience: confidence despite obstacles (negative stereotypes and poverty)
- Characteristics of Resilient Children (via CAMH):
o Individual
 Temperament: Appealing, sociable, easygoing disposition.
 Learning skills: awareness, initiative, decision-making skills.
 Self-confidence, high self-esteem.
 Social skills: cooperating and interacting with others.
o Family
 Strong, positive emotional attachment
 Good communication and support among family members.
 Emotionally and physically healthy parent.
 Authoritative parenting: warmth, structure, appropriate expectations.
o Extrafamilial context
 Sense of belonging in community; feeling included and respected.
 Bonds to caring adults outside the family.
 Social support ensures healthy food and decent housing.
 Safe neighborhoods (access to health, education, recreation).
 Freedom from prejudice and discrimination

o Differential susceptibility: some kids are more vulnerable to bad experiences

 Each child has a mix of vulnerability and resilience
 Child development is highly individualized

- Biological, Cognitive and Socioemotional Processes

1. Biological: physical changes (height, weight, and motor skill change)
2. Cognitive: changes in thought, intelligence, and language (two-word sentences and
solving a puzzle)
3. Socioemotional: changes in relationships, emotions, personality (smiling in response to
a parent’s touch)

- Periods of development
o Prenatal period: conception to birth, roughly nine months
 From a single cell to fetus to baby.
o Infancy: birth to about 18 to 24 months
 Beginning of many psychological activities
o Early childhood: end of infancy to about 5 or 6 years (preschool)
 Learning self-sufficiency, school readiness, and peer play.
 o Middle and late childhood: between 6 and 11 years of age (elementary school)
 Master fundamental skills (reading, writing, and arithmetic & are formally
exposed to the larger world)
 Achievement and self-control increases
o Adolescence: transition from childhood to early adulthood (10-12 to 18-19)
 Begins with rapid physical changes.
 Pursuit of independence and identity.
 More time is spent outside the family.
 Thought becomes more abstract, idealistic, and logical.

- Issues in Development
1. Nature-nurture: whether development is influenced more by genetics (nature) or
environment (nurture)
2. Continuity-discontinuity: whether development occurs gradually & continuously or in
distinct stages
3. Early-later experience considers impact of experiences in infancy vs later in life
4. Stability-change issue: whether traits remain constant throughout life or change over time

- Developmental cognitive neuroscience: explores links between development, cognitive

processes, and the brain.
- Developmental social neuroscience: examines connections between development,
socioemotional processes, and the brain

- Science of Child Development

o Parental nurturing behaviors
o Peer interactions
o Cognitive development over time
o Links between screen time and obesity
o Effectiveness of special care in mitigating neglect
o Impact of mentoring on children's achievement

- Importance of Research
o Scientific research is objective, systematic, and testable, reducing the likelihood that
information will be based on personal beliefs, opinions, and feelings.
o Scientific method:
1. Conceptualize a process or problem to be studied
2. Collect research information (data)
3. Analyze data
4. Draw conclusions

- Theories of Child Development

o Theory: an interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain and to make
predictions.
o Hypothesis: a specific, testable assumption or prediction
- Psychoanalytic theories: Describe development as primarily unconscious and influenced by
emotions, emphasizing inner conflicts resolution (Freud) and psychosocial stages (Erikson).
1. Sigmund Freud: behaviour is determined by the way we resolve inner conflicts.
o Id, Ego, Superego
2. Erik Erikson: primary motivation for human behaviour is social and reflects a desire to
affiliate with other people. Developmental change occurs throughout the life span.
o Erikson’s Eight Life-Span Stages:
 Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy, 0-1 year)
 Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Early Childhood, 1-3 years)
 Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool, 3-6 years)
 Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age, 6-11 years)
 Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence, 12-18 years)
 Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young Adulthood, 19-40 years)
 Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood, 40-65 years)
 Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood, 65+ years)

- Information-processing theory: individuals manipulate and monitor information, with memory

and thinking as central processes.
- Cognitive theories (Piaget, Vygotsky): Focus on conscious thought and active construction of
knowledge, with Piaget proposing stages of cognitive development and Vygotsky emphasizing
sociocultural influences.
1. Piaget’s theory: children actively construct their understanding of the world in four stages of
cognitive development.
- Two processes move us through the stages: organization and adaptation.
o Sensorimotor Stage: (Birth to 2 years)
o Preoperational Stage: (2 to 7 years)
o Concrete Operational Stage: (7 to 11 years)
o Formal Operational Stage: (11 years and older)
2. Vygotsky: sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction
guide cognitive development.
o Also argued that children actively construct their knowledge.
o Children’s social interaction with more-skilled adults and peers is important to their
cognitive development

- Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories

- Behaviourism (Pavlov, Skinner): Views development as observable behavior learned through
environmental experiences, with principles such as classical conditioning (Pavlov) and operant
conditioning (Skinner).

