Ravi Shankara.M.N.

ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore

Associate Professor [email protected]

Module 5(a) - Power Amplifiers

Power Amplifiers: Amplifier terms, Two load lines, Class A Operation, Class B operation, Class B push pull emitter follower,
Class C Operation.

Introduction:
An Amplifier is a device which amplifies the input received from a transducer or from any other input source to
a larger version of the input signal to some output device or to another amplifier stage.
 Amplifier Terms (Classification of amplifiers)
There are different ways to classify amplifiers based by their (i) Class of operation ((ii) inter-stage coupling, or
(iii) frequency range and so on.
Class of Operation
Parameter Class A Class B Class C
Q point Located center of the active Located at cut-off so that the Located below cut-
region and the transistor conducts transistor is not conducting in off.
for full cycle of the input the absence of the input.
Conduction 0 to 3600. 0 to 1800. 0 <  < 1800
angle
Efficiency 25% 78.5% More than 95%
Collector The input ac base voltage produce Only the positive half-cycle only part of the
Current collector current which flows for of ac base voltage produce positive half-cycle
entire input cycle. collector current and is of ac base voltage
similar to half rectified produces collector
sinewave. current in the form
of pulses.
Applications Used as Preamplifiers in cassette Audio amplifiers, Music used in radio, TV
players, CD players players and Mobile receivers
as RF amplifier

Types of Coupling
Coupling is required to connect the input to an amplifier and as well to connect the output of the amplifier to a
load. There are two types of coupling namely
(i) AC coupling and (ii) DC coupling
AC coupling - AC coupling is used to block dc voltages.
Ex- Capacitive Coupling and Transformer coupling
In Capacitive coupling the coupling capacitor transmits the
amplified ac voltage to the next stage.
In transformer Coupling, the ac voltage is coupled through a
transformer to the next stage.
In Direct coupling there is a direct connection between the collector of the first
transistor and the base of the second transistor. Because of this, both the dc and the ac
voltages are coupled. Direct coupled amplifiers where there is no lower frequency
limit, some times called as DC amplifiers. Ex- op-amp.

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Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor [email protected]

Based on Frequency of Operation

An Audio Amplifier refers to an amplifier that operates in the range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
A Radio-Frequency (RF) amplifier is one that amplifies frequencies above 20 kHz, usually much higher.
Ex- RF amplifiers in AM radios amplify frequencies between 535 and 1605 kHz, and the RF amplifiers in FM
radios amplify frequencies between 88 and 108 MHz.
Amplifiers are also classified as Narrowband or Wideband amplifiers
Narrowband amplifiers Wideband amplifiers
1 A narrowband amplifier works over a small frequency A wideband amplifier operates over a
range like 450 to 460 kHz. large frequency range like 0 to 1 MHz.
2 Narrowband amplifiers are usually tuned RF amplifiers, Wideband amplifiers are usually untuned;
which means that their ac load is a high-Q resonant that is, their ac load is resistive.
tank tuned to a radio station or television channel

Based on Signal level

In Small-signal amplifiers, the peak-to-peak swing in collector current is less than 10 percent of quiescent
collector current. Ex – A low noise preamplifier in a stereo system
In Large-Signal Amplifiers, peak-to-peak signal uses all or most of the load line. Ex- power amplifier at the
output stage driving a loud speaker.
Two Load Lines
The load line is a straight line drawn on the output characteristics of a transistor used to locate the optimum
operating point in a given biasing conditions..
Every amplifier has a dc-equivalent circuit and an ac-equivalent circuit. Because of this, it has two load lines:
a dc load line and an ac load line. For large-signal amplifiers, the Q point has to be at the middle of the ac load
line to get the maximum possible output swing.

DC load line
Consider a voltage divider bias circuit shown in figure. The base current is controlled by the biasing resistor R2.
For very large values of R2, the transistor goes into saturation while smaller values of R2 will drive the
transistor to cut-off.

