Study Unit

Lighting Control
By

Margret Bailey, P.E., Ph.D.

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Preview

Electrical lamps are available in a wide range of styles and can be used for lighting any type of
area. In earlier study units, you learned about the different types of lamps and fixtures as well as
the controlling devices. This study unit is designed to teach you about combining these items to
create different types of lighting-control systems. It will also teach you how to apply the different
systems efficiently and conveniently.

When you complete this study unit, you’ll be able to

· Combine natural light and dimming devices efficiently

· Use multilevel lighting with fluorescent lamps

· Divide an area into different zones for different lighting needs

· Place switches in convenient areas

· Apply sensors and timers in lighting control systems

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Contents

INTRODUCTION TO LIGHTING CONTROL DEVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Development of Lighting Control Devices
Reason for Development
Zoning for Systems
Lighting Control Strategies

LIGHT SWITCHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Functions of a Switch
Manual Switches
Snap Switches
Quiet Switches
Contactor and Solid-State Switches
Specialty Switches
Switch Ratings
Switching Circuits
Switching Applications

AUTOMATIC CONTROL DEVICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Interval Timers
Occupancy Sensors
Photoswitching

RELAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Types of Relays
Relay Applications
Remote Control of Lighting
Low-Voltage Relay Switching Systems
Types of Relay Systems
Transformers
Master Switches
DC Remote-Control Systems
Remote-Control Wiring
Layout
Installation of Relays
vii Lighting Control

DIMMING TECHNOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
How Dimmers Work
Wiring Dimmers
Incandescent Dimmers
Fluorescent Dimmers
Dimming Applications

SELF-CHECK ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

EXAMINATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
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Lighting Control

INTRODUCTION TO LIGHTING CONTROL DEVICES

Development of Lighting Control Devices

You already know that we depend on readily available electric light
throughout most of a typical day. Lighting control devices have been
developed over the years to make the best and most economical use
of light sources. Lighting control devices range from simple manual
equipment to computer-controlled switches, such as timers and
programmers.
The lighting system consists of the electrical circuit, lamps, and control
devices. A lighting system must be properly designed and installed to
suit the needs of the intended area. It’s not enough to simply install a
lighting system and hope it’s efficient. A well-designed lighting system
must adequately light the area while using the minimum amount of
devices and energy. Obviously, in its most simple form, a system would
include switches placed in locations that are convenient for the intended
user. A quality system may be expensive; however, it usually pays for
itself with lower energy costs. Residential designs can be as simple as
manual switches in convenient locations or as complicated as computer-
controlled dimmers that automatically adjust to the lighting needs of a
given area.
Proper lighting control devices save energy and money. Unfortunately,
good lighting practices haven’t yet been universally adopted.
Commercial buildings, such as factories, offices, stores, churches, and
schools, also need properly designed control systems to make the best
use of lighting. Many opportunities exist in all fields of lighting for
improving the usefulness and convenience of lighting installations
through properly installing control devices. In complex systems, an
engineer or architect designs the lighting system and specifies control
devices. Other times, it may be up to an electrical contractor to lay out
lighting installation and select control devices. In all cases, electricians
will be responsible for the system’s proper installation and wiring.

Reason for Development

In the past, lighting systems in commercial buildings were designed
with one control for all the lamps on the entire floor or in the entire
building. These systems automatically turned the lights on and off, or
a maintenance worker or other employee turned them on and off at
2 Lighting Control

appointed times during the day. The switches weren’t accessible to the
building’s users, causing lamps to be on in areas not being used. This
wasted substantial amounts of energy.
In 1978, a standard was adopted requiring all commercial buildings to
have switches in individual areas. The standard, California’s Building
Energy-Efficient Standard, required a minimum number of switches to
be placed within the individual area being lighted. The standards for
efficiency gave users access to the switches, allowing the lamps to be
turned on or off according to the needs in that particular area, thus
cutting energy use by significant amounts. A national standard, called
the ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1 Energy Conservation in New Build-
ing Construction, was developed based on the California standard.
Implementing the national standard drastically cut the amount of
wasted energy. The ASHRAE/IES standard, used in many states,
specifies a minimum number of switches in areas for commercial use.
The number of switches required is set according to the amount of
space and the area’s intended use.

When designing a system, it’s important to understand the building’s

layout and the intended use of each area. The control system may be
inefficient when one switch controls an area that’s too large. However,
an area controlled with too many switches may be overly complicated.
Efficient lighting control systems must be simple to operate. If the con-
trols are too complex for a user to understand, there’s a good chance
the lights will be turned on and left on. Switches should always be
placed in areas that are convenient to the user.

Zoning for Systems

Zoning is the process of dividing an area into sections according to
specific lighting needs. A specific area in which a separate lighting
system is needed is called a zone. Zoning an area for separate lighting
systems reduces the amount of energy used, which, in turn, saves energy
and money. The amount of energy saved depends on the size of the
zone. It also depends on whether the users operate the system as
designed. For the system to be effective, the users must be willing to
adjust the light needed. A zone may or may not be an entire room.

For example, a large office with windows in only one area may have
several zones. The windows allow the use of natural light, thereby
reducing the need for electric lighting near these windows during
certain times of the day. However, the areas away from the window
will still need electric light. A system for this area will have separate
switches, allowing the lights in the zone near the window to be oper-
ated independently of the lights in the zone away from the window. If
the system is designed correctly, the lighting controls will allow the
lights to be adjusted in a way that’s simple to use. Systems with too few
zones, although simpler to design and install, may be too inefficient.
Lighting Control 3

Imagine a large office space with windows along one wall. If the space
had only one zone, the lights would be operated to adequately light
the interior office spaces. The office spaces along the window wall
would have lights on when the natural light provided adequate light-
ing, meaning energy would be wasted.

Lighting Control Strategies

A lighting control strategy is an original, planned approach to minimizing the
amount of energy consumed by a lighting system. Several common
lighting control strategies used today include daylighting, scheduling,
tuning, lumen maintenance, demand limiting, and adaptation com-
pensation. All the control strategies use some form of dimming to vary
artificial lighting levels to save energy. While reading this study unit,
you’ll learn more about the most common schemes, namely scheduling
and daylighting. The remaining control strategies will be discussed
briefly in this section.

Tuning is a control strategy that involves dimming the electrical lights

according to the exact lighting needs of the user and task. Therefore,
the quality of the user’s vision and the exact type of task determine the
required lighting level for the user’s space.

Lumen maintenance is a control approach that varies a lamp’s output

based on the age of the lamp. A typical lamp produces 25 to 30 percent
more light than required at the beginning of its useful life. The lumen
maintenance strategy reduces lighting output at first and then slowly
increases output as the lamp ages. The typical life of a fluorescent lamp
is twenty-four to twenty-six months.

Demand limiting is a complex scheme that involves shaving or shedding

nonessential lighting loads at certain periods throughout the day. A
power sensor is located on the circuit of the incoming power. It
monitors the building’s intake of power and controls the lighting
accordingly. When the power demand is at its highest level, the control
unit slowly dims the lights in the entire building. This slight dimming
of the lights saves large amounts of energy without a noticeable
difference in the lighting quality. The purpose of this scheme is to
lower energy costs.

Adaptation compensation takes advantage of how at night, a person’s

eyes are better adjusted for seeing in darker areas. Therefore, lights can
be dimmed without causing vision problems. During the day when a
person’s eyes are adjusted to brighter light, the lamps are brighter. In
areas used twenty-four hours a day, this allows for greater reductions
in nighttime energy use. This control strategy sometimes uses timers
set to automatically dim or brighten lamps at specified times of the day.
4 Lighting Control

The scheduling strategy involves turning lights on and off as needed.

It can include simple manual switches, or very complex automatic
controls that rely on computers, photosensors, or timers.

Of the many lighting system control strategies available to the consumer

today, not all rely completely on electrical light. One strategy, called
daylighting, relies partially on available natural light. Daylighting
combines dimming control systems with natural light. As the natural
light diminishes due to the sun’s location, artificial or electrical lighting
automatically replaces the natural light. The natural lighting level is
monitored by a photocell strategically located within the zone. A photocell
is an electronic transducer that senses the amount of light through an
electronic “eye” and converts this sensed light into an output signal.

Daylighting control systems can also use a single, manually controlled

dimming switch for each room. One disadvantage to this simple system
is the continuous on and off switching of lights, which sometimes
bothers the occupants. However, this can be avoided by a continuous
dimming system that uses a collection of dimming ballasts to gradually
dim and brighten the lights. Using a deadband can also ease the problem
of frequent on-off lighting cycles. A lighting system with a deadband
has a wide differential that allows the output to remain constant as
the input varies. While a photocell senses that the amount of natural
light varies by a small amount, the deadband maintains a constant
controller output over a small range of input. This helps eliminate
constant changes in the controller output.

A very simple daylighting strategy, known as stepped daylighting, relies

on separate switches to control lamps near the window. This allows
the building’s occupants to adjust the lamps appropriately to their
individual area.

You’ve already read about dimming systems, but there’s much more
to learn and understand about these devices that control lighting levels
as a means of reducing energy use. Dimming is a process of increasing
or decreasing the amount of light given off by the controlled lamp.
Although some of the dimming systems available are very expensive,
these systems usually pay for themselves within the first few years of
use. Dimming was first used to allow manually controlled lighting in
an area, but is now able to conserve energy by automatically adjusting
to the lighting needs, depending on the use of the area and the avail-
ability of natural light.

One specific type of dimming system is the central dimming system. It’s
one of the most powerful and expensive dimming systems available.
This type of control system is operated by either one main control or
several separate controls located in the individual area. In the most
complex of these systems, programmed controls automatically set
dimming levels to match a variety of lighting situations.
Lighting Control 5

Well-designed lighting control systems consume a minimum amount

of energy, locate manual controls in convenient locations, and provide
proper levels of visibility. Obviously, it’s important to consider the
intended use of the area when designing a lighting system. It’s equally
important that once a system is designed, its components are properly
installed. This means that electricians install and wire lighting fixtures
and controls as specified in the lighting plan or according to manufac-
turer’s recommendations and local electrical codes. It also means that
all sensors, and other pieces of sensitive equipment, are properly
oriented to sense and control lighting levels as intended.

In this study unit, we’ll discuss different types of switches and their
use in circuits. Components used in automatic control, such as photo-
sensors, timeclocks, other automatic systems, relay switches, and the
technology used with dimming systems, will also be discussed.

Now take a few moments to review what you’ve learned by completing

Self-Check 1.
6 Lighting Control

✔ Self-Check 1

At the end of each section of Lighting Control, you’ll be asked to pause and check your
understanding of what you’ve just read by completing a “Self-Check” exercise. Writing the
answers to these questions will help you to review what you’ve studied so far. Please com-
plete Self-Check 1 now.

1. _______ _______ are the combination of the electrical circuit, the lamps, and the control
devices.

2. _______ are separate areas within a room, each with its own specific lighting need.

3. _______ involves turning lights on and off as needed, either by simple manual control or
complicated computer-controlled systems.

4. In 1978, an _______ _______ standard was developed in California, requiring all commercial
buildings to have switches in individual areas.