- Prominent Behavioural Approaches

1. Classical Conditioning (Pavlov):
o Discovered neutral stimuli triggering responses.
o Watson and Raynor demonstrated classical conditioning in humans.
o Many fears may result from classical conditioning.
 2. Operant Conditioning (Skinner):
o Consequences of behavior influence future probability.
o Development involves behavioral changes due to rewards and punishments.
3. Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura):
o Emphasizes behavior, environment, and cognition in development.
o Highlights observational learning and modeling.
o Pioneered observational learning concepts.

- Ethological Theory
o Ethology: behaviour strongly influenced by biology, tied to evolution, characterized by
critical or sensitive periods.
 Konrad Lorenz: his study of imprinting in graylag goslings made concept known
o John Bowlby: attachment to a caregiver in first year of life has life-long consequences
o Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory: development influenced by of 5 environmental
systems (bidirectional)
 microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem

- Research Methods
- Systematic observation: lab and real-world settings.
o Lab: controlled setting where complex factors of the “real world” have been removed,
potentially prompting unnatural behaviour and causing intimidation
o Participants: aware they are being studied but may not be a diverse group.
o Some aspects of kid’s development are difficult to examine in lab
o Lab studies of certain types of stress may be unethical
- Naturalistic observation: real-world settings, no manipulation.
o Example: study on conversations in a kid’s science museum
- Surveys/Interviews: in person, over the phone, online
o Participants may answer in a way they think is socially desirable vs true feelings
- Standardized tests: uniform procedures for administration and scoring.
o May not predict behavior universally.
- Case study: in-depth look at a single individual.
o Data often cannot be generalized to others.
- Physiological measures: blood samples, neuroimaging (fMRI)

- Research Designs
- Descriptive research: observes and records behaviour, no causation
- Correlational research: describes relationship strength of 2+ events/characteristics
o Correlation coefficient: a number based on a statistical analysis that describes the
degree of association between two variables; it ranges from −1.00 to +1.00.
o Correlation does not equal causation.
o Positive relationship: Variables change in same direction.
 Example: as height increases, so does weight (+0.89 = strong; +0.17 = weak)
o Negative relationship: Variables change in opposite directions.
  Example: As number of hours of daylight decreases, number of symptoms of
depression increases (-0.76 = strong; -0.21 = weak) .
o Correlation does not infer cause-and-effect.
o Two variables may be highly correlated, but not causally related.
 Example: ice cream sales and drowning incidents
- Experiment: regulated procedure where one or more of the factors believed to influence the
behaviour being studied are manipulated while all other factors are held constant.
o Independent variable: manipulated factor (potential cause).
o Dependent variable: changes in response to independent variable (resulting effect).
o Experimental group: a group whose experience is manipulated.
o Control group: treated the same, except for manipulation (independent variable).
o Random assignment: ensures equal group selection
- Research Approaches
1. Cross-sectional approach: compares different ages simultaneously.
2. Longitudinal approach: studies same individuals over time
3. Sequential approach: combines both

- Ethical Research
- American Psychological Association (APA) guidelines:
o Informed consent: participants must know risks, can withdraw
o Confidentiality: data kept confidential, anonymous when possible
o Debriefing: participants informed after study
o Deception: must not harm participants, debriefing required.
Chapter 2: Biological Development

- Natural selection: Process where individuals best adapted to their environment survive and
reproduce
o Darwin: All organisms must adapt to particular places, climates, food sources, and ways
of life
- Adaptive behavior: Actions that promote an organism's survival in its natural habitat
o Example: Attachment between a caregiver and a baby promotes the baby's well-being
and survival.
- Evolutionary Psychology: emphasizes the importance of adaptation, reproduction, and “survival
of the fittest” in shaping behaviour
o David Buss: evolution influences decision-making, aggressions, fear, etc.
- Evolutionary Developmental Psychology
o Extended childhood period evolved to allow time for brain development and learning
complex social behaviors
- Evaluating Evolutionary Psychology
o Bandura: rejects “one-sided evolutionism” that sees social behaviour as strictly the
product of evolved biology.
o Evolution gave us biological capabilities, but it does not dictate behaviour.
o Testing: involves studying specific genes and their links to behaviors.

- Genetic Foundations of Development

o Genetic influences on behavior evolve, influenced by environmental factors.
o Humans inherit genetic code from parents
o Chromosomes: threadlike structures made up of DNA in nucleus of human cell
o DNA: complex molecule that has a double helix shape and contains genetic information.
o Genes: short segments of DNA. Each with its own location on a chromosome

- Collaborative gene
- Current estimates = humans have approx. 43,000 genes
- Genetic expression is affected by genes’ environment.
o Collaboration with other genes and the environment determines whether a gene is
turned activated or suppressed
o Many factors can influence gene expression (e.g., stress)