The end points of the DC load line are determined by the equation VCC – IC(RC + RE) – VCE = 0
VCC
IC(sat ) = and VCE (cut −off ) = [VCC ]IC =0
RC + RE V
CE =0
AC load line
With the emitter at ac ground, RE has no effect on the ac operation. The ac collector resistance is less than the
dc collector resistance. Therefore, when an ac signal comes in, the instantaneous operating point moves along
the ac load line.

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Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor [email protected]

The peak-to-peak sinusoidal current and voltage are determined by the ac load line. It’s important to note that
the ac and dc load lines intersect at the Q point.
For maximum unclipped peak-to-peak ac output voltage, the Q point has to be placed at the center of the ac
load line.
The equation for determining end points of the ac load line are
obtained by using ac equivalent circuit shown in figure.

𝑣𝑐𝑒
KVL to collector loop yields vce + icrc = 0 and 𝑖𝑐 = − -------- (A) where rc = RC||RL
𝑟𝑐
Also ic = IC = IC – ICQ and vce = VCE = VCE – VCEQ
using these values in equation (A) And rearranging the terms results in equation of the ac loadline
V CEQ V CE
IC = ICQ + − ------------- (B)
rc rc
V CEQ
When the transistor goes into saturation (at VCE = 0), ic(sat ) = ICQ + ------- (C)
rc
When the transistor goes into cut-off (at IC = 0), vce(cut-off) = VCEQ + ICQ rc ----------- (D)

Because the ac load line has a higher slope than the dc load line, the maximum peak-to-peak (MPP) output is
always less than the supply voltage MPP < VCC

For any Q point, the maximum peak o/p is: When the Q point is below the center of the ac load line, MP = ICQ rc.
If the Q point is above the center of the ac load line, MP = VCEQ
MP = ICQrc or VCEQ whichever is smaller When the Q point is at the center of the ac load line: ICQrc = VCEQ
The maximum peak-to-peak (MPP) output is:
MPP = 2MP
R C + rc
The circuit’s emitter resistance can be adjusted for the optimum Q point RE = v CC
−1
VE

Problem - Determine the ac load line saturation and cutoff points for the circuit shown below. Also, find
the maximum peak-to-peak output voltage.
Solution
V R 30(68)
VB = R CC+R2 = 490+68 = 3.7V
1 2
VE = VB – VBE = 3.7 – 0.7= 3V
VE 3
IE = = = 150 mA ≅ ICQ
RE 20
VCEQ =VCC – IC RC – VE =30 – 0.15(120) – 3V = 9V
rc = RC||RL = 120||180 = 72
V CEQ 9
ic sat = ICQ + = 0.15 + 72 = 275 mA
rc
vce(cut-off) = VCEQ + ICQ rc = 9 + 0.15(72) = 19.8 V
ICQ rc = 0.15(72) = 10.8V > VCEQ
MP = VCEQ = 9V and MPP = 2MP = 18V

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Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor [email protected]

Class-A amplifier - A class A power amplifier conducts for entire cycle of the input, the operating point is
located at the center of the active region and the conduction angle is 0 to 3600.
Figure shows the circuit of class A power amplifier using voltage divider bias configuration and its load line.

DC Analysis:
Under dc conditions, the capacitor acts as open circuit. The DC bias is set by the voltage divider network R 1 R2
connected to VCC.
Applying KVL to output circuit, VCC –ICRC – VCE = 0
VCE VCC
IC = − +
RC RC
The dc load line is drawn with end points (VCC,0) and (0, VCC/RC) with slope –(1/RC) as shown in figure.
Fig shows the DC load line with operating point Q set at optimum level. If the dc bias collector current is set at
one half the possible signal swing (0 and VCC/RC), the largest collector swing is possible. Similarly if VCEQ is
set at one half the supply voltage, the largest voltage swing is possible.
AC operation:
When the input signal applied to the amplifier, the output will vary from its bias levels. A small input signal
will cause the base current to vary above and below the Q point; which will then cause the collector current to
vary from the set DC bias point (similarly for VCE also). The limits for the current are at 0 amp and VCC/RC and
the limits of VCE are 0 volts and VCC.
Class A Power amplifier Calculations:
Transistor Power Dissipation
With no input signal applied, the quiescent power dissipation PDQ = VCEQ ICQ
[V CE (rms ) ]2 [V CE (p −p ) ]2 [V out ]2
Output Power Pout = Po(ac ) = VCE (rms ) IC(rms ) = = =
RL 8R L 8R L
[V in ]2
𝐀𝐂 𝐢𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭 𝐩𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 Pin = 8 Z
in (stage )

where RB = R1||R2 ; zin(stage) = RB || zin(stage)

