Airplane Commercial Single Engine Quick Review Study Guide

WHEN IS A COMMERCIAL RATING REQUIRED? §61.133 A– Alternatives available if flight cannot be completed as planned
• When acting as PIC of an aircraft F – Fuel requirements
◦ Carrying persons or property for compensation or T – T/O & landing performance data
◦ hire
◦ For compensation or hire MEDICAL CERTIFICATES - (§61.23)
* must be quali fied and comply with applicable parts of the
regulations that apply to the particular operation being conducted
(Part 91 or 135)
** No IFR Rating - The carriage of passengers for hire in (airplanes)
(powered-lifts) on cross-country flights in excess of 50 nautical miles
or at night is prohibited

AIRPLANE-COMMERCIAL RATING MINIMUM AERONAUTICAL

EXPERIENCE (Part 141)
- A minimum of 190 flight hours must be logged to get a commercial
pilot license and become a commercial pilot.

This includes 55 hours with a certi fied flight instructor that must
consist of:
• 10 hours of training in a complex aircraft (i.e. equipped
with an electronically advanced avionics system)
• A 2-hour cross-country flight in a straight line that covers
100 nautical miles during the day
• A 2-hour cross-country flight in a straight line that covers
100 nautical miles during the night
• 3 hours in a single-engine airplane in preparation for the
practical test within 60 days preceding the date of the test
• 10 hours of solo flight, or 10 hours while performing the
duties of pilot in command AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE INSPECTIONS REQUIRED
• 5 hours in night VFR conditions with 10 takeoffs and 10 A.A.V.1.A.T.E –
landings • A – Airworthiness Directive (AD) required inspections
• • A – Annual inspection – 12 cal. Months (done by A&P with IA)**
RECENCY OF EXPERIENCE • V – VOR check every 30 days (for IFR)
• To act as PIC – Flight Review in the last 24 Calendar • 1 – 100 hour inspection (may be done by A&P without IA) **
months (see FAR for exceptions).
◦ Carrying person for hire (other than crew member)
◦ Checkride counts as a flight review
◦ Flight instructing for hire in an aircraft provided by the
• To carry passengers as PIC person giving the instruction
◦ 3 T/O & landings in category, class and type (if ◦ “For hire” refers to the person, not the aircraft.
type rating required) in the last 90 days.
▪ Flight school providing airplane + instructor for hire:
◦ At periods between 1 hour after sunset to 1 hour 100-hours required
before sunrise: 3 T/O & landings to a full stop within 1
hour after sunset to 1 hour before sunrise ▪ Student-owned aircraft: 100-hour inspection not
required
PERSONAL DOCUMENTS REQUIRED FOR FLIGHT ▪ Rental (no pilot or instructor): 100-hour not required
 Pilot Certi ficate ◦ The 100-hr inspection may be exceeded by up to 10 hours
 Medical Certi ficate if aircraft is enroute to a place where it can be done. This
additional time must be included in computing the next
 Authorized Photo ID (passport, driver's license, etc) 100-hours inspection.
 Restricted Radiotelephone Operator Permit (For • A – Altimeter, automatic altitude reporting (used by transponder) &
flights outside the US) static system every 24 calendar months (For IFR in controlled
airspace)
AIRCRAFT DOCUMENTS REQUIRED FOR FLIGHT
A.R.R.O.W.E.C - • T – Transponder every 24 calendar months
A – Airworthiness Certi ficate • E – ELT
R – Registration Certi ficate ◦ Inspected every 12 calendar months
R – Radio Station License (for flights outside the US) ◦ Battery must be replaced after more than 1 hour of
O – Operating limitations & information (in AFM) cumulative transmitter use of if 50% of its useful life has
W – Weight & Balance Data (aircraft speci fic) expired
E – External Data Plate ** A progressive inspection schedule, if speci fically approved by
C – Compass Deviation Card the FAA, may replace the annual and 100 hour inspections.
REGISTRATION INVALID WHEN
30 FTDUC -
30 – 30 days after death of owner PREFLIGHT SELF-ASSESSMENT:
F – Foreign Registration I.M S.A.F.E -
T – Transferred to new owner • I – Illness – Do I have any symptoms?
D – Destroyed • M – Medication – Have I taken any prescription of OTC drugs?
U – US Citizenship revoked • S – Stress – Am I under psychological pressure, worried about
C – Cancelled from owner finances, health, family discord?
• A – Alcohol – No drinking within 8 hours (“8 hours bottle to
PREFLIGHT INFO REQUIRED FOR FLIGHTS NOT IN VICINITY
OF AIRPORT (N.W.K.R.A.F.T. - § 91.103) throttle”). No more than 0.04% of alcohol in blood
N – NOTAMs • F – Fatigue – Am I tired / adequately rested?
W – Weather reports and forecast • E – External Pressures – Am I emotionally upset?
K – Known traf fic delays as advised by ATC
R – Runway length of intended use
RISK MANAGEMENT & PERSONAL MINIMUMS MINIMUM EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR FLIGHT (§91.205)
“I PERCEIVE the problem and PAVE the way to PROCESS it For VFR day (A T.O.M.A.T.O.F.F.L.A.M.E.S):
with great CARE so I can pass it to my TEAM to PERFORM” A – Anti-collision lights (for aircraft certi fied after 3/11/1996)
T – Tachometer
PERCEIVE (Detect Hazards) O – Oil Pressure Gauge for each engine
• PAVE M – Manifold Pressure Gauge for each altitude engine
◦ Pilot (IMSAFE) A – Airspeed indicator
T – Temperature Gauge for each liquid cooled engine
◦ Aircraft (ARROW, AAV1ATES) O – Oil Temperature Gauge for each engine
◦ enVironment (SIGMETs, Thunderstorm, Ceilings) F – Fuel Gauge for each tank
◦ External F – Floatation Device**
L – Landing Gear Position Lights (if retractable gear)
PROCESS (Identi fies which are hazards are risks) A - Altimeter
• CARE M – Magnetic Compass
E – ELT, if required by §91.207
◦ Consequences S – Safety Belts/Shoulder Harness
◦ Alternatives ** If operating for hire over water and beyond power-off gliding
◦ Reality distance from shore: (unless part 121)
◦ External Pressures • An approved floatation device for each occupant
PERFORM (Suggests ways to cope with risks) • At least one pyrotechnic signaling device
• TEAM
◦ Transfer *** Flights at and above FL240:
◦ Eliminate When using VOR for navigation, DME or RNAV is also required
◦ Accept As of January 1, 2020, ADS-B Out equipment is required to operate
◦ Mitigate in the airspace de fined in 14 CFR 91.225. If you never fly into ADS-
B-designated airspace, then there is no requirement to equip.