- Genes and Chromosomes

o Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs), each set inherited from one parent
o In fertilization, an egg and a sperm merge to create a single cell called a zygote, where
the 23 unpaired chromosomes from the egg and the 23 unpaired chromosomes from
the sperm combine.
o The 23rd pair determines sex: XX for females, XY for males

- Genes and chromosomes: Sources of Variability

 o The genetic process creates differences among individuals in various ways:
 Chromosomes in zygote aren’t exact copies of parents’ reproductive cells
 Chance events, environmental factors may cause a mutated gene
 Even when genes are identical (e.g., identical twins), people vary.
o Genotype: all of a person’s genetic material.
o Phenotype: observable characteristics, physical and psychological.
o For each genotype, a range of phenotypes can be expressed

- Genetic principles
o Dominant-recessive genes principle: Dominant overrides recessive.
 A recessive gene's effect is seen only if both genes in a pair are recessive
o Most mutated genes are recessive and when a mutated gene is carried on the X
chromosome, the result is an X-linked inheritance.
 Mutated genes on the X chromosome can cause issues for males
o Most traits are influenced by multiple genes (polygenically determined)
 Gene-gene interaction studies examine how several genes work together to
affect traits, behavior, diseases, and development

- Heredity and Environment Interaction (Nature vs. Nurture)

- Behavior genetics: studies how genetics (inherited traits) & environment contribute to
differences in human behavior and development.
- To study the influence of heredity on behaviour, behaviour geneticists often use either twins or
adoption situations.
o Twin study: By comparing identical and fraternal twins, researchers assess how genetic
similarity impacts behavioral traits. For example, identical twins tend to be more alike in
intelligence compared to fraternal twins
o Adoption study: researchers examine whether adopted children are more like their
adoptive parents or their biological parents. Adoptive parents provide the environment,
while biological parents contribute genetics.
 Another form of adoption study compares adoptive & biological siblings

- Heredity-Environment Correlations
- Behaviour geneticist Sandra Scarr identified 3 types of correlations:

1. Passive: Children inherit genetic traits from parents, and parents create an environment
that aligns with these traits. For example, musically inclined parents tend to provide a
musical environment for their children
2. Evocative: The child’s genetic traits prompt responses from the environment that
supports those traits. For example, a happy, outgoing child elicits positive responses
from others.
3. Active (niche-picking): Children actively seek out environments that match their
interests and talents. For example, a child interested in books may seek out libraries,
while those inclined towards sports might gravitate towards sports fields. Similarly,
children with musical talents may seek out stores with musical instruments.
- Shared environmental experiences: Common environmental factors among siblings
o Examples: parent’s personalities, family’s socioeconomic status, neighbourhood
o Minimal impact on children's personality or interests
- Nonshared environmental experiences: Unique experiences within & outside family
o Examples: Different parental interactions, varied peer groups.
- Longitudinal studies show that parenting or other environmental effects are stronger influences
early in development than later
- Maternal IQ is linked to better home environments when child is very young. But, by age 8 or 9 &
especially adolescence, children’s own IQ becomes more important for the quality of their home
life than their mom's intelligence.

- Epigenetic view: Development results from ongoing interaction between heredity and
environment
o Example: 5-HTTLPR genotype linked to depression, influenced by stress
- Gene × environment (G × E) interaction: Interaction of specific DNA variation and environmental
factors

- Prenatal Development
- Conception occurs when a sperm cell unites with an ovum (egg) in the female’s fallopian tube.
- 9 months of prenatal development, divided into 3 periods:
1. Germinal: 2 weeks post-conception
o Creation of the zygote, cell division, and implantation (the attachment of the zygote to
the uterine wall).
o Cell differentiation starts within one week, leading to:
 Blastocyst (future embryo)
 Trophoblast (providing nutrition and support).
2. Embryonic: 2 to 8 weeks post conception.
o Cell differentiation intensifies, support systems for cells form, and organs appear
o Organogenesis: process of organ formation during first 2 months of prenatal
development
o The blastocyst is now an embryo and has three layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and
endoderm
o Life-support systems develop rapidly:
 Amnion: bag containing clear fluid in which developing embryo floats
 Umbilical cord: connects baby to the placenta
 Placenta: tissues where small blood vessels from mom & baby intertwine
3. Fetal: Lasts about 7 months
o Growth and development continue
o Viability (possibility of surviving outside womb) occurs at end of second trimester
(23 to 24 weeks)