5. _______ daylighting is used to adjust to the lighting needs in those zones which obtain some
natural lighting from windows.

Check your answers with those on page 59.

Lighting Control 7

LIGHT SWITCHES
Switching is the term used to describe the act of turning a light on and
off with a control device called a switch. The switch is used to open
and close an electrical circuit. It’s the simplest and most common con-
trol device and a good starting place for students learning about con-
trol systems. In the following sections, you’ll learn the basic functions
of a switch, the common types of switches in use today, the rating
practices for switches, and types of circuits and applications of
switching.

Functions of a Switch
The function of a switch is to provide safe, reliable on-off operation of
a lighting device. To do this, the switch must be able to perform the
following functions without undue wear:

· Carry the higher-than-rated inrush current that occurs when the

switch is first closed

· Carry full-rated current for long periods of time without over-

heating or excessive voltage drop

· Open the rated current and voltage together with any voltage
surge that may develop without creating an electrical or fire
hazard

The major categories of switches include manual, quiet contactor, solid-

state, and specialty. Each switch type will be discussed in greater detail
in the following sections.

Manual Switches
Switches are available with a wide range of control capabilities, from
very complex computer-controlled devices to the very simple manual
single-pole switch. Manual switches consist of a current-carrying ele-
ment, two or more stationary contacting elements, and a manually op-
erated toggle that works as an actuator. They’re designed as either a
snap or quiet switch. The manual snap switch is the most common and
most inexpensive device available.

How a switch looks may vary depending on its style and use. The
common toggle switch also comes with a pilot light to help the user find
the switch in the dark. The pilot light toggle switch also helps in situations
where the lamp can’t be seen from where the switch is located, such
as in attics, basements, or garages. The pilot light goes off when the
8 Lighting Control

lamp is off. This allows the user the convenience of knowing whether
the light is on or off without having to check the area. The rocker switch
is an alternative to the common toggle switch. These are also available
with pilot lights, as shown in Figure 1.

FIGURE 1—Certain rocker

switches, such as the one
shown here, contain pilot
lights. (Courtesy Leviton
Manufacturing Company, Inc.)

Snap Switches
Figure 2 shows the simplest type of manual snap switch, a single-pole
switch. A snap switch works by connecting or disconnecting two con-
ductors. Each conductor is connected to one of the stationary contact
elements. Each stationary element usually consists of two prongs with
a slot between them. The moving element rotates around a pivot and
goes into the slot of each stationary element. The moving element is
held tightly in place by the tension in the stationary element. When
the moving element slides into the slot of the stationary element, it
produces a wiping action that helps keep the contact surface clean.
The moving element is actuated by means of a toggle handle. Push
buttons or twist knobs may also be used. The handle isn’t connected
directly to the current-carrying element but rather through two springs.
First, the handle stretches the left-hand spring without moving the element.
The element is pulled around suddenly by the spring, causing the
snapping noise. When the circuit is being opened (the light is being
turned off), the sudden motion caused by the right-hand spring quickly
extinguishes the arc that naturally results as the flow of electricity is
interrupted.
Lighting Control 9

FIGURE 2—The snap switch

connects and disconnects
two conductors.

Quiet Switches
Quiet switches are used in special applications and control work. They
differ from the snap switch in both principle and operation.

The quiet switch consists of a stationary and a moving contact that are
close together when the switch is open. The short, gentle movement
required to open or close the circuit produces very little noise. This is
the advantage the quiet switch has over the snap switch, which is very
loud when actuated.

Since the contacts on the quiet switch move only a short distance, the
switch motion doesn’t extinguish the arc or completely open the circuit.
With alternating current (AC), the arc will extinguish itself. Because the
arc distance is so short, only a low-voltage, low-energy arc results and
little damage is done to the contacts, allowing this type of switch a satis-
factory long life. Of course, it should be used only with alternating cur-
rent (AC) since the arc won’t extinguish if direct current (DC) is used.

Contactor and Solid-State Switches

The manual switch is very convenient for some lighting systems. How-
ever, in systems such as those used in advertising and street lighting or
other outdoor lighting, contactor switching is a more convenient alterna-
tive. This type of switch uses a single switch to turn several lighting
systems on at once, rather than several separate switches. For example,
a contactor switch is convenient in a retail store with several outdoor
signs that are all turned on and off at the same time. The contactor
switch can be operated either manually or automatically. Many types
of timers are available for automatic switching. Automatic timers can
be programmed to operate on daily, weekly, or longer cycles.
10 Lighting Control

Solid-state electronic devices can also control lighting systems. A solid-

state switch operates silently and requires very low control power. It
conducts current through a solid semiconducting material under cer-
tain conditions. The transistor is a simple semiconductor component,
which can be used for switching. When used as a switch, a transistor
controls the amount of current that flows to the lamp. The transistor
consists of three basic elements: the emitter, the base, and the collector.
The emitter gives off electrons. The base is the controlling element, and
the collector supplies output to the load.

Current flows through the transistor and into the controlled lamp circuit
when a sufficient voltage difference exists between the emitter and
the collector. When sufficient voltage (opposite polarity to that of the
collector) is applied to the base, the base is said to be back biased, and no
current flows to the lamp. If the voltage applied is of the same polarity
as the collector voltage, the base is forward biased, and the voltage drop
is small, allowing full current flow through the transistor to the lamp.
Solid-state switching devices incorporate circuitry which ensures that
they turn full power completely on or off. Solid-state electronic devices
are also used in electronic dimming systems, as you’ll learn later in the
study unit.
In general, solid-state switches are more expensive than manual
switches. However, certain advantages make them quite useful in
certain lighting applications. One advantage is that their switching
operation produces no wear on the semiconductor. This allows them
a longer life than any mechanical switch. Their high operating speed
allows them to be highly compatible with automatic control
applications.

Specialty Switches
A wide variety of specialty switches is available to fit the need of any
system. One type of specialty switch comes with a pilot light. As men-
tioned earlier, it allows the user to determine whether the lamp is on or
off when it’s not in view of the user. The pilot light incorporates a
resistor that’s connected to a lamp inside the switch. When the switch
is in the off position, the controlled circuit isn’t really open. Instead,
the power is routed through the resistor that passes enough current to
allow the pilot light to be on.

For automatic control applications, snap-on circuits are used. These cause
the controlled device to jump suddenly from zero to full power when a
preset level of a specific input is reached. The inputs that actuate such
circuits may be light signals picked up on a photocell, temperature sig-
nals from a thermistor, tone-control signals, timer signals, and signals
from other control devices, such as proximity detectors. Time delay in
the switching action is easily introduced. Snap-on control circuits are
Lighting Control 11

designed so that the turn-on signal is either applied continuously or

synchronized in such a way that it turns on the device at the beginning
of each cycle.

Switch Ratings
The law requires that switches and other electrical devices installed
during construction or remodeling be listed by Underwriters Labora-
tories (UL) and bear the familiar UL label. If the device doesn’t carry
the label, the electrician should scrutinize the safety of the electrical
device. It’s very important to obtain electrical supplies bearing this
label whenever possible.
Samples of switches listed by Underwriters Laboratories have been tested
for overload performance, endurance, temperature, and dielectric
strength. These tests simulate the service for which the switch is rated.
General-use switches are designed for general-distribution circuits
and branch circuits. General-use switches are commonly used for fluo-
rescent or mercury lighting. However, if the ballast used possesses a
low power factor, the current rating of the general-use switch should
be twice the actual current carried. Fluorescent fixtures with ballasts
having a low power factor do exist and are common.

Power factors represent the ratio between active power and apparent
power. They’re used in determining the power associated with an
electrical load as follows:

Power = (current) ´ (voltage) ´ (power factor)

Low power factors result from the current drawn by the lamp lagging
the voltage. This creates a lagging power factor problem in the total
electrical system. To prevent this, a capacitor is mounted in the ballast
along with the coil and the autotransformer. Without the capacitor for
power factor correction, the ballast is labeled “low power factor.”

Certain industrial and materials-storage applications require specialized

switching components. The National Electric Code (NEC) states that
switches, circuit breakers, contacts of push buttons, relays, alarms, and other
devices used in a hazardous area must be enclosed in an explosion-proof
location. A hazardous location (called a Class One location) is where
there’s potential for explosion because of stored materials or equipment
used in the area.

Switching Circuits
Various switching circuits are shown in Figure 3. As you know, in a
grounded wiring system, the switch must always be placed to interrupt
the hot conductor. The hot conductor is usually black or red. Other colors
12 Lighting Control

are used when it’s necessary to distinguish between two or more

circuits. A switch mustn’t be placed in the conductor that’s connected
to ground, otherwise known as the neutral conductor. This conductor,
identified by its white color, is also called the identified conductor.

Figure 3A shows that when the switch is closed, current will flow
through the lamp, and the lamp should produce light. When the switch
is open, no current will flow, and the light will be off. Also, when the
switch is open, the lamp and its wiring will both be grounded. The
hazard of electrical shock is thus eliminated when cleaning the fixture,
changing the bulb, or performing other maintenance work. This is why
the switch must be connected into the hot conductor and never into
the neutral conductor.

FIGURE 3—This figure illustrates a basic switching circuit in (A), a multiple circuit in (B), and a master switch
control in (C).
Lighting Control 13

Multiple Circuits
Figure 3B shows that any number of lights can be controlled by one
switch. The lamps are connected in series with the controlling switch,
but groups of lamps are joined together into parallel circuits. The total
rated current through the lamps must not exceed the rating of the
switch. This multiple or series system is universal in lighting circuits,
except in some street-lighting circuits, and internal wiring of fluorescent
fixtures. Figure 3C shows a master switch controlling a group of
lamps. The individual single switches control single lamps or small
groups of lamps. When the master switch is open, all the lights will be
out. When it’s closed, only those lamps with closed individual switches
will be on. This arrangement is sometimes used in commercial or
industrial applications. In such installations, the master switch gener-
ally serves as the circuit breaker, which may be operated as a switch.
The lights are turned on and off daily by master switches at the lighting
panel. The circuit breaker that’s regularly used as a switch must be
marked and rated for this type of service. The individual switches control
the particular lighting arrangement needed at an individual zone
during any given time. This assures that, although the individuals
using them can control lamps, all the lamps wired through a particular
master circuit will be turned off when the master switch is opened.

Using a Double-Pole Switch

Ungrounded lighting circuits are relatively rare in residential wiring.
However, they’re sometimes used with a double-pole switch in areas
with remote exterior lamps. Figure 4 shows that the double-pole
switch opens both sides of the line leading to the lamp.

FIGURE 4—The double-

pole switch opens both
lines to the lamp.