OPERATING WITH INOPERATIVE EQUIPMENTS (§91.213) For VFR night (F.L.A.P.S):

F – Fuses (1 full set/3 of each kind)
L – Landing light (if for hire)
A – Anti-collision lights
P – Position lights (navigation lights)
S – Source of electricity (battery, alternator)

For IFR day: all VFR day equipment + GRABCARD

For IFR night: all VFR day + VFR night + GRABCARD

G.R.A.B.C.A.R.D -
G – Generator/Alternator
R - Radio/Nav equipment
A – Attitude Indicator
B – Ball(Inclinometer)
C – Clock. Shows hours, minutes and seconds with sweep-second
pointer or digital representation. Installed as part of aircraft
equipment.
A – Altimeter (Sensitive)
R – Rate of turn indicator
D – Directional Gyro

COMMON CARRIAGE AND PRIVATE CARRIAGE (AC120-12A)

Common Carriage
• refers to the carriage of passengers or cargo as a result of
advertising the availability of carriage to the public
A Special Flight Permit is issued to any U.S. registered aircraft • A carrier becomes a common carrier when it “holds itself out”
that may not currently meet applicable Airworthiness (Holding out = advertising)
Requirements but is capable of safe flight. • Four elements de fining a common carrier:
 A holding out of willingness to
BASIC VFR MINIMUMS (§91.155)
 Transport persons or property
 From place to place
 For compensation or hire
• Examples for holding out
 Signs and advertising
 Salesmen, agents, and agencies who may obtain
passenger traf fic from the general public and collect them
into groups to be carried by the operator
 Gaining a reputation to “serve all”
Private Carriage
• Carriage for hire that does not involve holding out
• Private carriage for hire is carriage for one or several selected
customers, generally on a long-term basis
• The number of contracts must not be too great, otherwise it
implies a willingness to make a contract with anybody
• A carrier operating with 18-24 contracts has been labeled a
common carrier
• Private carriage has been found in cases where 3 contracts
have been the sole basis of the operator's business
COMMERCIAL OPERATIONS CHART CESSNA 152 SYSTEMS
Aircraft Information:
• Powerplants
◦ Make: Avco-Lycoming
◦ Model: O-235-L2C
◦ Power: 110 HP
◦ Normally aspirated, Direct-drive, Air-cooled, Horizontally
Opposed, Carbureted, Four Cylinder
◦ 4CHANDL
▪ 4 – 4 Cylinder
▪ C – Carbureted
▪ H – Horizontally Opposed
▪ A – Air Cooled
▪ N – Normally Aspirated
▪ D – Direct Drive
▪ L – Lycoming O-235-L2C
• Propeller
◦ Make: McCauley
◦ Blades: 2
◦ Type: Fixed pitch
• Fuel
◦ Type: 100LL Blue
◦ Capacity: 26 gal. (total) / 24.5 (usable)
.
• Oil
◦ 4-6 quarts
• Weights
◦ MTOW/MLW: 1670 lbs.
◦ Max ramp weight: 1675 lbs
◦ 120 lbs max baggage
• Landing Gear
◦ Fixed Tricycle gear
▪ Nose gear
• Oleo strut (air + oil)
• Steerable
▪ Main gear
• Tubular Spring Steel
• Brake System
◦ hydraulically actuated disc brakes
• Electrical System
◦ 28V 60amp alternator
◦ 24V Lead acid battery
• Flight Controls
◦ Ailerons: Differential (Reduces adverse yaw)
◦ Flaps: Single-slot (electrically operated)
◦ Actuated with cables and pulleys