- Three trimesters:
- First Trimester: Consists of the germinal, embryonic periods, & beginning of fetal period
 o Conception to 4 weeks:
 Called a "zygote"
 Less than 1/10 inch long
 Beginning development of spinal cord, nervous system, gastrointestinal system,
heart, and lungs
 Amniotic sac envelops the preliminary tissues of entire body
o 8 weeks:
 Called an "embryo"
 Just over 1 inch long
 Face forming with rudimentary eyes, ears, mouth, and tooth buds
 Arms and legs are moving, brain is forming
 Fetal heartbeat is detectable with ultrasound
o 12 weeks:
 Called a "fetus"
 About 3 inches long and weighs about 1 ounce
 Can move arms, legs, fingers, and toes
 Can smile, frown, suck, swallow, urinate
 Sex is distinguishable, fingerprints are present
- Second Trimester: Continue the fetal period
o 16 weeks:
 About 6 inches long and weighs about 4 to 7 ounces
 Heartbeat is strong
 Skin is thin, transparent, downy hair (lanugo) covers body
 Fingernails and toenails are forming
 Has coordinated movements; is able to roll over in amniotic fluid
o 20 weeks:
 About 12 inches long and weighs close to 1 pound
 Heartbeat is audible with an ordinary stethoscope
 Sucks thumb, hiccups
 Hair, eyelashes, eyebrows are present
o 24 weeks:
 About 14 inches long and weighs 1 to 1 ½ pounds
 Skin is wrinkled and covered with protective coating (vernix caseosa)
 Eyes are open, has strong grip
 Waste matter is collected in bowel
- Third Trimester: Continues the fetal period
o 28 weeks:
 About 16 inches long and weighs about 3 pounds
 Adding body fat, very active
 Rudimentary breathing movements are present
o 32 weeks:
 16½ to 18 inches long and weighs 4 to 5 pounds
 Periods of sleep and wakefulness
 Responds to sounds
  May assume the birth position
 Bones of the head are soft and flexible
 Iron is being stored in the liver
o 36 to 38 weeks:
 19 to 20 inches long and weighs 6 to 7½ pounds
 Skin is less wrinkled, less active
 Vernix caseosa is thick, Lanugo is mostly gone
 Gaining immunities from the mother

- The brain
- Architecture of the brain is assembled in the first two trimesters.
- Neural tube forms 18 to 24 days after conception.
- Neurogenesis begins after neural tube closes, new neurons/ nerve cells are generated in brain
- Neuronal migration: cells moving from their origin to their appropriate locations and creating
different levels, structures, and regions of the brain
- Birth defects related to a failure of the neural tube to close:
o Anencephaly: highest regions of the brain fail to develop, infant dies in womb, during
childbirth, or shortly after birth.
o Spina bifida: varying degrees of paralysis of the lower limbs.
o Vitamin B folic acid helps prevent neural tube defects

- Teratology and Hazards to Prenatal Development

- Teratogen: any agent causing birth defects or cognitive and behavioural issues
- Dose, genetic susceptibility, and timing influence severity.
- Highest risk during early embryonic period.
- Drugs (prescription/non-prescription) affect embryo/fetus.
- Psychoactive drugs (caffeine, alcohol, nicotine, illicit drugs) act on nervous system &have
negative effects.
o Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) include facial deformities, brain
underdevelopment, learning difficulties.
- Environmental hazards: radiation, toxic wastes, chemical pollutants.
- Maternal diseases/infections can produce defects by crossing placental barrier or during birth
o Rubella can cause prenatal defects.
o Syphilis can cause eye lesions and skin lesions.
o Genital herpes can be contracted by newborns, and about one-third of them die;
another one-fourth are brain damaged.
o Women with gestational diabetes may deliver very large infants, and the infants are at
risk for diabetes themselves.
o COVID-19 during pregnancy is associated with preterm labour.

- Maternal and Paternal Factors:

- Incompatible blood types between parents.
- Maternal and paternal age.
- Maternal stress, depression, anxiety.
- Paternal exposure to toxins (smoking, lead, radiation, pesticides, petrochemicals).
- Prenatal Care is Key
- Involves scheduled visits for medical, social, and educational support
- Includes exercise recommendations and links to social services.
- Vital for women in poverty and immigrant women.

- Prenatal Diagnostic Tests

- Ultrasound sonography
o Timing: At week 7-11, 20, and as needed
o Description: High-frequency sound waves directed to the pregnant abdomen to project
an image of the fetus's inner structures
o Incidence: Fetal imaging and detection of structural abnormalities, clues to baby's sex
- Fetal MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
o Timing: As needed, after 20 weeks
o Description: Uses powerful magnetic and radio images to generate detailed images of
the body's organ and structure
o Incidence: More detailed image than ultrasound; used to diagnose fetal malformations
o Increasingly being used in prenatal diagnosis of fetal malformations
- Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)
o Timing: Between 10–14 weeks
o Description: A small sample of the placenta is removed and tested; diagnosis takes 10
days
o Incidence: Used to detect genetic defects and chromosomal anomalies, and to
determine the sex of the child
- Amniocentesis
o Timing: Between weeks 14–20; later is preferred
o Description: With ultrasound, amniotic fluid is withdrawn by syringe; test results within
two weeks
o Incidence: Test for chromosomal or metabolic disorders
- Maternal blood screening
o Timing: Between weeks 16–18
o Description: A triple screen blood test of the mother's blood. If abnormal, referred for an
ultrasound and/or amniocentesis
o Incidence: Identifies pregnancies at elevated risk for defects such as spina bifida and
Down syndrome
Chapter 3: Physical Development
- Stages of Birth:
o First stage (longest): uterine contractions help baby move from uterus into the birth
canal
o Second stage: baby’s head moves through cervix & birth canal, baby emerges
completely.
o Third stage (afterbirth): placenta, umbilical cord, and other membranes are detached
and expelled.