Occasionally, the damaged insulation of a conductor allows the con-

ductor to touch some grounded object, such as a metallic outlet box,
conduit, fixture, or appliance. This is called an accidental ground. If this
happens to the hot conductor of a grounded system, a short circuit
results, and the fuse or circuit breaker will open. If this happens to one
conductor of an ungrounded system, the circuit won’t be interrupted,
because the other conductor will assume a potential-to-ground equal
to the line voltage. Since this accidental grounding may occur to either
conductor, it’s necessary to interrupt both conductors with the switch
to ensure that voltage won’t flow to ground.
14 Lighting Control

Three-Way Switches
Figure 5A illustrates the connection of three-way switches. A three-way
switch is identified by its three terminals. As you know, it’s possible to
control one or more lamps from two locations by using two three-way
switches. One can see how these three-way switches operate by tracing
through the circuit. The hot conductor carries the voltage from the source,
through the switch box, and directly to the lamp. The two other con-
ductors, called the travelers, are connected to the terminals of the switch
and complete the circuit. When the circuit is open, current can’t get to
the lamp, and the light will be off; when the circuit is closed, current
carries to the lamp, and the light will be on. The switches control the
circuit. When both switches are turned up, the circuit will be completed,
and the lamp will light. If one switch is turned down, the circuit will
be opened and the lamp turned off. If the other switch is now turned
down, the circuit will again be completed and the lamp turned on. It
can be seen that the lamp may be turned either on or off from either
location regardless of the position of the other switch at the time. This
is a convenient system for corridors, stairways, rooms with more than
one entrance, and other areas where the user may need to switch lights
from more than one location.

FIGURE 5—A three-way

switch is illustrated in (A).
Combination three-way
and four-way switches are
illustrated in (B).
Lighting Control 15

Combination Three-Way and Four-Way Switches

Electricians install one or more four-way switches when there needs
to be more than two switches controlling a lamp. Four-way switches
don’t have on and off positions. They’re simply combined with the
three-way switches for more convenience. The traveler, which carries
the source, is connected to all the switches and the lamp. Figure 5B
shows two three-way switches and one four-way switch connected to
control a lamp from three locations.

The three-way switches operate as explained previously. The four-way

switch reverses the connection between the two switching conductors.
Flipping any one of the three switches will turn the light on or off.

Using any number of four-way switches between two three-way switches

adds convenience to the lighting system. For four-switch locations, use
two three-way and two four-way switches; and for five locations, use
two three-way and three four-way switches. Remember to always
position the two three-way switches at either end of the circuit. If the
three-way and four-way switches aren’t connected properly, the circuit
won’t light.

Switching Applications
The manner in which electricians deal with lighting circuits depends
on the specific type of application. In residential wiring installations,
wiring diagrams sometimes indicate the general location of switches,
but often the electrical contractor must decide which specific switches
to install. In other more loosely controlled residential wiring installa-
tions, electricians also may make decisions regarding the number and
placement of switches. Conversely, most large-scale commercial and
industrial jobs will come complete with specific wiring diagrams,
hardware specifications, and somewhat detailed switch-placement
requirements.

Switches in Residential Wiring

Despite the simplicity and relatively low cost of a switch, the typical
American home normally contains fewer than a convenient amount.
Too often, lighting control is basic at best. Sometimes the homeowner
stumbles through the dark, struggling to find light switches, or lights
may be left on because turning them off is too inconvenient. This
happens because the lighting system was designed without enough
switches or with switches in inconvenient locations. The basic principle
of proper switching is to place a switch where the user will likely be
standing when the light needs to be turned on or off. The most obvious
locations are where the user enters and exits a room. Each door will be
used at one time or another; therefore, a switch should be located within
16 Lighting Control

reach of each entrance to an area. If the doors are very close together
(four feet or less), place one switch midway between them.

The following are a few simple guidelines for placing switches conven-
iently in the typical home.

· Place a switch at the top and bottom of a stairway.

· Install switches to control corridor lighting from both ends.

· Garage lights should be controlled with switches in the house

and the garage.

· Entrance lights should have a switch just inside the entrance, on

the same side as the door knob.

· Specially designed switches placed in a closet doorway will auto-

matically control the closet light as the door opens and closes.

· Attics should have switches just outside the door. These switches
should be equipped with pilot lights to alert the occupant when a
light has been left on.

· Basements should have switches placed at the top of the stairs.

Place a switch just inside the doorway if there’s an entrance from
the outside.

· In the bedroom, a switch should be placed at the entrance as well

as the far end for convenience.

Overswitching should be avoided. For instance, bathrooms often have

a ceiling fixture, mirror lights, and a light in the shower. The conven-
ience of having all these lights on one switch might outweigh the small
savings in electric power that results from having separate switches.
This is particularly true because of the few hours a bathroom is used.
However, if the lamp in the shower is a heat lamp, you may want a
separate switch to control it because it won’t always be necessary to
have the fixture on.
It’s easy to see that there are many opportunities to improve conven-
ience and save energy in the home by installing proper lighting control.
Proper lighting control should be included in the design of the house.

Switches in Commercial Use

Often, most of the lights in a large commercial location are left on the
entire time the building is in use. Having separate switches for each
area isn’t necessary if the lights will all be turned on and off at the
same time. Excessive switching becomes inconvenient if employees
must walk around the building turning lights on and off one at a time.
However, in some commercial applications, a single control can be
combined with several separate switches. Using separate switches in
Lighting Control 17

areas such as special display cases or employee lounges where the

lights aren’t always needed helps reduce energy consumption. In fac-
tories, separate switches may be required for machine lights, inspec-
tion lights, etc. However, the ambient lighting fixtures, which stay on
throughout the day, are typically manually controlled at the distribu-
tion panel.
Now take a few moments to review what you’ve learned by completing
Self-Check 2.
18 Lighting Control

✔ Self-Check 2

1. What are the three basic elements of a transistor?

___________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________________

2. In areas where lamps can’t be seen from the switch, _______ ________ should be used to
indicate if the lamp is lighted.

3. In a conventional residential lighting circuit, when the switch is _______, no current will flow
and the lamp will be off.

4. A ______ _______ _______ conducts current through a solid semiconducting material under
certain conditions.

5. When the master switch is _______, only those lamps with closed individual switches will be
on.

6. In addition to the hot connection at a three-way switch, two conductors, called the _______,
are connected to the terminals of each switch.

Check your answers with those on page 59.

Lighting Control 19

AUTOMATIC CONTROL DEVICES

As mentioned earlier in this study unit, scheduling is the practice of
turning lights on and off as needed. Automatic scheduling uses different
components than a manually scheduled system. With a manually
scheduled system, a person turns lights on and off at specific times.
Typically, a “scheduled system” means one that’s controlled automati-
cally. Because lighting needs vary throughout the day, a time-scheduling
system must be developed to fit the needs of the specific building.
These systems are developed using a central processor that works with
dimmers, relays, individual switches, and overrides. The central
processor can control several areas and devices separately.

Interval Timers
A wide variety of central processors are available. The simplest, the
interval timer or time clock, is activated by a knob, which is turned to a
desired setting. This action winds a spring, which immediately returns
the knob or pointer to its original position. The spring works through a
gear train and a clock-type escapement that measures a fairly accurate
time interval until the knob has returned to its original position.
Generally, contacts close when the knob is turned and remain closed
until the knob reaches its original position; then, the contacts are opened.

This timer faces limited application. Common examples include setting

the time for a bathroom heat lamp or timing exposure for a photograph
print or enlargement. Another useful application is controlling entrance,
driveway, or garage lights. The interval timer keeps the lights on for a
preset length of time, giving the person time to move through the area
when entering or leaving the building.

Some interval timers come with electrical clock movements that may
be operated remotely. A system can produce any sequence of on or off
periods by combining more than one electric timer with appropriate
relays or other controls. The assembly can operate on a repetitive
schedule or with a manual or remote signal. Such arrangements are
sometimes appropriate for controlling decorative floodlighting or other
effects where periodic changes over a long time period are desired.

Figure 6 shows an electronic clock-type time switch with a keypad to

program the circuits. These switches sometimes contain a battery
backup in case of power interruption. This device contains one or more
relays, depending on the number of circuits it controls. The clock-type
time switch is more common than the interval timer in lighting control.
This clock usually has a synchronous electric movement that may be
set to close or open a switch at certain times.
20 Lighting Control

FIGURE 6—This time

switch is used for
switching lights
automatically.
(Courtesy of Leviton
Manufacturing Company,
Inc.)

Unlike the conventional clock, the time switch generally runs on a

24-hour cycle. It’s used most to operate lights during business hours.
Clocks are available with an additional seven-day cycle for keeping the
lights off on Sunday or other times. For street and sign lighting, the
astronomical time clock is often used. This has a yearly cycle in exact syn-
chronization with the seasons. The yearly movement adjusts the on and
off times of sunrise and sunset as these times change with the seasons.
The switch may also be set to turn on and off at a certain time after sunset.

Occupancy Sensors
An occupancy sensor senses motion in a zone and signals the circuit
relay to open or close. This idea originated from security systems,
found in both homes and commercial buildings, that turn on lights
and/or an alarm whenever an intruder is detected. The sensor detects
movement and signals the lights to turn on. Improved technology has
produced systems that not only turn on lights when detecting motion
in the area, but also turn them off when the motion is no longer detected.
Another advance adjusts the sensitivity to avoid unwanted circuit
closing for minor motion. The sensors can also be preset to automatically
turn the lights off after a preset amount of time.

There are different types of sensors available. One system, the passive
infrared system (PIR), works by responding to heat. The sensor radiates
ultrasonic waves in a field surrounding the sensor. When it detects a
change in heat within the field, it signals the circuit to close. One disad-
vantage to this system is that it’s unable to cover a large area. In addition,
the sensor can detect what’s in front of the sensor but not an object
behind an obstruction. The farther away from the sensor a person is,
the more movement must be made to activate the sensor.
Lighting Control 21

Ultrasonic sensors are more sensitive. Small movements, such as hand

movement, can be detected approximately 15 feet farther with an
ultrasonic sensor than with a PIR sensor. Ultrasonic sensors sometimes
detect movement around a corner. However, this causes the ultrasonic
sensor to react to nonhuman movements, such as air movement from
heating and cooling vents. Remember that humidity and temperature
play a part in the sensitivity and reliability of a sensor. Manufacturers
should supply information explaining how the sensor will react in dif-
ferent climates. Of course, sensitivity and reliability also vary depending
on the quality of the product.

Many occupant-sensing systems contain the sensor and the controller

in one unit that fits into an existing switch box. The power supply and
relay are in a separate unit called a control unit. However, in some
instances, all components are together. Figure 7A shows a typical
installation for a circuit with both a switch and occupancy sensor.
Recall that the switch must always be placed to interrupt the hot
conductor in a grounded system.

The occupancy sensor’s circuit closes when detecting motion within a

space and opens when no motion exists. In addition, preset time lags
can be assigned for lighting to remain on for a given time after no mo-
tion is detected within a space. Figure 7A shows that when the switch
and the occupancy sensor circuit are closed, current will flow through
the lamp, and the lamp will produce light. When the switch is open, no
current will flow, and the lamp will be off. When the occupancy sensor
is open but the switch is closed, the lamp won’t produce light.

To increase system efficiency, combine sensors with daylighting. For

daylighting, an override is placed in the system and is controlled by a
photocell. Once the sensor detects motion in the zone, the photocell,
which is placed in the sensor, determines if there’s already enough
natural light in the room. If there is, the override keeps the circuit from
closing. Just as in other systems, this one can also be combined with
dimming ballasts to avoid annoying on/off switching of lights.