AIRSPACE
Class A (AIM 3-2-2) Class C (AIM 3-2-4)
• Controlled airspace from 18,000' MSL to FL600 within the 48 • Controlled airspace around towered airports with certain
contiguous states and Alaska. Includes airspace beyond the 12 number of IFR operations or passenger volume
NM distance • Typical inner area is a 5 NM radius surrounding its primary
• IFR only unless otherwise authorized airport, extending up to 4,000' above airport height
Class B (AIM 3-2-3, §91.155) • A 10NM radius shelf area typically extends from no lower
• Controlled airspace surround the nation's busiest airports. than 1,200' up to 4,000' above the airport height
• Usually extends from the surface up to 10,000' MSL • A non-charted outer area extends up to 20 NM from the
• The shape of each class B is speci fically tailored for its primary airport
environment • ATC provides VFR/IFR traf fic separation in the outer area if
• Consist of a surface area and two or more layers (resembling an two-way radio communication is established and in the Class
upside-down wedding cake) C airspace itself.
• Requires two-way radio communications • Requires two-way radio communication, a Mode-C
• ATC separates both VFR and IFR traf fic transponder and ADS-B Out equipment
Class D (AIM 3-2-5)
• Requires ATC clearance to enter. VFR pilots must make sure
• Controlled airspace extending from the surface to 2,500'
they hear a clearance to “Enter Class B”. IFR pilots typically
already have this clearance as part of their ATC clearance picked above the airport height
up before or after takeoff • Usually shaped as a cylinder with a 4 NM radius from the
• A Mode-C transponder and ADS-B Out equipment are required primary airport
within a 30 NM radius (the “Mode-C Veil”) • Requires two-way radio communication
Class E (AIM 3-2-5) Class G (AIM 3-3)
• Controlled airspace not designated as A, B, C, or D • Uncontrolled airspace. Class G airspace is any airspace
• May or may not be associated with an airport that has not been designated as Class A, B, C, D, or E
• Requires Mode-C transponder and ADS-B Out equipment at and
above 10,000' MSL within the 48 contiguous states and D.C.
Excluding at or below 2,500' AGL SPECIAL VFR
• Requires ADS-B Out at and above 3,000' MSL over the Gulf of • An ATC authorization for a VFR aircraft to operate in weather
Mexico from the U.S. Coast out to 12NM that is less than the basic VFR minima
• Types of Class E: • 1SM and Clear of Clouds
◦ Surface area designated for an airport
Except as provided in §91.157 (SVFR), no person may takeoff or
◦ Extension to a surface area of Class B, C, or D land an aircraft, or enter the traf fic pattern of an airport, under
◦ Transition area. Class E beginning at 700' or 1200' AGL VFR, within the lateral boundaries of surface areas of Class B, C,
used to transition to/from a terminal or en-route environment D, or E airspace designated for an airport:
◦ En-route domestic areas • Unless ground visibility at the airport is at least 3 SM,
or
• If ground visibility is not reported at that airport, unless
flight visibility during takeoff or landing, ir while operating
in the traf fic pattern is at least 3 SM
SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE
Prohibited Areas (§91.133, AIM 3-4-2) Military Training Routes (MTR) (AIM 3-5-2)
• Flight is prohibited unless permission is granted by the using or • IFR MTRs (IR) are typically above 1,500' AGL, while VFR
controlling agency, as appropriate MTRs (VR) are below 1,500' AGL
• Prohibited airspace exists due to security or other reasons • Generally, MTRs are established below 10,000 ft at speeds in
associated with the national welfare excess of 250 knots. However, route segments may exist at
• Example: Prohibited airspace P56A over the White House higher altitudes
Restricted Areas (§91.133, AIM 3-4-3) • Route Identi fication
• Flight is not completely prohibited, but it is subject to ◦ MTRs with no segments above 1,500' AGL are identi fied
restrictions due to hazards to aircraft such as artillery firing, by 4 digits; e.g. IR1206, VR1207.
aerial gunnery, or guided missiles. ◦ MTRs that include one or more segments above 1,500'
• No person may operate an aircraft within a restricted area AGL are identi fied by three digits; e.g. IR206, VR207.
contrary to the restrictions imposed, unless that person has the Air Defense Identi fication Zone (ADIZ) (AIM 5-6)
permission of the using or controlling agency • An area of airspace over land or water, in which the ready
• If the restricted airspace is not active and has been released to identi fication, location, and control of all aircraft (except DoD
the controlling agency (FAA), ATC will allow the aircraft to and law enforcement aircraft) is required in the interest of
operate in the restricted airspace without a speci fic national security
clearance to do so. • Requirements to operate within an ADIZ:
• If the restricted airspace is active, and has not been released to ◦ An operable Transponder with altitude encoding
the controlling agency (FAA), ATC will issue a clearance which ◦ Two-way radio communication with the appropriate
will ensure the aircraft avoids the restricted airspace unless it aeronautical facility.
is on an approved altitude reservation mission or has obtained its
own permission to operate in the airspace and so informs the ◦ File an IFR or Defense VFR (DVFR) Flight Plan
controlling agency. ◦ Depart within 5 minutes of flight plan's estimated
Warning Areas (AIM 3-4-4) departure time (exempt in Alaska info facility exists for
• Extends 3 NM outward from the coast of the U.S. filing, file immediately after departure or when range of
• Contains activity that may be hazardous to aircraft an appropriate facility).
Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFR) (AIM 3-5-3)
• The purpose of warning areas is to warn nonparticipating aircraft • De fined in Flight Data Center (FDC) NOTAMs
of the potential hazard.
• TFR NOTAMs begin with the phrase: “FLIGHT
• May be located on domestic or international water, or both.
RESTRICTIONS.”
Military Operating Areas (MOA) (AIM 3-4-5)
• Current TFRs are found at www.tfr.faa.gov
• Established for the purpose of separating certain military training
activities from IFR traf fic. • Some reasons the FAA may establish a TFR:
• When a MOA is in use, nonparticipating IFR aircraft may be ◦ Protect persons or property in the air or on the surface
cleared through it if IFR separation can be provided. from hazards by low flying aircraft
• Example activities in an MOA: air combat tactics, air intercepts, ◦ Provide a safe environment for disaster relief aircraft
aerobatics, formation training, and low-altitude tactics. ◦ Prevent an unsafe congestion of sightseeing aircraft
• Pilots operating under VFR should exercise extreme caution around an event of high public interest
when operating within an active MOA. Therefore, pilots should ◦ Protect declared national disasters for humanitarian
contact any FSS within 100 miles of an area to obtain accurate reasons in the State of Hawaii
real-time information concerning the MOA hours of operation. ◦ Protect the President, Vice President, or other public
Prior to entering an active MOA, pilots should contact the figures
controlling agency for traf fic advisories ◦ Provide a safe environment for space agency operations
Alert Areas (AIM 3-4-6) Special Flight Rules Area (SFRA) (AIM 3-5-7)
• Depicted on charts to inform pilots of high volume of pilot training • An airspace of de fined dimensions above land areas or
or an unusual type of aerial activity territorial waters, where special air traffic rules have been
• Pilots transitioning the area are equally responsible for collision established for.
avoidance. • Each person operating in a SATR (Special Air Traffic Rules)
Controlled Firing Areas (AIM 3-4-7) or SFRA must adhere to the special air traf fic rules in 14 CFR
• Contain activities that, if not conducted in a controlled Part 93, unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC
environment, may be hazardous to nonparticipating aircraft. • Example: The Washington DC Metropolitan SFRA
• Activities are suspended immediately when a spotter aircraft,
radar, or ground lookout positions indicate an aircraft might be
approaching the area
• CFAs are not charted because they do not cause a
nonparticipating aircraft to change its flight path
 WEATHER
WEATHER INFORMATION SOURCES WEATHER PRODUCTS
• Flight Service Station (FSS) • AIRMETS (WA) -
• NOAA's Aviation Weather Center Website ◦ An advisory of signi ficant weather phenomena at
https://www.aviationweather.gov/ lower intensities than those which require the
• Flight planning websites such as www.1800wxbrief.com and issuance of SIGMETs. These conditions may affect all
www. fltplan.com aircraft but are potentially hazardous to aircraft with