- Methods of Childbirth
- 3 basic kinds of drugs used for labour:
1. Analgesia: used to relieve pain.
2. Anesthesia: blocks sensation in an area of the body or is used to block consciousness
3. Oxytocin/Pitocin: may also be used
- Natural/prepared childbirth: attempts to reduce pain by decreasing fear through education and
relaxation.
- Cesarean delivery: removal of baby from mom’s uterus through an abdominal incision.
o Occurs if baby is in breech position, with the buttocks the first part to emerge
o Breech births can cause respiratory problems

- Assessing the Newborn

- Apgar Scale: used to assess the health of newborns at one and five minutes after birth.
o Score of 7 to 10: newborn’s condition is good.
o Score of 5: there may be developmental difficulties.
o Score of 3 or below: indicates an emergency situation.

Score 0 1 2
Slow—less than 100 beats per Fast—100 to 140 beats
Heart rate Absent minute per minute
Respiratory No breathing for more than Good breathing with
effort one minute Irregular and slow normal crying
Weak, inactive, but some flexion
Muscle tone Limp and flaccid of extremities Strong, active motion
Body color Blue and pale Body pink, but extremities blue Entire body pink
Reflex Coughing, sneezing, and
irritability No response Grimace crying

- Brazelton Neonatal Behavioural Assessment Scale (NBAS): performed within 24 to 36 hours.

- Assesses the newborn’s neurological development, reflexes, and reactions to people and objects.
- A revised version, the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS)
assesses “at-risk” infants.
- Predicts outcomes like neurological issues, IQ, and school readiness
- Infant Weight
- Low birthweight: infants weigh less than 5½ pounds.
o Very low birth weight: infants weigh under 3½ pounds.
o Extremely low birth weight: infants weigh under 2 pounds.
- Preterm infants: born 3 weeks or more before full term (before 37 weeks gestation).
- Small-for-date: infants weigh below normal when the length of the pregnancy is considered
(may be preterm or full term).
o They have more birth complications, have medical and developmental problems, and are
at greater risk of death.
- Most preterm and low birth weight infants are healthy but have higher rates of illness and
developmental problems.
- The number and severity of problems increase with earlier birth and lower birth weight
o More likely to develop a learning disability, ADHD, or a breathing problem such as
asthma.
o Very low birth weight is associated with childhood autism.

- Interventions for at-risk newborns

- Kangaroo care: involves skin-to-skin contact, stabilizes heartbeat, temperature, and breathing,
promotes weight gain, and reduces mortality risk.
- Massage therapy outcomes with preterm infants (Tiffany Field):
o Increased weight gain due to stimulation of the vagus nerve (cranial nerve leading to the
brain) which aids in release of insulin (a food absorption hormone)
o Earlier discharge from hospital

- The Postpartum Period

- Postpartum period: the period after childbirth when the mother adjusts physically and
psychologically
- Lasts about six weeks, known as the “Fourth trimester”

- Physical Adjustments
- Fatigue can affect mother’s well-being and ability to cope.
- Loss of sleep can lead to stress, marital conflict, and poor decision making.
- Hormonal changes occur, with estrogen and progesterone levels dropping until ovaries start
hormone production again.

- Emotional and Psychological Adjustments

- Emotional fluctuations are common.
- About 70% of new mothers in US have the postpartum blues with feelings of depression, anxiety,
and upset
- Postpartum depression (PPD): strong feelings of sadness, anxiety, or despair that impair daily
tasks.
- PPD can affect the way a mother interacts with her infant, resulting in
- decreased sensitivity and responsiveness.
- Fathers also undergo adjustment and can experience similar depression symptoms. Their
support and caring can play a role in whether the mother develops depression.

- Bonding: formation of a close connection, especially a physical bond, between parents and their
newborn
- Direct contact may not be necessary for optimal development.
- No critical period for bonding supported by research.
- Close contact brings pleasure to parents and infants and may improve attachment.