Power Gain - Power Gain is ratio of the ac output power to the ac input power and is given by
2
Pout [Vout ]2 zin (stage ) Vout zin (stage )
AP = = =
Pin 8R L [Vin ]2 Vin 8R L

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Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor [email protected]

The DC Power supplied to an amplifier by the dc source is given by

Pi(dc) = VCC Idc where Idc = Ibias + ICQ

Current Drain
The dc voltage source has to supply a dc current Idc to the amplifier. This dc current has two components: the
biasing current through the voltage divider and the collector current through the transistor. The dc current ICQ
is called the current drain of the stage. Idrain = ICQ

Efficiency
AC Outpower Pout [Vout ]2 1
Efficiency n% = =
DC input power Pi(dc ) 8R L VCC Idc

Note- The efficiency lies in the range 0 <  < 100% and the Maximum efficiency of the class A amplifier under
ideal conditions is 25% The low efficiency is due to the fact that the transistor is biased before the signal
being applied and power loss takes place in maintaining the transistor in biasing condition itself

V CE (max ) I C (max ) V CE (max ) I C (max )

Output Power Pout = Po(ac ) = VCE (rms ) IC(rms ) = 2 2
= 2
In terms of peak to peak values as
V CE (p −p ) I C (p −p )
VCE (p−p) = 2VCE  VCE (max ) =
ma x 2
and IC(p−p) = 2IC max  IC(max ) = 2
VCE (max ) IC(max ) VCE (max ) IC(max )
Pout = Po(ac ) = VCE (rms ) IC(rms ) = =
2 2 2
In terms of peak to peak values as
V CE (p −p ) I C (p −p )
VCE (p−p) = 2VCE max  VCE (max ) = 2
and IC(p−p) = 2IC max  IC(max ) = 2
VCE (max ) IC(max ) (VCE p−p /2)(IC p−p /2) (VCE max − VCE (min ) ) (IC max − IC(min ) )
Po(ac ) = = =
2 2 8
VCE(max) = VCC and VCE(min) = 0 and IC(max) = 2ICQ and IC(min) = 0.
VCC ICQ
Po(ac ) = = Pout
4
AC Outpower P V I
max = Efficiency n% = DC input power Pout = 4VCC ICQ = 25%
i(dc ) CC CQ

Problem – For the class A amplifier shown in figure, if the output voltage is 18V(p-p) and input
impedance of the base is 100, determine (i) the power gain (ii) Power dissipation and (iii) efficiency
Solution
Given Vout = 18V; zin(base) = 100, and RB = R1||R2
zin(stage) =zin(base)||RB = 100||490||68 = 37.4 
(i) Power gain AP
[Vout ]2 [18]2
AC output power Pout = = = 225mW
8R L 8(180)
[V in ]2 [0.2]2
AC input power Pin = 8 Z = 8(37.4) = 133.7µW
in (stage )
Pout 225mW
Power Gain AP = = = 1680
Pin 133.7µW
(ii) Power dissipation PDQ
V CC R 2 30(68)
VB = = = 3.7V VE = VB – VBE = 3.7 – 0.7 = 3V
R 1 +R 2 490+68

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Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor [email protected]