• EFB software (i.e., ForeFlight, Jeppesen FlightDeck Pro) limited capability.
• Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB) – Available in Alaska ◦ Valid for 6 hours
only. A recorded broadcast over selected L/MF and VOR facilities ◦ AIRMET (T) – describes moderate turbulence,
of weather information for the local area. sustained surface winds of 30 knots or greater, and/or
• Flight Information Services-Broadcast (FIS-B) – A ground non-convective low-level wind shear.
information data link service, provided through ADS-B service ◦ AIRMET (Z) – describes moderate icing and provides
network over 978 UAT MHz. Provides aviation weather and freezing level heights.
aeronautical information on cockpit displays. Some information ◦ AIRMET (S) – describes IFR conditions and/or
available on FIS-B: extensive mountain obscurations.
• METAR, TAF, NEXRAD, AIRMET, SIGMETs and convective ◦ Graphical AIRMETs (AIRMET G) – found at
SIGMETs www.aviationweather.gov
• TFR, Special Use Airspace updates and NOTAMs (FDC and • SIGMET (WS) -
distant) ◦ A non-scheduled in flight advisory with a maximum
• PIREPs forecast period of 4 hours. Advises of non-convective
• Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) – A continuous weather potentially hazardous to all types of aircraft. A
broadcast of local airport weather and NOTAMs. Updated hourly, SIGMET is issued when the following is expected to
normally at 55 minutes passed the hour. Special updates issued occur:
outside the regular hourly cycle when needed. ATIS is published ▪ Severe icing not associated with thunderstorms
over the radio and, in locations with D-ATIS, via data link ▪ Severe or extreme turbulence or Clear Air
(ACARS) Turbulence (CAT) not associated with
• Automated Surface Observation System (ASOS) – thunderstorms
◦ Typically update hourly ▪ Dust storms, sandstorms lowering surface
◦ Controlled and operated by the National Weather Service visibility below 3 miles
(NWS) and the Department of Defense (DoD), though the ▪ Volcanic Ash
FAA does operate and control some stations. • Convective SIGMET (WST) -
• Automated Weather Observation System (AWOS) - ◦ An in flight advisory of convective weather signi ficant
◦ Update every minute to the safety of all aircraft.
◦ Controlled and operated by the FAA ◦ Issued hourly at 55 minutes past the hour for the
• ATC – Center weather advisories are issued by ARTCC to alert western (W), eastern (E), and central (C) USA.
pilots of existing or anticipated adverse weather conditions. ▪ Not issued for Alaska or Hawaii
ARTCC will also broadcast severe forecast alerts (AWW), ◦ Valid for 2 hours
convective SIGMETs and SIGMETs on all of its frequencies ◦ Contains either an observation and a forecast or only
except for the emergency frequency (121.5 MHz). a forecast
• Onboard weather radar ◦ Issued for any of the following:
• Onboard lightning detector ▪ Severe thunderstorms due to:
• XM Satellite weather service • Surface winds greater or equal to 50 knots
• ACARS • Hail at the surface greater than ¾ inch in
TYPES OF WEATHER BRIEFING diameter
• Standard – A full brie fing. Includes: adverse conditions, VFR not ▪ Tornadoes
recommended, synopsis, current conditions, en route forecast,
destination forecast, winds aloft, NOTAMs and ATC delays. ▪ Embedded thunderstorms of any intensity level
• Abbreviated – Updates previously received information from ▪ A line of thunderstorms at least 60 miles long
mass disseminated sources or a previous brie fing with thunderstorms affecting at least 40% of its
• Outlook – For departures 6 or more hours away. Includes length
forecasts for the time of the flight. ▪ Thunderstorms producing heavy or greater
• In flight – FSS also provides any above types in flight. precipitation (VIP level 4) affecting at least 40%
of an area of at least 3000 square miles.
◦ Any Convective SIGMET implies severe or greater
WEATHER PRODUCTS – Continued turbulence, severe icing, and low level wind shear
• METAR - Aviation routine weather show surface weather • International SIGMET
observations in a standard international format. Scheduled
METARs are published every hour. Non-scheduled METARs ◦ Issued outside the Contiguous USA and follow ICAO
(SPECI) are issued when there is a signi ficant change in one or coding standards
more reported element since the last scheduled METAR. ◦ In the US, international SIGMETs are issued for areas
• TAF – Terminal Aerodrome Forecast. Weather forecast for 5SM that include Alaska, Hawaii, portions of the Atlantic and
radius area around the station. Issued 4 times a day, every six Paci fic Oceans, and the Gulf of Mexico.
hours and normally covers a 24 or 30 hour forecast period. TAF ◦ Criteria for international SIGMETs:
amendments (TAF AMD) superseded previous TAFs. ▪ Thunderstorms occurring in lines, embedded in
• Surface analysis chart – Generated from surface station clouds, or in large areas producing tornadoes or
reports. Show pressure systems, isobars, fronts, airmass large hail
boundaries (e.g.: dry lines and out flow boundaries) and station ▪ Tropical cyclones
information (e.g.: wind, temperature/dew point, sky coverage, and ▪ Severe icing
precipitation). Issued every 3 hours. (or every 6 hours in Hawaii
▪ Severe or extreme turbulence
and tropical and Oceanic regions). A Uni fied Surface Analysis
Chart is produced every 6 hours and combines the analysis from ▪ Dust storms and sandstorms lowering surface
the 4 centers (OPC, WPC, NHC, and HFO) visibility to less than 3 miles
▪ Volcanic ash
• PIREP (UA) & Urgent PIREP (UUA) – pilot weather reports
 WEATHER PRODUCTS – Continued
• Wind & temp aloft forecasts (FB) – Issued 4 times daily for • Convective Outlook – Available both graphical and textual
various altitudes and flight levels. format. A 3-day forecast of convective activity. Convective
Winds and altitude up to 1500' AGL and temperatures at up to areas are classi fied as marginal (MRGL), slight (SLGT),
2500' AGL are not shown. enhanced (ENH), moderate (MDT), and high (HIGH) risk for
Format: DDff±tt, where DD = wind direction; ff = wind speed; tt = severe weather. Issuance: day 1 – 5 times a day, day 2 –
temperature. Light and variable winds: 9900. Winds between twice a day, day 3 – once a day. Available on
100-199 kts are coded by adding 5 to the first digit of the wind www.spc.noaa.gov
direction. • Weather satellite images:
Above FL240 temperatures are negative and the minus sign (-) is ◦ Visible
omitted.
Examples: ▪ Helps in identifying cloud coverage based on visible
1312+05: winds 130 / 13 kts, 5°C light re flection
7525-02: winds 250 / 125 kts, -2°C ▪ Not useful for identifying cloud height
• Radar summary chart – Depicts precipitation type, intensity, ◦ Infrared (Color or B/W)
coverage, movement, echoes, and maximum tops. Issued hourly. ▪ Measure cloud top temperature
• Low level signi ficant weather chart – Forecasts signi ficant ▪ Highest clouds appear bright white
weather conditions for a 12 and 24 hour period from the surface ▪ Middle clouds are in shades of gray
to 400 mb level (24,000 ft). Issued 4 times a day. Depicts weather
categories (IFR, MVFR and VFR), turbulence and freezing levels. ▪ Low clouds and fog are dark gray
• Mid-level signi ficant weather chart – Forecasts of signi ficant ◦ Water vapor
weather at various altitudes and flight levels from 10,000' MSL to ▪ Shows areas of moist and dry air in shades of gray
FL450. Shows: thunderstorms, jet streams, tropopause height, from white to black
tropical cyclones, moderate and severe icing conditions, ▪ Moist areas are depicted as bright white
moderate or severe turbulence, cloud coverage and type, ▪ Dry air is depicted in black.
volcanic ash and areas of released radioactive materials. Issued • Next Generation Weather Radar (NEXRAD) products
4 times a day for the North Atlantic Region.
Examples:
• High-level signi ficant weather chart – Depicts forecast of
◦ Base re flectivity – echo intensities in dBZ. Available for
signi ficant weather phenomena for FL250 to FL630. Shows:
coverage bases and tops of thunderstorms and CB clouds, several elevation tilt angles
moderate and severe turbulence, jet streams, tropopause ◦ Echo tops – color coded echo top heights
heights, tropical cyclones, severe squall lines, volcanic eruption ◦ Composite re flectivity – reveals highest re flectivity of
sites, widespread sand and dust storms. Issued 4 times a day. all echoes, helps in examining storm structure features
• Graphical turbulence Guidance (GTG) tool at and the intensity of storms
www.aviationweather.gov/turbulence/gtg – shows color coded ◦ 1 and 3-hour precipitation
turbulence forecast based on aircraft category, altitude and time. • Ceiling & Visibility Charts – Shows ceiling based on surface
observations. This online tool phased out the older weather
depiction chart and is now replaced with the HEMS tools at
www.aviationweather.gov/hemst