- Body Growth and Change

- Head is proportionally large, but proportions change over time.
- Cephalocaudal pattern (top-down): growth starts from top & moves downward.
- Proximodistal pattern (center-out): growth begins at center & extends to extremities.
- Infancy and Childhood:
- Rapid increase in height and weight during infancy.
o Newborns: about 20 inches long, 7½ pounds.
o Birth weight doubles by 4 months, triples by 1st birthday.
o Infants grow about 1 inch per month in the first year
o By age 2, infants weigh approx. 26 - 32 pounds—about 1/5 of their adult weight.
- Preschoolers slim down as they grow older.
o Girls are only slightly smaller and lighter than boys.
o Girls and boys slim down as their trunks lengthen.
o Body fat declines slowly but steadily.
o Girls have more fatty tissue, while boys have more muscle tissue.
- Ages 6 to 11: slow and consistent growth.
o Muscle mass and strength increase.
o Head circumference, waist circumference, and leg length decrease in relation to body
height; and bones continue to harden

- Adolescence
- Puberty brings rapid physical changes.
- Wide variations in onset and progression.
o Menarche: a girl’s first menstruation.
o Precocious puberty: very early rapid progression of puberty
- Puberty influenced by genetics and environment.
- Pubertal Growth Spurt occurs is earlier for girls (11½) than boys (13½)

- Hormonal changes
o Hormones: powerful chemicals from endocrine glands
o Androgens: male sex hormones.
o Estrogens: female sex hormones.
o Significant increase in testosterone in boys, estradiol in girls.
- Psychological Dimensions of Puberty
- Early maturing boys often perceive themselves more positively & have better peer relationships.
- Early maturation may lead to psychosocial vulnerabilities in girls, including smoking, drinking,
depression, eating disorders, and early sexual intercourse

- The Brain
- Brain connections are influenced by experiences, not just genes.
- Neuroconstructivist view:
o Biological processes and environmental conditions influence the brain’s development.
o The brain has plasticity (can change over time) and is context dependent.
o Development of the brain and cognitive development are closely linked.

- Brain Physiology
- The brain has two hemispheres
- Forebrain: The top portion of the brain, farthest from the spinal cord
o Cerebral cortex: Its outer layer of cells, is responsible for about 80% of the brain’s
volume and is critically important in thinking, language, and other functions.
- Each hemispheres contains four lobes:
1. Frontal: voluntary movement, thinking, personality, emotion, memory, sustained
attention, and intentionality or purpose.
2. Occipital: vision.
3. Temporal: hearing, language processing, memory.
4. Parietal: spatial location, directing attention, motor control.
- Other key structures are deeper in the brain:
o Hypothalamus: controls biological drives
o Pituitary gland: controls hormones
o Amygdala: plays an important role in emotions, processing fear
o Hippocampus: important in memory and emotion
- Neurons: process information
o Cell body/soma: center of neuron; proteins & neurotransmitters are produced.
o Dendrites: fibers branch out of cell body to receive info from other neurons
o Axon: sends electrical signals away from the cell body.
o Terminal buttons: end of the axon; send messages to a different neuron by releasing
neurotransmitters– chemicals released into synapses (tiny gaps).
o Myelin sheath: cover made out of fats & proteins that wraps around the axon. Insulates
neurons so they can send electric signals faster and more efficiently.
o Glia: cells that provide support for neurons (Greek word meaning “glue”).
 Provides nutrition, healing, and protection for the neurons.
 Help with myelination.
 Remove debris, waste from the brain.
 Play an important role in brain development by protecting brain from toxins.
 May play a role in mental health disorders.
- Neural circuits: Clusters of neurons collaborating to process specific types of information.
o The type of circuit partly depends on the hemisphere.
 o Lateralization: specialization of function in a hemisphere
 Left Hemisphere = language functions
 Right Hemisphere= visuospatial functions

- The Brain in Infancy

- Electroencephalogram (EEG): measure brain activity and learn about its development
- Changing structures
o Hemispheres begin to specialize at birth.
o During the first year, frontal lobe neurons interconnect, allowing infants to regulate
physiological states and reflexes.
- Early Experience:
o Children raised in deprived environments may have depressed brain activity, but these
effects can be partially reversible, showcasing the brain's flexibility and resilience.
- Plasticity in the Brain
- Plasticity: the brain’s ability to change structure and function
o Greater plasticity early in life
o Experience stimulates brain plasticity
o Damage of brain tissue can lead to neural reorganization and recovery
o Adult brains do appear to generate new neurons
- Example: Michael’s brain adapting to damage in his left hemisphere. His right hemisphere has
reorganized to handle language functions. However, the right hemisphere is not as good in this
task, so more brain areas are recruited to process speech.
- Changing neurons
- At birth, the brain is about 25% of its adult weight, reaching about 75% by age 2.
- Myelination: process of providing axons with a myelin sheath, starts before birth and continues
postnatally.
o Rapid myelination occurs in visual pathways after birth and is completed during first 6
months; greatest changes in myelination in frontal lobes occur during adolescence.

- Dendritic Spreading
- Dendrites and synapses increase significantly, with stronger connections being reinforced while
unused ones are pruned (replaced or disappear)

- Synaptic Density in the Human Brain from Infancy to Adulthood

- Increase and then pruning in synaptic density for three regions of the brain: visual cortex,
auditory cortex, and prefrontal cortex. Synaptic density indicates the extent of connectivity
between neurons.