VE 3
IE = = = 150 mA ≅ ICQ VCEQ =VCC – IC RC – VE =30 – 0.15(120) – 3V = 9V
RE 20

Transistor power dissipation PDQ VCEQ ICQ = (0.15)(9) = 1.35 W

V CC 30
The minimum bias current ibias = = = 53.8 mA
R 1 +R 2 490+68

and Idc = ibias + ICQ = [53.8 + 150] mA = 203.8 mA

DC power input Pi(dc) = VCC ICQ = (30V)(203.8ma) = 6.11W
AC Outpower Pout 225mW
Efficiency n% = = × 100 = 3.18%
DC input power Pi(dc ) 6.11W
Emitter-Follower Class A Power Amplifier
Figure shows the circuit diagram of class A amplifier using an emitter follower. The Q point is located at the
center of the ac load line to get maximum peak-to-peak (MPP) output.
V CC
The DC load line end points are given by IC(sat ) = and VCE(cut-off) = VCCT
RE
The ac emitter resistance is less than the dc emitter resistance. When an ac signal comes in, the instantaneous
operating point moves along the ac load line.
V CE
The AC load line end points are given by ic(sat ) = ICQ + and VCE(cut-off) = VCEQ + ICQ re
rE

Problem – For an emitter follower based Class A amplifier has R1 =50, R2 =100, RE = RL = 16 and
VCC = 12V. What are the values of ICQ, VCEQ, and re. Determine the ac saturation and cutoff points Also,
find the circuit’s MPP output voltage.
V CC R 2 12(100)
𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 VB = = = 8V VE = VB – VBE = 8 – 0.7 = 7.3V
R 1 +R 2 50+100
VE 7.3
IE = = = 456 mA ≅ ICQ VCEQ =VCC – VE =12 – 7.3 = 4.7V
RE 16

re =RE||RL =16||16 = 8
V CE 4.7
The AC load line end points are given by ic(sat ) = ICQ + = 0.456 + = 1.04A
rE 8

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Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor [email protected]

VCE(cut-off) = VCEQ + ICQ re = 4.7 + 0.456(8) = 8.35V

ICQ re = 0.456(8) = 3.65V < VCE
hence MP = ICQ re = 3.65V and MPP = 2MP = 7.3V
Class-B Operation
Class B amplifiers are used in some applications like battery-powered systems where the current drain and
stage efficiency become important considerations.
Class B Push-Pull Amplifier
Figure shows a basic Class-B Push pull amplifier which uses two transistors such that one transistor conducts
for half a cycle while the other is off, and vice versa, hence the name Push-pull.
Operation
On the positive half-cycle of input voltage, the
secondary winding of T1 has voltage v1 and v2, as
shown. Therefore, the upper transistor conducts and the
lower one cuts off. The collector current through Q1
flows through the upper half of the output primary
winding. This produces an amplified and inverted
voltage, which is transformer-coupled to the
loudspeaker. On the next half-cycle of input voltage, the polarities reverse. Now, the lower transistor turns on
and the upper transistor turns off. The lower transistor amplifies the signal, and the alternate half-cycle appears
across the loudspeaker. Since each transistor amplifies one-half of the input cycle, the loudspeaker receives a
complete cycle of the amplified signal.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Since there is no bias, each transistor is at cutoff when there is no input signal, an advantage because there is no
current drain when the signal is zero.
Another advantage is improved efficiency where there is an input signal. The maximum efficiency of a Class-B
push-pull amplifier is 78.5 percent.
The main disadvantage of the amplifier shown is the use of transformers. Audio transformers are bulky and
expensive.

Class-B push-pull emitter follower

Figure shows a Class-B push-pull amplifier using npn and pnp emitter follower connected in a push-pull
arrangement. The biasing resistors are selected to set the Q point at cutoff by biasing emitter diode of each
transistor between 0.6 and 0.7 V, so that it is on the verge of conduction and ICQ = 0 and VCEQ = (VCC/2)

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Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor [email protected]