WEATHER HAZARDS

THUNDERSTORMS

The Three Conditions Required for the formation of Thunderstorms

1. Suf ficient water vapor (moisture)
2. An unstable temperature lapse rate. Stability is the resistance of the atmosphere to upwards or downwards displacement. AN
unstable lapse rate allows any air mass displacement to further grow vertically.
3. An initial uplifting force (e.g., front passages, orthographic lifting by typography, heating from below, etc.).

Three Stages in Thunderstorm Lifecycle:

1. Cumulus (3-5 mile height) – The lifting action of the air begins, growth rate may exceed 3000 fpm.
2. Mature (5-10 mile height) – Begins when precipitation starts falling from the cloud base. Updraft at this stage may exceed 6000 fpm.
Downdrafts may exceed 2500 fpm. All thunderstorm hazards are at their greatest intensity at the mature stage.
3. Dissipating (5-7 miles height) – characterized by strong downdrafts and the cell dying rapidly.

Thunderstorm Hazards:
• Limited visibility • Strong updrafts / downdrafts • Hailstones • Severe turbulence
• Wind shear • Icing • Heavy rain • Lightning strikes and tornadoes

• A microburst is a strong downdraft that normally occurs over horizontal distances of 1-2 NM and vertical distances of less than
1,000 feet.
◦ Could induce wind speeds greater than 100 knots and downdrafts as strong as 6,000 feet per minute
◦ Typically intensi fies for about 5 minutes after it initially contacts the ground, and dissipates within 10 to 20 minutes after ground
contact.
◦ Virga consists of rain droplets that evaporate before reaching the ground, and has a wispy or shredded appearance. It is one of
the indications for a microburst occurring.
◦ A microburst during takeoff or landing is particularly dangerous if the pilot has reduced power and lowered the nose in response
to the headwind. This leaves the aircraft in a low-power, nose-low con figuration, making it dif ficult to recover when the wind
switches to a tailwind. Due to the potential of a 30-90 knot loss in headwind, the airplane could stall or land short of the runway.
FOG
A cloud that begins within 50 ft of the surface.
Fog occurs when:
• The air temperature near the ground reaches its dew point, or
• when the dew point is raised to the existing temperature by added moisture to the air.
Types of fog
• Radiation fog – Occurs at calm, clear nights when the ground cools rapidly due to the release of ground radiation.
• Advection fog – warm, moist are moves over a cold surface. Winds (not more than 15 kts) are required for advection fog to form.
• Ice fog – Forms when the temperature is much below freezing and water vapor turns directly into ice crystals. Ice fog is common in
the arctic regions, but also occurs in mid-latitudes.
• Upslope fog – Moist, stable air is forced up a terrain slop and cooled down to its dew point by adiabatic cooling.
• Steam fog – Cold, dry air moves over warm water. Moisture is added to the airmass and steam fog forms.

ICING
• Structural Ice. Two conditions for formation: 1. Visible moisture (i.e., rain, cloud droplets), and 2. Aircraft surface temperature below
freezing
◦ In flight Icing Terms (AIM 7-1-22)
▪ Clear Ice – The most dangerous type. Heavy, hard and dif ficult to remove. Forms when water drops freeze slowly as a
smooth sheet of solid ice. Usually occurs at temperatures close to the freezing point (-10°C to 0°C) by large supercooled
drops of water
▪ Rime Ice – Opaque, white, rough ice formed by small supercooled water drops freezing quickly. Occurs at lower
temperatures than clear ice.
▪ Mixed Ice – Clear and rime ice formed simultaneously
▪ Glaze Ice – Ice, sometimes clear and smooth, but usually containing some air pockets, which results in a lumpy
translucent appearance. Similar to clear ice. The terms “clear” and “glaze” have been used for essentially the same type of
ice accretion, although some reserve “clear” for thinner accretions which lack horns and conform to the airfoil
▪ Intercycle Ice – Ice which accumulates on a protected surface between actuation cycles of a deicing system.
▪ Known or Observed or Detected Ice Accretion – Actual ice observed visually to be on the aircraft by the flight crew or
identi fied by on-board sensors
▪ Residual Ice – Ice which remains on a protected surface immediately after the actuation of a deicing system
▪ Runback Ice – Ice which forms from the freezing or refreezing of water leaving protected surfaces and running back to
unprotected surfaces.
• Instrument Ice – Structural ice forming over aircraft instruments and sensors, such as pitot and static.
• Induction Ice – ice reducing the amount of air for the engine intake
• Intake Ice – Blocks the engine intake
• Carburetor Ice – May form due to the steep temperature drop in the carburetor venturi. Typical conditions are outside air
temperatures of -7°C to 21°C (20°F to 70°F) and a high relative humidity (above 80%).
• Frost – Ice crystals caused by sublimation when both temperature and dew point are below freezing.