- The Brain in Childhood

- During early childhood, brain & head grow faster than any other body part
- Significant brain changes occur between ages 3 and 15, with rapid bursts of growth.
- Growth is focused in different lobes at different stages:
o Ages 3-6: Most growth occurs in frontal lobes.
o From age 6 to puberty: Growth shifts to temporal and parietal lobes.
- Prefrontal cortex directs the functions of other brain regions during development.

- The Brain in Adolescence

- Brain continues to grow during adolescence, forming fewer but more specialized neural
connections.

- Sleep in Infancy
- Sleep restores, replenishes, and rebuilds our brains and bodies.
- Newborns sleep an average of 16 to 17 hours per day.
- By 6 months, infants adopt adult-like sleep patterns, with longer periods of sleep at night.
- Around half of an infant's sleep time is spent in Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep, compared to
only one-fifth of the night for adults.
o Large amounts may provide added self-stimulation.
o REM sleep might promote brain development.
o We don’t know whether infants dream or not
- Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS): occurs when infants stop breathing, usually during the
night & die suddenly without apparent cause
o Highest cause of infant death in the United States.
o Risk is highest at 2 to 4 months.
- Sleep in Childhood and Adolescence
- Young children: 11-14 hours of sleep per night. Adolescents: 8-10 hours of sleep per night.
- Sleep problems in children are linked to negative developmental outcomes such as drug use,
emotional regulation difficulties, attention problems, and impaired brain function.
- Insufficient sleep in adolescence is associated with increased risk of substance abuse, attention
deficits, mental health issues, and lower academic performance.
- Adjusting school starting times may help mitigate some of these risks.

- Major threats to children's health include various factors:

o Motor vehicle accidents are the most common cause of injury and death.
o Cancer is the leading cause of disease-related deaths in childhood.
o Children living with smoking parents or exposed to lead (highest in poverty)

- Exercises in Childhood
- Young children should engage in routine physical activity daily.
- Guidelines recommend 2 hours per day: 1hr of structured activity & 1 of unstructured free play.
- Higher physical activity in middle & late childhood is linked to lower metabolic disease risk.
- Aerobic exercise linked to improved cognitive skills (attention, memory) & positive mental health

- Exercises in Adolescence
- Linked to weight regulation & lower levels of blood pressure and type 2 diabetes.
- Lower levels of alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use
o Improved sleep quality, mood, and concentration
o Lowered depression
o Better cognition—including memory, creativity, and perception
Chapter 4: Cognitive Development
- Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
- Children actively construct their own cognitive worlds.
- Children build mental structures that help them adapt to new environments.
- Aimed to understand how children think and how their thinking evolves.
- Schemes: actions or mental representations that organize knowledge.
o Babies’ schemes are structured by simple actions.
o Older children’s schemes include strategies and plans for solving problems.
- Assimilation: using existing schemes to incorporate new information.
- Accommodation: developing or adjusting old schemes to fit new information
- Organization: grouping schemes into a smoothly functioning cognitive system.
- Equilibration: how children shift from one stage of thought to the next
o The shift occurs as children experience cognitive conflict/ disequilibrium.
o Eventually, they resolve the conflict and reach a balance/equilibrium

- Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development:

- STAGE 1: Sensorimotor stage
o Lasts from birth to 2 years.
o Infants learn through sensory experiences and motor actions
o Object permanence: understanding that objects continue to exist even when they
cannot be seen, heard, or touched. Typically accomplished during first year
- Sensorimotor Substages:
1. Simple reflexes: Birth to 1 month, coordinated reflexive behaviors.
2. First habits and primary circular reactions: 1-4 months, habit formation and repeating
actions.
 Habit: a scheme based on a reflex that has become separated from its eliciting
stimulus.
 Primary circular reaction: a scheme based on an attempt to reproduce an event
that initially occurred by chance.
3. Secondary circular reactions: 4-8 months, object-oriented actions for pleasurable
results.
 Secondary circular reactions: actions are repeated because they bring
interesting or pleasurable results.
4. Coordination of secondary circular reactions: 8-12 months, coordinated use of vision
and touch. Intentionality is present.
5. Tertiary circular reactions, novelty, and curiosity: 12-18 months, purposeful exploration
of new possibilities.
6. Internalization of schemes: 18-24 months, using primitive symbols
 Symbol: an internalized sensory image or word that represents an event.

- STAGE 2: Preoperational Stage

- Children represent the world with words, images, and drawings.
- Lasts from 2 to 7 years old
- Engage in symbolic thought and begin to reason.
1. Symbolic function substage
o Child mentally represent an object that is not present.
 Example: Scribbling to represent objects, engaging in pretend play
o Animism: belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities
o Egocentrism: inability to distinguish their own perspective from others
 Example: 3 mountains task
2. Intuitive thought substage
o Children use primitive reasoning, ask many "why" questions.
o Between ages 4 and 7
o Curiosity emerges, but reasoning is intuitive.
- Limits of preoperational thought:
- Centration: Focus on one characteristic to the exclusion of others
- Conservation: Understanding that altering appearance doesn't change properties.
o Dimensions of conservation: number, matter, length
- Children can’t yet perform operations: reversible mental actions.