Mounting Sensors
The mounting position of a sensor is an important part of the overall
lighting control system. If the sensor is mounted near an obstruction,
the sensor’s ability to detect motion may be impaired. Ceiling-mounted
sensors have very few obstructions and, therefore, are commonly used
in both large and small areas. Figure 7B shows a ceiling-mounted sensor.
Wall-mounted sensors, shown in Figure 7C, provide more narrow
coverage than the ceiling-mounted types but can easily replace an
existing switch. This allows for easier, less expensive installation than
the ceiling-mounted sensor. However, the wall-mounted types are
unable to detect motion around partitions or behind furniture such as
desks or chairs. Wall-mounted sensors are available with different
fields of view depending on where they’re mounted. Installing a wall
22 Lighting Control

sensor in a corner typically increases the field. In addition, different

types of sensors are rated for various ranges (or desired distances from
the sensor) to suit different applications.

FIGURE 7—(A) shows a shared switch occu-

pancy circuit arrangement. (B) shows a
ceiling-mounted sensor. These sufficiently
cover a room that may contain many
obstructions. (C) shows a wall-mounted
sensor used for convenient and efficient
lighting systems. (Sensor photos courtesy of Leviton
Manufacturing Company, Inc.)
Lighting Control 23

When choosing a sensor, the application requirements and the area the
sensor will be used in must be considered. Understanding the user’s
needs and the sensor’s features allows you to choose the right type.
Both ceiling- and wall-mounted sensors commonly have a switch
override that allows the user to keep the lights on or off despite any
movement in the room. This becomes a convenient feature when the
occupancy sensor fails, and there’s no switch for the lights. The user
would then be unable to turn the lights on or off.

Some higher-quality sensors are available with features such as sensi-

tivity adjustment to reduce unnecessary switching due to nonhuman
movements and adjustable time delay that allows setting the amount
of time until the lights are switched off after movement is no longer
detected. Models are also available with visible indicator lights to show
when motion is being detected and with masking to restrict sensing in
unwanted areas. It’s important to place the sensors correctly to avoid
inappropriate sensing. If a system continually switches on and off at
inconvenient times, the user may disconnect the system and eliminate
any possible savings. Typically, following the manufacturer’s recom-
mendations assures correct mounting height, location, selection, and
sensitivity and range settings. Sensors can be adjusted to prevent
lights from illuminating because of movement outside the zone, such
as motion outside of a room’s open doorway. Sensor manufacturers
provide masking labels to black out the view of a specific area while
still allowing the rest of the zone to be monitored.

The areas that benefit most from installing motion sensors are rooms
that are empty for a long time. Buildings that contain areas normally
unoccupied, such as rest rooms or storage areas, can benefit from
sensor-controlled systems; however, commercial areas where occupancy
occurs at repeated scheduled times are better served with scheduling
that works from a timed device.

Sensor Location
Deciding where to locate a sensor is a very important part of its
efficiency. Just as you want a conveniently located switch, you also
want to locate the sensor in an area that will switch the lights on as a
person enters a room. There’s little convenience in a person entering a
room and needing to move around in the dark waiting for the sensor
to trigger the lights. Both wall- and ceiling-mounted sensors should be
aimed to turn the lights on immediately when a person enters the room.
Recall that the higher the sensor is mounted, the fewer problems you’ll
have with obstructions. A sensor won’t be efficient if located outside
the space, behind a door, or too close to a door. Sensors placed too
close to a door are easily triggered by a passerby in a corridor just
outside the space.

Constant switching reduces the life of the lamp. Rapid-start lamp life
isn’t significantly reduced however, if the sensor is adjusted to switch
24 Lighting Control

lamps on no more frequently than every 15 to 20 minutes. You should

be aware that not all ballasts are designed to work with sensors.
Therefore, it’s a good idea to use rapid-start electronic ballasts with
these systems.

High intensity discharge (HID) lamps also don’t work well with sensors.
This is because they take a few minutes to warm. Once turned off, they
can’t immediately switch back on. Manufacturers do make a two-level
HID system that has stepped dimming. This system allows the lamp to
function at a very low level when no motion is detected. Once motion
has been detected, the lamp increases the amount of light given off.
This happens quickly because the lamp is already warm. This system
becomes useful in areas where a small amount of lighting is desired
when the area isn’t in use, such as a frequently visited warehouse.

Photoswitching
Photocells, which sense available light, are an important part of an
efficient lighting system. When photocells are used to switch lamps on
or off, they’re called photoswitches. Photocell-controlled systems can be
combined with other control systems, such as dimming, daylighting,
and scheduling. Photocells, which are placed in either a sensor or a
switch, monitor the level of light in a space. Based on the sensed light
level, the photocell signals the control unit to either switch or dim the
lighting in the space. Photocells are sometimes adjusted to contain dead
zones that eliminate unintentional switching.

Knowing how to best locate a photocell is important. The photocell

should be placed according to either the natural light (if used with a
dimming system) or the direct location that’s to be lighted. An exam-
ple of combining systems includes using a sensor with a photocell to
turn the lights on when a person enters the room. If windows provide
enough natural light to adequately illuminate the room, the photocell
will override the detection of motion, and the lamps won’t switch on.
However, if not enough natural light exists, the lamps will be switched
on. If the user wants to control the lighting level despite the natural
light, install manual switches to override the sensors and photocells.
Figure 8 shows an example of a sensor that detects both motion and
lighting level. The unit also incorporates a manual switch.
Lighting Control 25

FIGURE 8—This sensor

detects motion and
switches the lamp on if
there isn’t sufficient
natural light. It can also
be switched on and off
manually. (Courtesy of Leviton
Manufacturing Company, Inc.)

It’s important to install photoswitches where they won’t be illuminated

by the lamp they control. Otherwise, they won’t operate correctly and
will, instead, turn the lighting on and off at inappropriate times
throughout the day and night. Some types of photocells are sensitive
to extremely low levels of lighting. Moonlight or the light from remote
artificial lights may be strong enough to prevent the photoswitch from
closing. It’s sometimes necessary to cover part of the photocell, thereby
blocking most of the light. Manufacturers equip most cells with a dark
lens or other means of reducing light. If a photoswitch isn’t equipped
with such a lens, it may be necessary to reduce the light in some other
way. One solution is to paint the cell’s lens and then scratch fine lines
through the paint with a pointed instrument. Test the unit’s sensitivity
after removing a small amount of paint. Continue removing paint until
the desired sensitivity is attained.

Photoswitches are used mostly in outdoor lighting. They’ve been used

for many years in street and outdoor sign lighting. With the arrival of
inexpensive photoconductive controls, photoswitch control has been
growing in popularity in residential installations. Post lights, outdoor
floodlights, and entrance lights are obvious candidates for photoswitch
control. Conventional switches are generally installed as well, to allow
the owner the option of not using the automatic feature. Some people
apply photocell control to indoor lights when they’re away from
home. A clock-type time switch can be set to turn lights on and off
every few minutes to discourage burglars. Time-switching control can
also be combined with a photoswitch to save power in the daytime.
26 Lighting Control

In some instances, photoswitches may be used to turn lights on when

the daylight becomes brighter. Any photoswitch may be adapted to
this purpose by adding a relay with normally closed contacts. Such
photoswitches are appropriate for controlling lighting in areas where
people enter from the outdoors. Common examples include building
lobbies, parking garages, tunnels, and underpasses. By turning on ad-
ditional lighting when it’s daylight outdoors, the photoswitches in-
crease the interior illumination and decrease the required adjustment
of the eyes. This not only reduces discomfort but also increases safety
because visual accuracy is poor during the period of adjustment.

Now take a few moments to review what you’ve learned by completing

Self-Check 3.
Lighting Control 27

✔ Self-Check 3

1. A(n) ______ _______ is a device that senses movement in an area.

2. A(n) _______ _______ is the simplest type of lighting-control central processor available.

3. ________-_______ motion sensors are easier to install than ceiling-mounted sensors but are
normally less effective.

4. The chief application of the _______ is to limit the operation of outdoor lighting to times
when natural lighting is insufficient.

5. True or False? Dead zones are part of an area where movement doesn’t activate a motion
detector.

6. True or False? Two-level HID lighting systems are often controlled with motion detectors
because they can quickly switch from total darkness to full-power illumination.

Check your answers with those on page 59.

28 Lighting Control

RELAYS
Next to switches, relays play the most important part in lighting control
systems. In an electric relay, an electric signal closes or opens one or
more pairs of contacts. Closing and opening these contacts switches
the flow of current on and off. One of the main advantages of relays is
that the contacts are capable of controlling considerably more power
than needed to actuate the relay.

Probably the largest application of relays is in motor control. Motor

starters, or simply starters, are relays designed to control motors. Light-
ing control systems incorporate many of the same types of relays.

Relays designed for fairly heavy currents are generally called contactors.
Figure 9 shows a lighting contactor. The control terminals are located
in the top corners. Input lines connect to the top terminals, and the
output is taken from the bottom terminals.

FIGURE 9—Lighting contactors consist of

coil terminals, input lines, and output
lines. (Reprinted with permission of Square D)

Types of Relays
Many different types of relays are available. Most electricians install
relays but aren’t concerned with the actual design of a relay; therefore,
this topic won’t be covered in the study unit. It’s important, however,
that electricians understand that relays are classified as either magnetic
or thermal. This section describes the operating principle and the most
common lighting-control applications of each type of relay.

Magnetic Relay
Magnetic relays are more common than thermal relays. They contain
a coil of wire wound around an iron core and an armature. The
coil/core combination acts as an electromagnet. When the proper
Lighting Control 29

amount of electric current moves through the coil, it magnetizes the

core, which attracts or picks up the armature. Power applied to the coil
energizes the relay. Remove the power and the relay de-energizes. The
de-energized position of the contacts determines whether the relay is a
normally open (NO) or normally closed (NC) type. When the relay is de-
energized, contacts that are together are said to be normally closed.
Contacts that are apart when the relay is de-energized are said to be
normally open.

Thermal Relay
The simplest type of thermal relay uses a bimetallic element, as illustrated
in Figure 10. The element consists of two strips of different metals that are
brazed together to form the bimetallic element which is wrapped with a
heater coil. To understand how thermal relays work, remember that
metals tend to expand when heated. When the heater coil is de-energized,
the contacts are open, as in Figure 10A. When the heater coil is ener-
gized, the bimetallic element heats. The amount that a particular type
of metal expands when it’s exposed to an increase in temperature is
called that metal’s coefficient of expansion. In this bimetallic element, the
top metal strip expands more than the bottom because it has a higher
coefficient of expansion. This different expansion rate means that the
top strip is longer than the bottom one, which causes the element to
bend or curl downward and close the contacts as in Figure 10B. When
the heater coil is de-energized, the bimetallic element cools and returns
to its original position, as shown in Figure 10A, with the contact open.