AEROMEDICAL
• Hypoxia – Insuf ficient supply of oxygen to the body cells.
◦ Time of Useful Consciousness (TUC) is the period of time from interruption of the oxygen supply or exposure to an oxygen-
poor environment to the time when an individual is no longer capable of taking proper corrective and protective action.
Common Name Location of Impediment Explanation
Hypoxic Hypoxia Lungs Any condition that interrupts the flow of O2 into
the lungs. This is the type of hypoxia encountered at
altitude due to the reduction of the partial pressure of
O2
Hypemic Hypoxia Blood Any condition that interferes with the ability of
the blood to carry oxygen. Anemia and carbon
monoxide poisoning are two conditions that can keep
O2 from attaching to the hemoglobin with the red
blood cell
Stagnant Hypoxia Blood Transport Any condition that interferes with the normal
circulation of the blood arriving to the cells. Heart
failure, shock, and positive G force along the Z axis
will bring about this condition.
Histotoxic Hypoxia Cell Any condition that interferes with the normal
utilization of O2 in the cell. Alcohol, narcotics and
cyanide all can interfere with the cell's ability to use
the oxygen in support of metabolism.
Source: Introduction to Aviation Physiology
• Hyperventilation
◦ A condition which occurs when excessive amount of CO2 is eliminated from the body as a result of breathing to rapidly.
Symptoms may be similar to those of hypoxia. Breathing into a paper bag or talking aloud helps recovery from hyperventilation.
◦ Raises the blood's pH value (making it more alkaline), which initiates constriction of the blood vessels that supply the brain, and
prevent the transport of oxygen and other molecules necessary for the function of the nervous system
• Decompression Sickness – Inert gasses (mainly nitrogen) are released rapidly from solution in the body tissues and fluids as a
result of low barometric pressure. The gasses form bubbles that may har, the body in several ways. The most common result of
decompression sickness is joint pain (“the bends”). To help prevent the bends after SCUBA diving:
◦ Flights up to 8000' MSL
▪ Non-decompression stop diving – wait 12 hours
▪ Decompression stop diving – wait 24 hours
◦ Flights above 8000' MSL
▪ Wait 24 hours
• Carbon Monoxide Poisoning
 ◦ CO is a colorless and odorless gas produced by all internal combustion engines. Attaching itself to the hemoglobin in the blood
about 200 times more easily than oxygen, CO prevents the hemoglobin from carrying oxygen to the cells, resulting in hypemic
hypoxia.
◦ Aircraft heater vents and defrost vents may provide CO a passageway into the cabin, particularly if the engine exhaust system
has a leak or is damaged.
▪ If a strong odor of exhaust gases is detected, assume that CO is present.
◦ Any time a pilot smells exhaust odor, or any symptoms (headache, blurred vision, dizziness, drowsiness, and/or loss of muscle
power) are experienced, immediate corrective action should be take
▪ turning off the heater
▪ opening fresh air vents and windows
▪ using supplemental oxygen, if available.
• Middle Ear & Sinus Blockage
◦ Air pressure in the middle ear and sinuses normally equalizes with external air through the nasal passages
◦ Allergies, colds or sinus infections may block these small opening and prevent the pressure from equalizing
◦ If the air gets trapped, it may cause extreme pain, reduction in hearing or damage to the ear drums. This effect is usually most
severe during descent
◦ To relieve this condition, try the “Valsalva Maneuver”: pinch your nostrils and gently try to blow air out of your nose. This forces
air through the Eustachian tube into the middle ear. It may work if the pilot has a cold, sinus, or ear infection, or a sore throat.
◦ Consider seeing a physician if the condition doesn't clear after the flight
• Spatial Disorientation and Illusions
◦ 3 systems the body uses for spatial orientation
▪ Vestibular System – consists of organs in the inner ear
• 3 semicircular canals sense movement in 3 axes: pitch, roll, and yaw. The canals are filled with fluid, which moves
against tiny sensory hairs as the head is moved. The brain gets signals and interprets a sensation of movement.
• 2 otolith organs, the utricle and saccule, sense acceleration in the horizontal and vertical planes
▪ Somatosensory System – consists of nerves in the skin, muscles and joints
▪ Visual system – visual cues from our eyes help the brain figure out spatial disorientation
◦ Vestibular Illusions
▪ The leans – after leveling the wings following a prolonged turn, pilot may feel the aircraft is banked in the opposite direction
of the turn
▪ Coriolis Illusion – After a prolonged turn, the fluid in the ear canal moves at same speed as the canal. A head movement
on a different plane will cause the fluid to start moving and result in a false sensation of acceleration or turning on a different
axis.
▪ Graveyard Spiral – A pilot in a prolonged, coordinated constant-rate turn may experience the illusion of not turning. After
leveling the wings, the pilot may feel the sensation of turning to the other direction (“the leans”), causing the pilot to turn
back in the original direction. Since a higher angle of attack is required during a turn to remain level, the pilot may notice a
loss of altitude and apply back force on the elevator. This may tighten the spiral and increase the loss of altitude.
▪ Somatogravic Illusion – Rapid acceleration stimulates the inner ear otolith organs in the same way as tilting the head
backwards. This may create the illusion of a higher pitch angle. Deceleration causes the opposite illusion – the sensation of
tilting the head forward and the aircraft being in a nose-low attitude.
▪ Inversion Illusion – An abrupt change from climb to straight and level may create the illusion of tumbling backwards due to
the fluid movement in the otolith organs
▪ Elevator illusion – An abrupt upward vertical acceleration may create the illusion of a climb, due to fluid movement in the
otolith organs.
◦ Visual Illusions
▪ False Horizon – an illusion in which the pilot may misidentify the horizon line. May be caused by sloping cloud formation, an
obscured horizon, an aurora borealis, dark night with scattered lights and stars or the geometry of the ground
▪ Autokinesis – Staring at a stationary point of light in a dark or featureless scene for a prolonged period of time may cause
the light to appear to be moving. A pilot may attempt to align the aircraft with the perceived moving light, resulting in loss of
control.
◦ Optical Illusions
▪ Runway Width Illusion – A narrow runway may create the illusion that the aircraft is higher than it actually is. A wid runway
may cause the opposite effect of the aircraft flying too low.
▪ Runway and Terrain Slope Illusion – An upsloping terrain or runway may create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher
altitude than it actually is.
▪ Featureless Terrain Illusion – Also known as “black hole approach”. Flying over featureless or dark areas, such as in an
overwater approach, can create the illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude than it actually is and may lead the pilot to
fly at a lower altitude than desired.
▪ Water Refraction – Rain on the windscreen can create an illusion of being at a higher altitude due to the horizon appearing
lower than it Is. This can result in the pilot flying a lower approach.
▪ Haze – Shooting an approach in haze may create the illusion that the runway is further than it actually is, or the aircraft is
higher than it actually is
▪ Fog – Flying into fog may create an illusion of a nose-up motion.
▪ Ground Lighting Illusion – Lights along a straight path, such as road or lights on moving trains, can be mistaken for
runway and approach lights. Bright runway and approach lighting systems, especially where few lights illuminate the
surrounding terrain, may create the illusion that the runway is closer than it actually is. This may result in the pilot flying a
higher approach than desired.
• Motion sickness - is caused by the brain receiving con flicting messages about the state of the body
◦ Opening fresh air vents, focusing on objects outside the airplane, and avoiding unnecessary head movements may help alleviate
some of the discomfort.
• Stress - is the body’s response to physical and psychological demands placed upon it
◦ Two categories:
▪ Acute stress - an immediate threat that is perceived as danger.
 ▪ Chronic stress - a level of stress that presents an intolerable burden, exceeds the ability of an individual to cope, and causes
individual performance to fall sharply.
• Fatigue – can cause degradation of attention and concentration, impaired coordination, and decreased ability to communicate
◦ Two categories:
▪ Acute fatigue – short term and is normal occurrence in everyday living
• Skill fatigue – special type of acute fatigue
◦ Timing disruption – appearing to perform task as usual, but the timing of each component is slightly off
◦ Disruption of the perceptual field – concentrating attention upon movements or objects in the center of vision and
neglecting those in periphery
▪ Chronic fatigue - extending over a long period of time, usually has psychological roots, although an underlying disease is
sometimes responsible.
◦ If suffering from acute fatigue, stay on the ground.
◦ If fatigue occurs in the flight deck, no amount of training or experience can overcome the detrimental effects.
◦ Getting adequate rest is the only way to prevent fatigue from occurring. Avoid flying without a full night’s rest, after working
excessive hours, or after an especially exhausting or stressful day.
• Hypothermia - is a medical emergency that occurs when your body loses heat faster than it can produce heat, causing a dangerously
low body temperature
◦ When your body temperature drops, your heart, nervous system and other organs can't work normally.
▪ Left untreated, hypothermia can lead to complete failure of your heart and respiratory system and eventually to death.