Operation - On the positive half-cycle of input voltage, the upper transistor conducts and the lower one cuts
off. The upper transistor acts like an ordinary emitter follower, so that the output voltage approximately equals
the input voltage. On the negative half-cycle of input voltage, the upper transistor cuts off and the lower
transistor conducts. The lower transistor acts like an ordinary emitter follower and produces a load voltage
approximately equal to the input voltage. The upper transistor handles the positive half-cycle of input voltage,
and the lower transistor takes care of the negative half-cycle.
Since there is no dc resistance in the collector or emitter circuits, the dc load line is vertical, With the
application of input, when either transistor is conducting, its operating point moves up along the ac load line.
The voltage swing of the conducting transistor can go all the way from cutoff to saturation. Hence the
maximum peak-to-peak output is: MPP = VCC
Ignoring re|, the voltage gain is: Av  1 and the input impedance of the base is: zi(base)  RL

Cross Over Distortion

For transistors to conduct, the EB junction has to be forward biased. The
applied input voltage must be greater than the VBE of the transistor (0.7V
for Si) Hence the output current is zero for the period 0 < Vin < VBE.
This results in discontinuity in the output waveform and this distortion is
known as cross over distortion.

Class-C Amplifier
Introduction - Class-C amplifiers uses a resonant circuits for the load and are called as tuned amplifiers. With
Class-C operation, the Q point is located below cut-off and the collector current flows for less than half a cycle.
Hence the conduction angle is less than 1800.

Working
Figure shows the circuit diagram of Class C tuned amplifier with ac, dc equivalent circuits and frequency
response. The ac input voltage drives the base, and an amplified output voltage appears at the collector. The
amplified and inverted signal is then capacitively coupled to the load resistance. Because of the parallel
resonant circuit, the output voltage is maximum at the resonant frequency.
1
fr = Hz
2π LC
Class-C amplifier is intended to amplify a narrow band of frequencies hence on either side of the resonant
frequency fr, the voltage gain drops off. The Class-C amplifier is unbiased and the resistance RS in the collector
circuit is the series resistance of the inductor which very small, hence the DC load line is vertical.
The Q point is at the lower end of the ac load line. When an ac signal is present, the instantaneous operating
point moves up the ac load line toward the saturation point. The maximum pulse of collector current is given by
the saturation current (VCC/rc)

DC Clamping of Input Signal

Consider the ac-equivalent circuit. The input signal drives the emitter diode, and the amplified current pulses
drive the resonant tank circuit. The input capacitor is part of a negative dc clamper, the signal appearing across
the emitter diode is negatively clamped. Only the positive peaks of the input signal can turn on the emitter
diode. For this reason, the collector current flows in brief pulses (non sinusoidal waveform) which is rich in
Harmonics.

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Ravi Shankara.M.N. ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore
Associate Professor [email protected]

Filtering the Harmonics

The parallel resonant tank circuit has a high impedance only at the fundamental frequency. This produces a
large voltage gain at the fundamental frequency and very little voltage gain at other harmonic frequencies.
Hence acts like filter by removing the harmonics to produce a sine wave at the output.
Advantages of Class C power amplifier.
(i) High efficiency. (ii) Excellent in RF applications. (iii) Lowest physical size for a given power output.
Disadvantages of Class C power amplifier.
(i) Lowest linearity. (ii) Not suitable in audio applications. (iii) Creates a lot of RF interference.
(iv) It is difficult to obtain ideal inductors and coupling transformers. (v) Reduced dynamic range.
Applications of Class C power amplifier. (i) RF oscillators. (ii) RF amplifier. (iii) FM transmitters.
(iv) Booster amplifiers. (v) High frequency repeaters. (vi) Tuned amplifiers etc.

Review Questions

1.What is an amplifier? Explain the classification of amplifiers based on Class of Operation.

2. What is an amplifier? Explain the classification of power amplifiers.
3. Write short notes on Types of coupling used in amplifiers.
4. What is a load line? Draw and explain the concept of DC load line and AC load line for a transistor using
voltage divider bias showing the end points.
5 What is a Class A power amplifier? Explain the operation of class A amplifier and derive the expression for
its power gain, power dissipation, current drain and its efficiency.
6. With a neat circuit diagram, explain the operation of (i) Class B push-pull amplifier (ii) Class B push-pull
emitter follower.
7. What is a Class C Power amplifier? With a neat circuit diagram explain its operation and also the DC
clamping in Class C operation.

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