FIGURE 10—A thermal relay with bimetallic elements opens and closes contacts.
30 Lighting Control

Figure 11 shows another thermal relay design. In this design, both arms
or elements are of the same metal, but only one element is heated. When
the heater coil heats the element, it expands and rotates the contact
arm to bring the contacts together. The entire mechanism is sealed in a
unit known as a can. The mechanism is displaced by the setscrew with-
out breaking the seal. The displacement of the mechanism adjusts the
position of the contacts to vary the amount of heat necessary to close
them.

FIGURE 11—Only one element is

heated in this thermal relay.

It takes a considerable amount of time to heat a thermal relay’s element

and close the contacts. After the heater coil de-energizes, another delay
takes place before the element cools and the contacts reopen. This time
delay is the most important advantage of thermal relays because, in
many circuits, the relay shouldn’t operate immediately after the relay
coil is energized or de-energized. Other advantages are its light weight,
vibration and shock resistance, and simple construction.
Lighting Control 31

Magnetic relays with time-delay capabilties are also available. For

moderate-length delays, however, thermal relays are often the most
economical and reliable type of equipment.

Relay Applications
Remember that relays are commonly used to control large lighting
loads. Figure 12 shows a basic lighting-control circuit using a magnetic
relay. The purpose of this relay is to control the lamp from two locations,
designated as NO CONTACTS in Figure 12. The diagram indicates the re-
lay coil with two parallel lines. In this figure, the contacts are drawn
separated from the coil to show its function. In reality, they would be
found next to the coil within the relay’s housing.

FIGURE 12—A magnetic relay controls a lamp from two locations.

When one of the normally open (NO) push buttons is actuated (closed),
the circuit from the supply-line terminals to the coil is closed. The nor-
mally closed push buttons are in the path, but since they’re not actu-
ated or open, the current isn’t interrupted. The now energized coil
closes the relay contacts. The closed contacts now provide a path for
current from the supply line to flow through the lamp, and the lamp is
lighted.
The lamp will remain lighted until either of the normally closed (NC)
push buttons is momentarily pressed (open), thereby opening the
circuit to the coil. The coil will “drop out,” or become de-energized,
and will open the relay contacts. The circuit to the lamp will then be
open and the lamp will switch off. The lamp remains off until one of
the normally open push buttons is pressed again. Each pair of normally
open and normally closed push buttons are placed close together in one
location where the remote control of the lamp is desired. The lamp can
32 Lighting Control

be turned on and off from either location. Any number of push button
pairs may be added to the circuit, connected in the same way, to pro-
vide control at additional locations. For more substantial loads, such as
an entire building’s lighting load, the relays would separate the control
(or switching) circuit from the load circuit, allowing for much simpler,
conventional (120 V) control wiring.

Magnetic relays are helpful in emergency lighting circuits. The lamps

in such a circuit should be lighted instantly after a main power supply
failure. Figure 13 shows a simple emergency lighting system control-
ling one lamp. The main power is supplied through terminals to the
relay coil. The relay has a normally open contact and a normally closed
contact. As long as the main power is available, it energizes the relay
coil, which, in turn, keeps the NO contact closed. The power is therefore
supplied to the transformer whose primary coil is in series with the
normally closed contact. The secondary coil of the transformer keeps
the storage battery charged through the rectifier. Since the coil is ener-
gized, the normally closed contact is open, and the emergency lamp
isn’t lighted.

FIGURE 13—This shows an emergency lighting circuit using magnetic relays.

Lighting Control 33

Remote Control of Lighting

The term remote control describes a variety of applications. A simple
example of a remote-control device is an extra-long string on a pull-
chain light. However, remote control in this study unit means a system
designed to indirectly control a lamp or group of lamps as compared
to the conventional direct-control system of lighting.

Indirect control, a separate category of lighting control, means that the

power circuit isn’t directly controlled by the lighting switches. Instead,
the system power circuit is opened and closed by relays and special
remote-control switches.

Indirect control of lighting is more convenient than direct control

because its simple installation makes it possible to use more switches
for the same number of lamps and to place the switches at more con-
venient points. Lighting controls can be combined so that groups of
lamps may be easily switched on and off together, or a lamp can be
controlled from several distant locations. An example would be a
large, interior office space with two entrances. Switches located next
to each entrance would be connected to a relay which, in turn, would
switch the large group of lamps on and off. In this case, the switch-
to-relay control circuits could operate at a much lower voltage level
than the lighting-power circuit.

Low-Voltage Relay Switching Systems

Special indirect systems have been designed for remote-control light-
ing in commercial and some high-end residential buildings. One of
these systems uses a latching relay. Relays can combine the inputs of
several control devices, such as manual switches, time clocks, and
occupancy sensors. Latching relays are actuated by a low-voltage im-
pulse through a push button. When the push button is pressed, the re-
lay coil is energized, and the relay closes its contacts, holding them
closed with a latch. When the coil of the relay is energized a second
time, the relay opens its contacts.
Any number of push buttons may be used for a particular relay in the
system. Because low voltage is used, small, unprotected wires similar
to doorbell wires are adequate and safe. This is a considerable advan-
tage over the conventional switching arrangements described earlier.

Normally, a switch is provided for each zone of the lighted area. A

disadvantage of remote control by a latching relay is that the operator
can’t tell whether pressing the push button will turn the lamp on or off
unless the lamp is in sight. The system must therefore be restricted to
controlling lamps in sight of the push-button location. Otherwise, the
system must incorporate indicators which add to the cost and complexity
of the system.
34 Lighting Control

Two-coil relay systems are another example of indirect control. The

main features and operational characteristics of systems using latching
relays and two-coil relays are very similar. The same general installa-
tion rules apply to both systems.

Figure 14 illustrates the basic components of a remote-control system.

The lamp, which is energized by a 120-volt line, is controlled from one
of two remote switches. For this type of control, it’s necessary to use a
two-coil relay and a step-down transformer. The transformer primary
is connected to the 120-volt line, and its secondary provides 24 volts
for energizing the control circuit.

FIGURE 14—This remote control system uses a two-coil relay.

The relay has two coils. When the ON button of either switch is pressed,
the corresponding coil is energized, pulling down the armature to the
contact point and closing the circuit. The lamp is lighted because the
path of the 120-volt line is closed. Although the switch is pressed only
momentarily, the contact point to armature connection will remain
closed. When the OFF button of the switch is pressed, the upper coil is
Lighting Control 35

energized, and the armature is pulled up, opening the path of the line
current and turning off the lamp. The lamp circuit will remain in the
open position until the ON button again energizes the coil.

Any number of switches may be connected to operate a single relay,

or one switch may be connected to operate a number of relays. All
switches and relays are functionally identical and are usually con-
nected in the same way regardless of the number used. Reversing the
switch-to-coil connections at one of several relays would mean that the
instant one lamp was turned on, all others would be turned off.

Types of Relay Systems

Two common types of relay systems you’ll encounter are the central
cabinet and the local relay. We’ll discuss both of these systems in greater
detail in this section. You’ll see that there are significant differences be-
tween the two types of systems. The central cabinet relay system is ex-
pensive to install because it contains a separate wiring system from the
cabinet to the zone and then back to the cabinet. However, it’s simpler
to make changes to the layout of the zones. Unlike a central cabinet
system, a local relay system requires a central processor. Local relay
systems use a low-voltage relay near the load and connected to the
regular branch-circuit wiring. The local relays receive signals from the
central processor through control-circuit wiring.
So far, you’ve learned that one of the advantages of a relay-control
system is that low-voltage circuits and therefore lighter wiring can be
used to switch much higher voltage loads. This reduces the size of
conductors and components needed in the switching circuit. However,
imagine the additional labor required to change an existing conventional
switching system to a relay-operated one. To ease the conversion, there
are systems that use a building’s power wiring to communicate with
switching relays. This system is the power line carrier (PLC) system.
Extensive PLC systems can be installed without rewiring. Control for
these systems comes from central processors (computers), photocells,
and manual switches. The relays, along with other devices, can be
plugged into specially designed outlets. The PLC system transmits
signals over the same wires that supply power to the lighting load.
This type of system works by creating signals that resemble the same
signals transmitted by radio stations. The relays in a PLC are switched
by the appropriate radio signal. PLC systems are fairly low-cost
because of the small amount of wiring and the easy installation.
Now, let’s examine how central cabinet and local relay systems are
installed. Many indirect remote control systems make use of several
relays. If AC is used, the relays are often designed to operate on a
24-volt AC circuit while controlling a 120-volt AC lighting circuit. The
relays are rated at 20 amps, which is sufficient to control the full load
of a normal lighting branch circuit if desired.
36 Lighting Control

Although relays are sometimes located in ceilings or other more

convenient areas to reduce the amount of 120-volt wiring, relays are
usually assembled in a junction box. Figure 15 shows how relays of
the same size are placed in the box and fitted through the knockouts.
The cylindrical portion of the relay, which has a smaller circumference,
fits through a 1 2-inch knockout. Each relay is inserted through a knock-
out on a bracket inside the junction box. When the cylindrical portion,
or barrel, of the relay is pushed completely through the knockout, two
small spring catches at the barrel’s base catch on the upper side of the
bracket and hold the relay in position. The spring catches are light, and
the relay can be forced back through the hole if it needs to be replaced.

FIGURE 15—Relays are

mounted on a bracket
inside the junction box.

When installed in the junction box, the portion of the relay with the
larger diameter is left in the lower part of the box. Two wires emerging
from this section of the relay connect to the lighting circuit. Three
color-coded pigtail leads of lighter wire emerge from the end of each
barrel to connect to the 24-volt remote control system. The leads are
of staggered lengths to prevent the splices from bunching. One lead
connects to the transformer and the other two connect to the on and
off leads of the switch, as was indicated earlier in the circuit diagram
in Figure 14.

Relays can also be mounted in a junction box that contains terminal

boards. These boards keep wiring neat and simplify any work in the
box, such as replacing relays. Another convenience of terminal boards
is the ability to mount and wire the relays in the box before the box is
installed.

Transformers
Figure 16 shows a transformer like those typically used in indirect
remote-control systems. In this type of transformer, as the drawn
current increases, the voltage rapidly decreases. This closely limits the
maximum power that the transformer can provide. The transformer or
Lighting Control 37

the wiring on the 24-volt side may be short-circuited for indefinite pe-
riods without damaging the wiring or the transformer. The trans-
former is fitted for mounting on a standard octagon or square junction
box. The 120-volt power-supply line is connected to the primary leads,
and the 24-volt control circuit is connected to the terminals on top of
the transformer.

FIGURE 16—This transformer

works like those used in
remote-control wiring
systems.

Master Switches
Although selector switches won’t be discussed in detail in this study
unit, you should understand that selector switches are a type of
remote-control switch used in older buildings. They consist of knobs
that are turned to a position that indicates a specific circuit and then
pushed to make contact. If the knob is pushed and then turned, it will
open all the circuits it passes.

