2.
3 Integrals
Definition of a Definite Integral: ∫abf(x) dx=F(b)−F(a)\int_a^b f(x) \, dx =
F(b) - F(a)∫abf(x)dx=F(b)−F(a)
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:
1. If F′(x)=f(x)F'(x) = f(x)F′(x)=f(x), then ∫abf(x) dx=F(b)−F(a)\int_a^b f(x)
\, dx = F(b) - F(a)∫abf(x)dx=F(b)−F(a)
2. ddx∫axf(t) dt=f(x)\frac{d}{dx} \int_a^x f(t) \, dt = f(x)dxd∫ax
f(t)dt=f(x)
Indefinite Integrals: ∫f(x) dx=F(x)+C\int f(x) \, dx = F(x) + C∫f(x)dx=F(x)+C
Integration Techniques:
o Substitution: uuu-substitution
o Integration by Parts: ∫u dv=uv−∫v du\int u \, dv = uv - \int v \,
du∫udv=uv−∫vdu
o Partial Fractions (for rational functions)
o Trigonometric Integrals and Substitutions
Improper Integrals: Evaluate ∫a∞f(x)dx\int_a^\infty f(x) dx∫a∞f(x)dx or
∫−∞∞f(x)dx\int_{-\infty}^\infty f(x) dx∫−∞∞f(x)dx
2.4 Applications of Integrals
Area under a curve
Area between two curves
Volume of a solid:
o Disk Method: V=π∫ab[r(x)]2dxV = \pi \int_a^b [r(x)]^2 dxV=π∫ab
[r(x)]2dx
o Washer Method: V=π∫ab([R(x)]2−[r(x)]2)dxV = \pi \int_a^b ([R(x)]^2 -
[r(x)]^2) dxV=π∫ab([R(x)]2−[r(x)]2)dx
o Shell Method: V=2π∫abr(x)h(x)dxV = 2\pi \int_a^b r(x)h(x) dxV=2π∫ab
r(x)h(x)dx
Arc length and surface area of revolution
Work done by a variable force
Accumulation functions and total change
2.5 Advanced Topics (BC-Only Topics)
Parametric, Polar, and Vector Functions
1. Parametric Functions:
o Derivatives: dydx=dydtdxdt\frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{\frac{dy}{dt}}{\
frac{dx}{dt}}dxdy=dtdxdtdy
o Second derivative: d2ydx2=ddt(dydx)dxdt\frac{d^2y}{dx^2} = \
frac{\frac{d}{dt}(\frac{dy}{dx})}{\frac{dx}{dt}}dx2d2y=dtdxdtd
(dxdy)
o Arc Length: L=∫ab(dxdt)2+(dydt)2 dtL = \int_a^b \sqrt{\left(\frac{dx}
{dt}\right)^2 + \left(\frac{dy}{dt}\right)^2} \, dtL=∫ab(dtdx)2+(dtdy
)2dt
2. Polar Functions:
o Area: A=12∫αβ[r(θ)]2dθA = \frac{1}{2} \int_\alpha^\beta [r(\theta)]^2
d\thetaA=21∫αβ[r(θ)]2dθ
o Arc Length: L=∫αβ(drdθ)2+r2dθL = \int_\alpha^\beta \sqrt{\left(\
frac{dr}{d\theta}\right)^2 + r^2} d\thetaL=∫αβ(dθdr)2+r2dθ
3. Vector-Valued Functions:
o Derivatives and integrals of vectors
o Motion in space: Position, velocity, acceleration
2.6 Sequences and Series
Sequences
Convergence vs. Divergence
Monotonic and bounded sequences
Series
Geometric Series: ∑n=0∞arn=a1−r,∣r∣<1\sum_{n=0}^\infty ar^n = \frac{a}
{1-r}, |r|<1∑n=0∞arn=1−ra,∣r∣<1
Harmonic Series: ∑n=1∞1n\sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{1}{n}∑n=1∞n1
(diverges)
ppp-Series: ∑n=1∞1np\sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{1}{n^p}∑n=1∞np1
(converges if p>1p > 1p>1)
Tests for Convergence
1. Nth-Term Test: If limn→∞an≠0\lim_{n \to \infty} a_n \neq 0limn→∞an=0, the
series diverges.
2. Integral Test
3. Comparison Test
4. Limit Comparison Test
5. Ratio Test: limn→∞∣an+1an∣\lim_{n \to \infty} \left| \frac{a_{n+1}}{a_n} \
right|limn→∞anan+1
6. Root Test: limn→∞∣an∣n\lim_{n \to \infty} \sqrt[n]{|a_n|}limn→∞n∣an∣
7. Alternating Series Test
8. Absolute vs. Conditional Convergence
Taylor and Maclaurin Series
Taylor Series: f(x)=f(a)+f′(a)(x−a)+f′′(a)2!(x−a)2+⋯f(x) = f(a) + f'(a)(x-a) + \
frac{f''(a)}{2!}(x-a)^2 + \cdotsf(x)=f(a)+f′(a)(x−a)+2!f′′(a)(x−a)2+⋯
Maclaurin Series (special case where a=0a = 0a=0)
Common Maclaurin Series:
o ex=1+x+x22!+⋯e^x = 1 + x + \frac{x^2}{2!} + \cdotsex=1+x+2!
x2+⋯
o sinx=x−x33!+x55!−⋯\sin x = x - \frac{x^3}{3!} + \frac{x^5}{5!} - \
cdotssinx=x−3!x3+5!x5−⋯
o cosx=1−x22!+x44!−⋯\cos x = 1 - \frac{x^2}{2!} + \frac{x^4}{4!} -
\cdotscosx=1−2!x2+4!x4−⋯
o ln(1+x)=x−x22+x33−⋯ ,∣x∣<1\ln(1+x) = x - \frac{x^2}{2} + \
frac{x^3}{3} - \cdots, |x|<1ln(1+x)=x−2x2+3x3−⋯,∣x∣<1
3. Exam Preparation Tips
1. Master foundational AB topics (limits, derivatives, integrals) before diving into
BC topics.
2. Practice extensively with:
o Free-response questions (FRQs)
o Multiple-choice questions (MCQs)
3. Memorize common derivatives and integrals, series formulas, and
convergence tests.
4. Understand how to apply calculus to real-world scenarios (e.g., physics,
engineering problems).
5. Use graphing calculators effectively for solving equations and analyzing
functions.