For medications, if you take any of the “NO GO” medications or if you have had side effects from the medication before, wait at least five
(5) dosage intervals after the last dose before flying.

VFR CRUISING ALTITUDES §91.159 VFR MINIMUM FUEL REQUIREMENTS §91.151

Each person operating an aircraft
under VFR in level cruising flight
more than 3,000 feet above the
surface shall maintain the
appropriate altitude or flight level
prescribed below, unless otherwise
authorized
by ATC:
• Below 18,000' MSL
◦ 0°-179°**
▪ ODD thousand foot + 500
NIGHT FLIGHT INFORMATION
feet (such as 3,500,
5,500, 7,500) • Sunset to sunrise §91.209
◦ 180°-359°** ◦ Position lights need to be on (and anti-collision lights if
▪ EVEN thousand food + 500 feet (such as 4,500, 6,500, you have them)
8,500) • The end of evening civil twilight to the beginning of
• Above 18,000' MSL morning civil twilight
◦ You can log night flight time, and your plane needs to be
◦ Maintain the altitude or flight level assigned by ATC
equipped
**Based on magnetic course • 1 hour after sunset ending 1 hour before sunrise
§61.57(b)
◦ You need to be night landing current to carry
passengers
◦ Landings should be done in this period for night currency
RIGHT OF WAY RULES § 91.113
• In distress. An aircraft in distress has the right-of-way over all other traf fic.
• Converging. When aircraft of the same category are converging at approximately the same altitude (except head-on, or nearly so),
the aircraft to the other's right has the right-of-way
◦ B.G.A.A.R.
▪ Balloon
▪ Glider
▪ Airships
▪ Airplane/Rotorcraft
• Approaching head-on. When aircraft are approaching each other head-on, or nearly so, each pilot of each aircraft shall alter course
 to the right.
• Overtaking. Each aircraft that is being overtaken has the right-of-way and each pilot of an overtaking aircraft shall alter course to the
right to pass well clear.
• Landing. When two or more aircraft are approaching an airport for the purpose of landing, the aircraft at the lower altitude has the
right-of-way, but it shall not take advantage of this rule to cut in front of another which is on final approach to land or to overtake that
aircraft.
ADS-B OUT REQUIRED AIRSPACE

FLIGHT INSTRUMENTS
GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS
• Two principles of a gyroscope: Rigidity in space and precession
• Attitude Indicator – operates on the principle of rigidity in space. Shows bank and pitch information. Older AIs may have a
tumble limit. Should show correct attitude within 5 minutes of starting the engine. Normally vacuum-driven in GA aircraft, may be
electrical in others. May have small acceleration/deceleration errors (accelerate-slight pitch up, decelerate-pitch down) and roll-out
errors (following a 180 turn shows a slight turn to opposite direction)
• Heading Indicator – operates on the principle of rigidity in space. It only re flects changes in heading, but cannot measure the
heading directly. You have to calibrate it with a magnetic compass in order for it to indicate correctly. His may be slaved to a
magnetic heading source, such as a flux gate, and sync automatically to the present heading. Normally powered by the vacuum
system in GA aircraft.
• Turn indicators – operates on the principle of precession
◦ Turn coordinators show rate-of-turn and rate of roll.
◦ Turn-and-slip indicators show rate-of-turn only.
PITOT-STATIC INSTRUMENTS
ALTIMETER
• An aneroid barometer that shows the height above a given pressure level, based on standard pressure lapse rate of 1000' per inch
of mercury
• A stack of sealed aneroid wafers expand and contract with changes in atmospheric pressure received from the static port.
• A mechanical linkage between the aneroid and the display translates the sensed pressure to an altitude indication.
• An altimeter setting knob (on a “sensitive altimeter”, which are most aircraft altimeters) allow the pilot to adjust the current pressure
to the current altimeter setting published locally (available from ATIS, METAR or ATC0
• The pressure setting is displayed in the “Kollsman Window” in mb and/or inches or mercury (Hg)
• In the US, when operating below 18,000' MSL regularly set the altimeter to a station within 100NM. Above 18,000' MSL, the
altimeter should be set to the standard sea level pressure of 29.92”Hg, and operate in Flight Levels (FL)
• “High to Low – Watch out below!” - Use caution when flying from high pressure to low pressure areas. If altimeter setting is not
updated, altitude will indicate higher, causing the pilot to fly lower than desired. Flying from hot to cold areas results in the same
error.