The master switch is usually a motor-driven selector switch. Although

no longer installed in buildings, it’s found in older ones. It’s controlled
by a standard, remotely located control switch or by one circuit of the
selector switch. When it’s set to the off position, the motor operates
and doesn’t stop until the selector has made a complete revolution and
turned off all connected circuits. In the on position, it operates similarly,
but it would be unusual to connect all circuits to go on at one time.
Actually, the pattern of control can be made as flexible as desired by
properly arranging the connections. For instance, certain night-lights
can be connected to the master controller in such a way that they’ll be
turned on when the rest of the lights are being turned off. The on posi-
tion on the master switch is generally connected only to certain lamps
in the building to create a path of light through the normal circulation
routes.
38 Lighting Control

DC Remote-Control Systems
The power supply for remote-control lighting may be a low-voltage
AC supplied by the step-down transformer or a direct current (DC) sup-
plied by a rectifier or a rectifier-filter assembly. A rectifier is a device that
changes the applied AC to a pulsating DC. It conducts current in one
direction only (during one-half of each AC cycle) and blocks the current
in the opposite direction (during the second half of each cycle). In this
case, the rectifier used is a semiconductor diode. Figure 17A shows a
common semiconductor diode. Figure 17B shows the symbol used in
schematic diagrams.
FIGURE 17—A diode is shown
in (A) while its schematic
symbol is shown in (B).

When the source of current for remote control is DC drawn from a

rectifier, the relay action is improved, the audible hum sometimes
heard from AC-powered relay coils is eliminated, and increased power
is available instantaneously. This is important if several relays must be
activated at the same time.
Small rectifiers or diodes may be used to allow an ordinary remote-
control switch to act as a master switch. A master switch will control
several lamps while still allowing individual lamp control. The rating
of the rectifiers needed for such connection is 50 PIV (peak inverse
volts) and at least 250 mA (milliamperes). Such rectifiers may be obtained
quite inexpensively from electronic supply firms.

A master switch with rectifiers can be quite useful at a home entrance

or in a garage where several lamps are controlled together but also
have individual switches. Figure 18 shows a typical schematic example
of such a connection.

Consider how the three lamps shown in Figure 18 are controlled by

three standard relays, each having an individual control switch. If a
fourth switch, a master switch, is added to control the three lamps
altogether, rectifiers are needed. If the master switch were connected
directly to the three relays, it would turn them all on together. However,
this would connect all the relays with one another as well. Thus, turning
on any one of the first three switches would turn on all three lamps
instead of just one. However, rectifiers connected between the master
switch and each relay prevent this situation. Tracing through the circuit
in Figure 18 shows that the switching signal will travel through the
rectifiers from the master switch and will actuate all the relays. However,
the rectifiers will only turn on a relay if its individual switch is placed
Lighting Control 39

in the ON position. Thus, the rectifiers make it possible to wire a single

switch to turn any combination of relays on or off simultaneously.

This system will work on either AC or DC systems. The total number of

switches that can be operated simultaneously in this manner depends
on the current capacity of the supply transformer or rectifier. If operat-
ing a large number of relays from a single switch, the selector or mas-
ter switch is more economical. Moreover, it doesn’t require a large
current capacity from the supply, because the relays are actuated one
at a time.

FIGURE 18—This is a schematic of a master control using rectifiers.

40 Lighting Control

Remote-Control Wiring
As you know, remote-control systems reduce the power carried by
the control circuit. For indoor installation, small-gauge thermoplastic-
insulated wiring is used in these systems. Because of the low voltage
and the current-limiting features of the transformer, there’s no shock
or fire hazard from this control wiring. Therefore, the wire need not be
enclosed in cable or conduit. Although it’s not a safety requirement,
remote-control wire in commercial use is sometimes run in cable or
conduit to make future changes easier.

The control wire may, therefore, be run unprotected on the surfaces

of unexposed walls, floors, and ceilings. This ease of wiring makes
indirect remote control a particularly convenient means of updating
the lighting in older buildings or adding better control to existing
lighting systems. It’s even possible to channel a shallow groove in
the drywall or plaster, lay the wire in the groove, and cover it with
drywall compound or plaster. Such wiring is possible because the
limited power available from the supply transformer presents no fire or
shock hazard. Wiring for indirect remote control is similar to and as safe
as wiring for doorbells or toy electric trains.

Perhaps the only restriction that must be placed on the control wiring
is that the wire must be protected from damage and kept separate
from the power wiring. It must not be introduced into the same con-
duit or junction box as the lighting load’s circuits. Keep it at least two
inches from light and power circuits to prevent any accidental connec-
tion of 120 or higher volts to the control wiring through worn installa-
tion, fire, or other fault. While damage to the wiring won’t cause a fire,
it can cause the burnout of a relay.

Special wire is available for the interior wiring of indirect remote-control

systems. This wire ordinarily comes with two or three thermoplastic-
insulated conductors twisted together. The wire is color-coded for
polarity identification. For outdoor use, neoprene-insulated cord is
available. The insulation on one of the conductors in this cord has two
ridges, or ribs, running its length. The ribs are used only for conductor
identification to ensure proper hookup. This cord may be used over-
head or buried in the ground. For overhead wiring, use a No. 6 or 8
galvanized-steel messenger fastened to it by electrical tape wound every
one or two feet along the length of the run. In new construction, staple
the control wire in place with small staples.

Generally, it’s most convenient to make a run of two conductor wires

from the transformer to all the relays. The same conductor is connected
to the transformer lead of each relay. The remaining conductor wire is
left for the switch runs. The relay draws its power directly from the
power line that’s present at the lighting outlet. Sometimes, the relay’s
own coils are wound to provide the low-voltage control power. This
means that a transformer isn’t necessary.
Lighting Control 41

Three-conductor wire is used from the relay to the switch. The remain-
ing conductor from the transformer is connected to one of the three
conductors, and the on and off relay leads are connected to the other
two. The three leads from the switch are connected to the three con-
ductors as was shown in Figure 14. If two or more switches are located
together, the transformer lead has to be brought down only once, from
one relay. Nevertheless, since wire is so inexpensive, it’s customary to
use three-wire conductors for the entire switch run.

Although the description of control wiring seems somewhat complex,

it’s actually quite simple to install. In fact, the ease and speed of install-
ing this lighting control wiring is one of the most attractive features of
the system. The system is invaluable for remodeling work in existing
buildings.

Layout
The same general requirements for placing switches apply to both
conventional and remote-control switching systems. One of the main
advantages of indirect remote-control switching is that connection
runs are eliminated. Remote control switching, therefore, makes it
possible to install a switch everywhere it’s convenient, no matter how
far from the lamp.

The master switch provides increased opportunities for conveniently

placed control lighting. Indirect remote-control systems typically have
more switches than conventional switch installations. Thus, the
electrician must begin a remote-control lighting installation job with
a clear and systematic layout.

Figure 20 shows a floor plan of a residential remote-control system.

The plan is a three-bedroom home using multipoint switching that
permits turning on room lamps from every doorway. It has switch-
controlled outlets in the living room and master bedroom. Pressing a
single button at any entrance, or turning to a specific position on the
master selector, turns on selected lamps to light a path through the
house. Turning the master selector to the off position will turn off all
the lights inside and outside the house. Owners can enjoy extra con-
venience with a switch-controlled weatherproof outdoor outlet that
makes it possible to control the receptacles from two indoor locations.
This layout, or portions of it, may be used as a guide in designing
various remote-control installations.
 42
Lighting Control
FIGURE 19—This shows a layout for remote lighting control.
Lighting Control 43

It’s important to plan the lamp fixture types and locations while
considering the interior design of the building. Figure 19 shows the
layout for convenience outlets and lamp fixtures; Table 1 provides the
locations of the relays in this layout. The owner or lighting designer
usually decides this. Once locations are selected, their control must be
planned. In the wiring diagram, a solid line represents the connection
between fixtures that will be controlled simultaneously. Examples
shown in Figure 19 include two lights in the garage, two in the base-
ment stairway, and two outdoor lights on the back corners of the
house. A single switch should control each of these lamp pairs if the
two lamps are to be turned on and off at the same time.

Table 1

LOCATIONS OF RELAYS IN FIGURE 19

Master Switch Relay

Relay
Position Position

1 R-1 Post
2 R-2 Front entry
3 R-3 Garage entry
4 R-4 Garage
5 R-5 Outdoor floodlights
6 R-6 Rear entry
7 R-7 Laundry area
8 R-8 Lavette
9 R-9 Kitchen
10 R-10 Kitchen
11 R-11 Breakfast area
12 R-12 Stairway
13 R-13 Dining room
14 R-14 Bathroom
15 R-15 Bathroom
16 R-16 Hall
17 R-17 Back bedroom
18 R-18 Master bedroom
19 R-19 Master bedroom
20 R-20 Front bedroom
21 R-21 Living room

One relay is required for each fixture or group of fixtures. In the lay-
out, the relays are numbered, R-1, R-2, and continue up to R-21. This
means that there are twenty-one relays in the design. R-2 controls the
lamp outside the entrance, and R-4 controls both ceiling lamps in the
garage because they should be switched on together. In the living
room, the seven relay-controlled parts of the split outlets are shown
connected by solid lines crossed by three short lines. These short lines
indicate that three wires are needed in these cables. All seven outlets
are controlled by the relay R-21 at the entrance door. Similarly, the relay
R-19 controls the five convenience outlets in the master bedroom.
44 Lighting Control

The lamps and outlets that aren’t connected to a relay are controlled by
conventional 120-volt circuits and switches. Some examples include
closet lamps, convenience outlets, and special outlets, such as the clock
outlet. For the range and the dryer, special outlets are supplied by
240 volts.

When designing the layout of an indirect remote control system, apply

the same device-placement rules used in direct switching. It’s important
not to overlook any opportunity for adding a switch that would increase
convenience. Switches should be placed at every entrance of the room.
Auxiliary lighting, such as kitchen counter lights, sink lights, and
laundry lights, should be controlled by switches within reach in the
immediate area.

In a wiring diagram, a solid line interrupted at the center by two

dashed lines shows the connection between each switch, the fixture it
controls, and the relay. For example, the ceiling lamp in the front
bedroom (connected to relay R-20) is controlled by the switch at the
entrance to the room. However, the lamp in the hall is controlled by five
switches at exits from different rooms. When a full line between the
switch and the light is inconvenient or tends to clutter the plan, the line
may simply be ended with an arrow, along with the relay number that
controls the fixture. The design can easily be modified to add several
switches throughout the house to satisfy the occupants. Each fixture
and its function should be considered relative to convenient locations
for switches. Remember that the great advantage of remote-control
wiring is the ease and low cost with which extra switches can be added.

For the bedroom, extra convenience is provided by a portable switch

console, like the one shown in Figure 20, located at RO-4 in the corner
bedroom of Figure 19.

FIGURE 20—Portable master

switches can be installed for
convenience. (Courtesy of Leviton
Manufacturing Company, Inc.)
Lighting Control 45

Master control switches are normally placed in the master bedroom to

control the fixtures that generally need to be turned off when the occu-
pant retires. It can also be used with lights in places where they should
be available quickly in case of an emergency. Other uses are for out-
side lights that may be turned on or off only occasionally. It’s possible
to have one master switch controlling all the fixtures in a residence.
The master switch is generally connected to turn off all lights in a
home or to turn on certain selected lights simultaneously.