- STAGE 3: Concrete operational stage

o Children reason logically and perform concrete operations.
o From 7 to 11 years old.
o They coordinate multiple characteristics and can mentally reverse actions.
o Horizontal Décalage: Similar abilities don't appear simultaneously within this stage.

- STAGE 4: Formal operational stage

o Individuals move beyond concrete experience & think in more abstract and logical ways.
o Between 11 and 15 years old.
o Hypothetical-deductive reasoning: develop hypotheses and systematically deduce
which is the best path to follow in solving a problem.
o Adolescent Egocentrism: Heightened self-consciousness, belief that others are as
interested in them.
o Imaginary Audience: Feeling of being center stage.
o Personal Fable: Sense of personal uniqueness and invincibility

- Evaluating Piaget’s Theory

- Underestimated the influence of cultural factors.
- Inconsistent development within stages
- Education exerts a strong influence.
- Children acquire cognitive skills at earlier ages than Piaget believed.
- Core knowledge approach: infants are born with domain-specific innate knowledge systems.
o Systems involving space, number sense, object permanence, and language.
o Infants are prewired to make sense of their world.
o Babies learn a lot from their surroundings, so environment is important
- Violation of expectations methods: when infants look longer at event that violates their
expectations, it means they are surprised by it.
o 4 month-olds looked longer at “impossible” vs. “possible” event
- Abundance of research suggests that infants have a surprising grasp of many complex concepts.
o 4-month-olds were more surprised when a stranger ignored a crying baby than when
they comforted them
- Piaget underestimated the ability of very young children to take another’s perspective
o Infants are not as egocentric as Piaget assumed, they can show empathy
- While some cognitive abilities emerge earlier than Piaget estimated; others, later.
o Many adolescents still think in concrete operational ways or are just beginning to master
formal operations.
o Many adults are not formal operational thinkers.
- Neo-Piagetians argue for more emphasis on how children use attention, memory, and strategies
to process information.

- Applying Piaget’s Theory to Education

- Take a constructivist approach.
- Children learn best when they are active and seek solutions for themselves.
- Facilitate rather than direct learning.
- Create hands on learning.
- Tailor teaching to match each student's knowledge and cognitive level.
- Interpret and respond to students' statements based on their understanding.
- Use students' mistakes as teaching opportunities to promote deeper understanding.
- Promote the student’s intellectual health.
- Allow learning to unfold naturally without undue pressure.
- Transform the classroom into an environment of exploration and discovery.
- Use games to engage students and encourage mathematical thinking.

- Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development

- Like Piaget, Vygotsky said children actively construct their knowledge and understanding.
- Vygotsky emphasized the role of the social environment in stimulating cognitive development.
o Society provides the tools to support cognitive development.
o Cognitive development is shaped by cultures

- Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): tasks that are too difficult for children to master alone
but that can be learned with guidance and assistance
o ZPD's lower limit is the child's independent skill level
o ZPD’s upper limit is their potential with help.
- Scaffolding: changing the level of support over the course of a teaching session.
o More-skilled people adjust amount of guidance to fit the child’s current performance.
o Direct instruction for new tasks, with decreased guidance as competence improves.
o Dialogue is important in scaffolding within the ZPD, refining the child's concepts
(become more systematic, logical, and rational)
- Children use speech both for social communication AND to help them solve tasks
 o Private speech: used for self-regulation to plan, guide, and monitor their behaviour.
o With age, they act without verbalizing & self-talk becomes internalized into inner speech
o Children who use private speech are more socially competent than those who don’t.
- Evaluating Vygotsky’s Theory
- Social constructivist approach: emphasis on the social contexts of learning and the construction
of knowledge through social interaction.
- Criticisms:
o Not specific enough about age-related changes.
o Did not describe how changes in socioemotional abilities contribute to cognitive
development.
o Overemphasized the role of language in thinking.
o Emphasis on collaboration and guidance may have drawbacks

- Applying Vygotsky’s Theory to Education

- Use the ZPD to rethink a child’s abilities and methods of assessment.
o Support them to achieve more, rather than just evaluating what they can do alone.
- Look at each child as an individual: Look at the scaffolding needs of each individual child
- Assess the child’s ZPD to promote development and learning
- Use the child’s ZPD in teaching.
o Teaching should begin toward the zone’s upper limit, so that the child can reach the goal
with help and move to a higher level of skill and knowledge.
o Offer just enough assistance.
- Use more-skilled peers as teachers.
o Children can benefit from the support and guidance of other children.
- Monitor and encourage children’s use of private speech.
o Encourage elementary school children to internalize and self-regulate their talk to
themselves.
- Place instruction in a meaningful context: Provide opportunities to learn in real-world settings
- Promote student-centered learning activities: Team problem-solving; split grades