Lighting layouts should be accomplished by circuit-control information

like the relay positions shown in Table 1. In this example, a motor
master switch controls relays 1 through 21. All lamps controlled by
this master switch can be turned on or off at once. You’ll notice in
Figure 19 that several switches throughout the home are indicated
with an SM designation. All switches with this designation are connected
to the motor-master switch, which is usually located in the basement or
utility room. When one of the SM switches is turned off, all of the SM
controlled lamps are turned off. Likewise, when one remote-control
switch is turned on, any SM light whose individual switch is on will
also turn on. In other words, if the remote-control switch is turned on
in the kitchen, and only the individual SM switches in the living room
and two of the bedrooms are on, then only those SM-controlled lamps
will be on. If a remote-control switch in the master bedroom is then
turned off, all the SM lights will turn off.

Installation of Relays
There are two methods of installing relays: the outlet-mounted method
and the zone-grouped method.

The outlet-mounted method requires that the relay for each fixture be
placed in the outlet box of the fixture, as shown in Figure 21. If a fixture
doesn’t have a separate outlet box, the relay is mounted through a
knockout in the fixture itself. This method offers the greatest economy
because it requires only short cable lengths for the power wiring. Most
of the wiring consists of remote-control wires, which are easier to in-
stall and less expensive than a power-suply cable of the same length.
With this type of relay system, the master switch and sometimes the
transformer are located in a central position relative to the relay distri-
bution. The transformer may also be at some location that isn’t central,
such as the service entrance.
46 Lighting Control

FIGURE 21—This shows a

relay mounted in an outlet
box.

The second method uses zone-grouped relays where gang boxes,

holding six or twelve relays, are installed at central locations. The
power-supply cables branch out from the gang boxes. This method
simplifies the control wiring and eases maintenance. For example, for
remotely controlled outdoor lights, such as post and garden lights, the
relay is mounted in a junction box inside the house. Thus, you won’t
need to run both the power and remote control cable to the light. On
the other hand, when several lights are located in a garage separate
from the house, there would be considerable savings in putting the
relays in the garage even though zone-grouped relay systems may be
used elsewhere. The amount of remote-control wire used wouldn’t be
increased, since these fixtures would have to have control switches in
the garage.

Now take a few moments to review what you’ve learned by completing

Self-Check 4.
Lighting Control 47

✔ Self-Check 4

1. An _______ _______ is a device by which an electric signal causes the closing or opening of
one or more pairs of contacts.

2. _______ _______ means that the switches don’t directly control the power circuit.

3. Name two common relay systems available.

________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________

4. In a remote-control lighting system, the _______ _______ is usually a motor-driven selector

switch.

5. Local relay systems have a ______ ______ located near each fixture or group of fixtures.

6. Name the two methods of installing relays.

________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________________

7. The _______ switch provides the ability to overide other controls in a remote-control lighting
system.

8. _______ designed for motor control are often called starters.

Check your answers with those on page 59.

48 Lighting Control

DIMMING TECHNOLOGY
Dimming controls the quantity of illumination. As you know, dimming
is desired for different reasons. One reason is to gently turn the lights
on and off to prevent the shock of intense light and uncomfortable
adjustment of the eyes. Dimming is sometimes used to accent different
architectural and landscaping designs. Dimming can increase the life
of incandescent lamps by reducing the heat in the lamp. In addition,
light-level adjustment may be used to suit certain occasions, for day-
lighting applications or to match illumination level to the lighting in
adjacent areas.

The simplest way to control light intensity is to turn on lamps one at a

time. Illumination increases as the number of lamps energized increases.
For this kind of control, electricians can use special-purpose switches
for portable lamps and fixtures. These switches turn on one, two, or
three lamps at a time. However, special-purpose systems lost popularity
as three-way incandescent lamps, with a unique intensity control,
became more popular. The three-way lamps contain two filaments
and are controlled by a switch that first turns on one filament, then
the other, and finally both together. The two filaments are of different
wattage, resulting in three different levels of lighting. Three-way lamps
come in several wattage levels, ranging from 30/70/100 to 100/200/300.
Notice that the total of the first and second wattage levels always
equals the third wattage. The first two filaments turned on together
produce the third intensity level.

In addition, electricians can install a three-position wall switch that

produces multiple lighting-level control with a standard incandescent
lamp. The first position of the switch connects the lamp directly and
thus produces full light output. Another switch position connects a
tiny silicon rectifier in series with the lamp. The rectifier allows the
current to flow in one direction only. Therefore, on AC circuits, the
current flows only half the time. This reduces the light of the lamp by
20 to 25 percent of normal output. The third position of the switch
opens the circuit completely and turns off the lamp.

Individual fluorescent lamps can’t be used with multiple controls

because of differences in design and operation. To control illumination
levels in fluorescent lamps, they must be wired in certain combinations
with ballasts. In fluorescent lighting, four-lamp two-level lighting
fixtures are usually equipped with two, two-lamp ballasts. It’s custom-
ary for the fixture manufacturer to wire the two center lamps to one
ballast and the two outside lamps to the other. When a selection of two
lighting levels is desired in commercial installations, it’s common to
wire one of the fixture’s ballasts to one switch and the other ballast to
another switch. If care is taken to connect all the inside ballasts to
one switching circuit and all the outside ballasts to the other switch-
ing circuit, even lighting distribution will be achieved with only one
Lighting Control 49

switch turned on. Figure 22 shows another version of this wiring

combination. There are three-lamp fixtures wired so that two different
ballasts serve each fixture. The ballasts are two-lamp ballasts for con-
sistency. Switching allows for one, two, or all three lamps in a fixture
to be energized at a given time.

FIGURE 22—Certain wiring combinations create different lighting designs.

When fluorescent fixtures contain only two lamps, the ballasts are
wired in tandem to make two-level switching possible. This means
that a two-lamp ballast in one fixture is wired to one lamp in its own
fixture and to one lamp in an adjacent fixture rather than wiring the
entire fixture to one ballast. The ballast in the adjacent fixture is wired
to the second lamp in its own fixture and the second lamp in the first
fixture. The simplest method is to wire one ballast to the left-hand
lamp in both fixtures and the other ballast to the right-hand lamps.
Then, alternately wire the ballasts to two individual switches. With
this wiring method, when only one switch is on, a straight line of
lamps will be lighted on one side of the fixtures.

Many designers feel that crisscrossing the ballast connection produces

a more pleasing appearance. This allows one ballast to control the
lamp on the left side of its own fixture and the lamp on the right side
of the adjacent fixture. The ballast in the other fixture controls the
remaining two lamps. If care is taken in connecting the switching
circuits, this results in a symmetrical pattern. Of course, when using
continuous rows of two-lamp fixtures, it’s also possible to use the
fixtures as wired by the factory, with each ballast controlling the two
lamps in its own fixture. The fixtures are alternately controlled by one
of the two switches. In some lighting arrangements, this control
scheme results in somewhat uneven lighting that’s not severe enough
to be noticeable.
50 Lighting Control

How Dimmers Work

The oldest type of dimming equipment is the rheostat, or the variable
resistor. This device is placed in series with an incandescent lamp load,
as indicated in Figure 23.

FIGURE 23—These lamps are dimmed using a rheostat.

As current flows through the rheostat, a voltage drop occurs. As you

know, this drop means that the voltage available to the lamps is equal
to the incoming line voltage less the voltage across the rheostat. If the
rheostat’s resistance is set high enough, the voltage to the lamps will
be reduced sufficiently to prevent them from lighting. Reducing the
resistance of the rheostat increases the voltage to the lamps, increasing
their brightness. When the resistance of the rheostat approaches 0 ohms,
the lamps will light to their normal brightness.

Figure 24 shows a once commonly used rheostat called a disk dimmer.

Notice that the resistance wire wraps around a ceramic core. A moving
brush slides on a sliding bar along the resistance coil and connects a
part of the winding into the circuit. There was also a rheostat made
with the winding on a toroidal, or doughnut-shaped core. A twist knob
operated the rotating brush.

FIGURE 24—This rheostat features

resistance wire wrapped around
a core.
Lighting Control 51

Unfortunately, these rheostats are large and consume a high amount of

power. Rheostats must be physically large since they must typically
dissipate the heat energy equivalent to over 25 percent of the wattage
of the total load they control. The heat can sometimes create a problem
in ventilation and air conditioning systems, especially when a large
number of dimmers are installed together.

Because the control and load are connected in series, rheostats are also
sensitive to size of the load. The number of lamps in the circuit affects
the dimming results. This is because the voltage drop across the resis-
tance depends on the number of lamps turned on.

Dimmers that work by resistance are no longer installed in residential

or commercial lighting systems. However, they may exist in older con-
struction. Dimming is now accomplished with a solid-state switch that
controls the amount of time the current flows from the source to the
lamp. It controls the number of times the current switches on and off,
which in turn controls the brightness of the lamp. The switching,
which can occur up to 120 times per second, is done so quickly that, to
the human eye, the lamp appears to be constantly lighted.

Different types of thyristors, a type of solid-state switch, control the

switching of current. Figure 25 shows the schemtic symbol for one
type, the silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR). Two silicon-controlled rectifi-
ers carry the AC waves.

FIGURE 25—This shows a

silicon-controlled rectifier
symbol.

Dimming caused by switching exists in several forms. Triacs are

inexpensive devices that can control up to 600-watt lighting systems.
A solid-state device called a low-voltage transformer can also be used to
switch the power on and off. These transformers consume more power
and aren’t, therefore, as efficient as triac dimmers.

Fluorescent lamps are dimmed by magnetic dimming ballasts. These

dimming systems also rely on a triac. HID lamps are dimmed by using
a combination of ballasts and thyristors. When dimming standard
fluorescent lamps, thyristor dimmers can be used, although the quality
and amount of dimming is usually poor.

When dimming neon and cold cathode lamps, use dimmers similar to
magnetic transformer dimmers. Some manufacturers produce dimmers
that work well with any one of the previously mentioned devices and
lamps. These universal dimmers are more expensive and are found in
multiple-control products. We’ll explore each of these dimming methods
in more depth.
52 Lighting Control

An electrician must recognize the advantages and disadvantages asso-

ciated with dimming devices and install them only where required.
Improperly installed dimmers waste both money and energy. Never
install a dimmer on a receptacle that supplies power to a motor or fan.
Cutting the power with a dimmer, rather than with a device designed
to control motor speed, could cause motor failure or even fire.

Sometimes dimmers produce an electronic noise. Radio frequency

interference causes this noise. It can cause interference in cordless
telephones, office communication systems, and stereo systems. Noise
filters installed by the dimmer manufacturer help eliminate this noise.
To further reduce noise, avoid installing switches in the same circuit as
the receptacles that supply the audio equipment, and make sure the
power circuit’s grounding is secure.

Wiring Dimmers
The single-pole dimmer can be installed easily into a a device box that
currently holds a single-pole switch. As with any wiring job, the first
step is completely shutting off power to the circuit. Then simply attach
the wires to the dimmer in the same manner as with a switch, as shown
in Figure 26. The white wire indicates neutral, and the black wire is hot.

FIGURE 26—This illustrates how to connect the dimmer circuit.

Replacing a three-way switch with a three-way dimmer isn’t as simple.

No matter how many control devices are used in the circuit, only one
can act as a dimmer. Decide where to place the dimmer switch, then
wire the device. There’s no difference between the black wire exiting
from a dimmer assembly. Simply connect one to the branch circuit’s
hot conductor and one to the neutral. In cases where a dimmer assem-
bly has a black and a red lead, the black connects the power source,
and the red connects to the load. The other switches in the circuit
are connected as usual.
Lighting Control 53

Incandescent Dimmers
As you learned earlier, modern dimming devices work by switching
the power on and off very rapidly. In an alternating-current powered
system, the switching is synchronized with line frequency. Figure 27
shows an oscillogram of an alternating current controlled by an elec-
tronic switching device. No current flows until the device is turned on
by the control signal, which is applied at the end of the blank portion
of the half cycle between points 0 and 1. Full current then flows for the
remainder of the half cycle. It’s not necessary for the device to interrupt
the current, because the device goes off whenever the current reaches a
zero point during the AC cycle. The process is repeated every half cycle.
The amount of light is controlled by the phase of the control signals;
that is, the instant during the half cycle (indicated by point 1) when the
control signal is applied to turn on the device. If the device is turned
on early in the half cycle and the blank portion between 0 and 1 is short,
the current will flow most of the time, and the lights will be bright. If
the device is turned on late in the half cycle, current will have only a
short time to flow and the lights will be dim. Continuous adjustment
of the phase of the control signal produces continuous dimming, from
full brightness to darkness. Since the switching occurs so quickly (120
times per second), the lighting appears smooth.

FIGURE 27—Point 1 is the instant of

signal application.

Unfortunately, the phase-control dimming produces a hum. The hum

occurs when an abrupt current rise causes mechanical movement of
the filament-mount structure. The movement emits a hum. The larger
the incandescent lamp, the louder the hum. Medium brightness of the
lamps produces the loudest hum, while low or full brightness produces
a reduced hum. This hum is common even in fluorescent dimmers and
is more noticeable in lamps over 100 watts.

Low cost and small size are the most outstanding and important
advantages of solid-state electronic dimming. These advantages have
made it possible to increase the number of dimmers used in homes.
The efficiency means a smaller size and minimum heating effects.
Dimming incandescent lamps also increases the life of the lamp.
54 Lighting Control

Fluorescent Dimmers
The advent of the rapid-start fluorescent lamp eliminated the difficulty
in dimming fluorescent lamps. The rapid-start lamp has a separate
cathode-heating power supply provided by individual coils on the
ballast transformer. To dim the lamp, this cathode-heating supply
current must receive a constant voltage while varying the arc passing
through the tube. If this is done, there will be enough emission to
sustain the arc, regardless of the current value.

To maintain a constant cathode-heating current while varying the

lamp current, a special ballast transformer is necessary. It should be
connected to the dimmer circuit as shown in Figure 28. The colors of
the wires are indicated in the diagram. The diagram shows a 120-volt
line fed into the primary windings of the ballast transformer and
through the dimmer. Leads can connect to other ballasts in the system.
Dimming ballasts of this type are available for various types of lamps
and voltages. For proper installation of a dimming ballast, always
study the manufacturer’s recommendations.

FIGURE 28—This shows a manual dimmer circuit with diac and triac.

In fluorescent dimming, each half cycle of the voltage must have a peak
value, or restrike voltage, to re-ionize the gas in the lamp and continue
the arc current flow. If dimming is attempted by keeping the cathode
voltage constant and reducing the voltage to the ballast, the restrike
voltage won’t be available, and the lamp will become unstable and
go out. To avoid this situation, electricians sometimes use a thyraton
dimmer. However, thyraton dimmers are expensive and have been
replaced by variable transformers used as variable reactors or variable
voltage sources. Unfortunately, these systems don’t typically work
well with extremely low lighting levels.
Lighting Control 55

Solid-state phase-control dimming eventually replaced these dimming

systems. Phase-control dimming combines special ballasts that allow
the time duration of the current switching to be equally rationed to all
lamps, therefore resulting in good brightness uniformity. Solid-state
phase-control dimming systems package the dimming components in
a ballast case so that they can be installed in one of the lighting fixtures.
Only the control components of the circuit are installed in the wall box.
This type of fluorescent ballast sometimes causes the lamp to flicker.
For this reason, many phase-control fluorescent dimmers have screw-
driver adjustments for adjusting the dimming rate.

Dimming Applications
Dimming is a form of lighting control that ranges from inexpensive,
manually controlled systems to more expensive, centrally controlled
systems. Manual dimming works with incandescent lamps as well as
low-voltage and neon lamps.

As mentioned earlier, when using three-way and four-way systems,

the dimmer should be placed at only one location. Using more than
one dimmer in a system isn’t recommended. For zones with more
than one intended use, dimming systems with a triac in the central
unit use three-way wiring designs to offer an advantage over the
single dimming systems. The devices in these systems use regular
three-way wiring instead of low-voltage wiring. This system is more
expensive; however, the advantages it offers for multipurpose zones
outweigh the costs.

Preset systems offer one-touch control of dimming circuits by using

a programmable system to control several zones from one control
panel. Different amounts of illumination can be programmed into
the system and, by simply pushing a button on the control panel,
different amounts of illumination can be obtained. Single and multi-
scene dimmers can be preset. The single scene controls one zone,
while multiscenes can combine several zones to allow numerous
combinations of settings. The multiscene dimmers are controlled by
a multichannel wall box that can control up to 6000 watts. They can
also be controlled by infrared remote controls, which adds to their
convenience.
56 Lighting Control

As you learned earlier, central dimming systems are the most powerful,
yet most expensive systems. These systems can combine all types
of devices from simple manual devices to complicated computer-controlled
devices, allowing these systems to be custom designed for a specific
type of lighting system. This type of system, when used in single
rooms, can be combined with occupancy sensors, timers, and
emergency power systems for more customization. In residential
use, the whole-house system combines the use of dimmers and com-
puters to offer every available feature from adjustable fade rates
to preset dimming situations. This system contains better-quality
dimmers, but is more expensive than the power line carrier systems.

Now take a few moments to review what you’ve learned by completing

Self-Check 5.
Lighting Control 57

✔ Self-Check 5

1. The oldest type of dimming equipment is the _______.

2. Thyratons have been replaced by _______ _______.

3. Some dimming systems switch the current up to _______ times per second.

4. To avoid flickering in dimmed fluorescent lamps, the ________ rate should be adjusted.

5. Thyristors are used to control the _______ of the current.

6. Mechanical movement of the filament-mount structure can cause _______ in a high-wattage

incandescent lamp’s lighting fixture.

Check your answers with those on page 59.

58 Lighting Control

NOTES
 59

Self-Check Answers

4
1. Lighting systems

2. Zones 1. electric relay

3. Scheduling 2. Indirect control
4. energy efficiency 3. Any two of the following: central cabinet
system, local relay system, or power line
5. Stepped carrier (PLC) systems

4. master switch
2
5. relay

6. Outlet-mounted method and zone-grouped

1. Emitter, base, and collector method.
2. pilot lights 7. selector (or master)
3. open 8. Relays
4. solid-state switch

5. closed 5
6. travelers
1. rheostat

3 2. variable transformers

3. 120
1. occupant sensor (or motion detector) 4. dimming
2. interval timer (or time clock) 5. switching
3. Wall-mounted 6. humming
4. photoswitch

5. True

6. False
60 Self-Check Answers

NOTES
Examination 61

Lighting Control

EXAMINATION NUMBER:

00603300
Whichever method you use in submitting your exam
answers to the school, you must use the number above.
For the quickest test results, go to
http//www.takeexamsonline.com

When you feel confident that you have mastered the material in this study unit, complete the
following examination. Then submit only your answers to the school for grading, using one of
the examination answer options described in your “Test Materials” envelope. Send your answers
for this examination as soon as you complete it. Do not wait until another examination is ready.

Questions 1–20: Select the one best answer for each question.

1. Systems that rely on both natural light and electrical light are called
A. scheduling. C. daylighting.
B. zoned. D. dimming.

2. To control a variety of devices in different areas, a(n) _______ is used.

A. photo sensor C. occupant sensor
B. central processor D. timing device

3. An exterior lamp controlled by a switch in the garage and one in the entrance to the home is an example
of what type of lighting system?
A. Remote control C. Automatic scheduling
B. Dimming D. Timed
62 Lighting Control

4. A person needs less light to see well at night. The process that adjusts lamps to account for this
requirement is called
A. daylighting. C. stepped daylighting.
B. lumen maintenance. D. adaptation compensation.

5. The _______ switch can’t be used with direct current because it doesn’t completely extinguish the arc
when the circuit is open.
A. rocker C. quiet
B. snap D. dimmer

6. The element that controls a transistor is the

A. collector. C. emitter.
B. bias. D. base.

7. A radio frequency interference of fluorescent dimmers causes

A. the lights to flicker. C. the lights to go out.
B. noise. D. the lights to dim.

8. In what type of system must the switch always interrupt the hot wire?
A. Neutral C. Grounded
B. Ungrounded D. Dimming

9. In a four-way lighting system, how many dimmers can be installed in place of the switches?
A. 1 C. 3
B. 2 D. 4

10. _______ sensors detect heat in the field surrounding it and signal the device to close the circuit.
A. PIR C. Timed
B. Interval D. Photo

11. Two-level fluorescent lighting within a large area can easily be obtained by
A. wiring each lamp to a separate switch.
B. alternately wiring ballasts to two separate switches.
C. wiring each ballast to two switches.
D. wiring all lamps to a three-way switch.

12. The system with a central processor, which switches the lamps of a building on and off at predetermined
times throughout the day, is called
A. automatic scheduling. C. a time clock device.
B. manual scheduling. D. an automatic device.

13. The light from a lamp can’t be seen when standing near the switch in another area. What can indicate
whether the light is on or not?
A. Resistor C. Pilot light
B. Toggle switch D. Three-way switch
Lighting Control 63

14. If a three-way lamp’s first two wattages are 50/200, what is the third?
A. 100 watts C. 250 watts
B. 150 watts D. 300 watts

15. Which of the following is used with an occupancy sensor to avoid lighting when enough daylight is
available?
A. Time delay C. Relay
B. Photocell D. Switch

16. A transistor acting as a switch will allow the current to flow in the controlled circuit if the
A. emitter is back biased.
B. collector isn’t conducting.
C. semiconducting material causes a high voltage.
D. base is forward biased.

17. The _______ is activated when a knob, which winds a spring, is used to open or close a circuit for a
specific amount of time.
A. interval timer C. automatic switch
B. photosensor clock D. manual switch

18. A lighting system properly installed in a master bedroom with two entrances should have at least
_______ switches.
A. 2 C. 4
B. 3 D. 5

19. Relays are often called _______ and are common in controlling large lighting loads.
A. transformers C. solid-state switches
B. manual switches D. starters

20. With daylighting strategies, the continuous switching on and off of lights can be eliminated by using a(n)
A. deadband. C. nondimming ballast.
B. dimmer. D. emitter.