TYPES OF ALTITUDES
• Indicated altitude – uncorrected altitude indicated on the dial when set to local pressure setting (QNH)
• Pressure altitude – Altitude above the standard 29.92”Hg plane. (QNE). Used when flying above the transition altitude (18,000'
MSL in the US)
◦ Formula: PA = 1000 * (29.92 – Current Altimeter Setting) + 208
• Density altitude – Pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature. Used for performance calculations.
◦ Formula: DA = 120 * (OAT – Standard Temperature for Altitude) + PA
• True altitude – Actual altitude above Mean Sea Level (MSL).
• Absolute altitude – Height above airport elevation (QFE)
VERTICAL SPPED INDICATOR (VSI)
• Indicates rate-of-climb in fpm (accurate after 6-9 seconds lag), and rate trend (immediately with rate changes)
• A diaphragm inside the instrument is connected directly to the static source.
• The area outside the diaphragm also receives static pressure, but via a calibrated leak (a restricted ori fice)
• This con figuration essentially responds to static pressure change over time.
• As the diaphragm expands or contracts, a mechanical linkage moves the pointer needle to display the current rate of climb to the
pilot.
• Instantaneous VSI (IVSI) solves the lag issue with the addition of vertical accelerometers
AIRSPEED INDICATOR
• The airspeed indicator measures the difference between impact (ram) air pressure from the pitot tube and ambient pressure from the
static port. The result pressure is called dynamic pressure and corresponds to airspeed.
◦ Dynamic Pressure (airspeed) = Impact pressure – Static pressure
• A diaphragm in the instrument receives ram pressure from the pitot tube. The area outside the diaphragm is sealed and connected
to the static port. A mechanical linkage converts the expansion and contraction of the diaphragm to airspeed shown on the display
dial.
TYPES OF AIRSPEED AIRSPEED INDICATOR MARKINGS
• Indicated Airspeed (IAS) – indicated on the airspeed indicator • White arc – Flap operating
• Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) - IAS corrected for instrument & position errors. range. Starts at Vs0; ends at Vfe
• Equivalent Airspeed (EAS) – CAS corrected for compressibility error. • Green arc – Normal operating
• True Airspeed (TAS) – Actual airspeed through the air. EAS corrected for nonstandard range. Starts at Vs1; ends at
temperature and pressure Vno
• Mach number – The ratio of TAS to the local speed of sound. • Yellow arc – Caution range. Fly
only in smooth air and only with
• Ground Speed – Actual speed over the ground. TAS corrected for wind conditions. caution
STATIC PORT BLOCKAGE • Red line – Vne
• Airspeed Indicator – Indicates correctly at the blockage altitude V-SPEEDS
◦ Higher altitudes airspeed indicates lower than it should • Va – Design maneuvering speed
◦ Lower altitudes indicates higher than it should • Vs – Stall speed, clean con fig
• Altimeter – will freeze on the altitude where it was blocked • Vs0 – Stall speed landing con fig
• VSI – freezes on zero. • Vs1 – Stall speed speci fic con fig
◦ After verifying a blockage in the static port, you should use an alternate static source or • Vfe – Max flap extended speed
break the VSI window (in which case, expect reverse VSI information) • Vno – Max structural cruise
• When using the alternate static source (a lower static pressure is measured): speed
◦ Airspeed indicator – indicate a faster speed than it should • Vne – Never exceed speed
◦ Altimeter – indicate higher than it should • Vx – Best angle of climb
◦ VSI – momentarily show a climb • Vy – Best rate of climb

PITOT TUBE BLOCKAGE

The only instrument affected is the airspeed indicator.
• Ram air inlet clogged and drain hold open? Airspeed drops to zero.
• Both air inlet and drain hole are clogged? The airspeed indicator will act as an altimeter, and will no longer be reliable.
• When suspecting a pitot blockage, consider the use of pitot heat to melt ice that may have formed in or on the pitot tube.

AERODYNAMICS
• Left turning tendencies • Lift
◦ Torque reaction of the engine and propeller ◦ Lift Equation: Lift = CL * ½ * v2 * s
▪ The rotation of the propeller (from the cockpit) to the ▪ CL - coef ficient of lift (relates to angle of attack and
right, tends to roll or bank the airplane to the left. shape of the airfoil)
◦ Gyroscopic effect of the propeller ▪ ½ – half rho (rho relates to air density)
▪ If the axis of the propeller is tilted, the resulting force ▪ v2 – velocity squared
will be exerted 90° ahead in the direction of the ▪ s – surface area of airfoil
rotation and in the same direction as the applied ◦ Bernoulli's Principle
force.
▪ The pressure of a fluid decreases at points where the
◦ Corkscrewing effect of the propeller slipstream
speed of the fluid increases. In the case of air flow,
▪ High-speed rotation of an airplane propeller results in high speed flow is associated with low pressure and
a corkscrewing rotation to the slipstream as it moves low speed flow with high pressure.
rearward. At high propeller speeds and low forward • Ground effect is a condition of improved performance the
speeds (as in T/O), the slipstream strikes the vertical airplane experiences when it is operating near the ground.
tail surface on the left side pushing the tail to the right
and yawing the plane to the left. ◦ A change occurs in the 3D flow pattern around the
◦ Asymmetrical loading of the propeller airplane because the air flow around the wing is restricted
by the ground surface.
▪ When an airplane is flying with a high angle of attack, ▪ This reduces the wing's upwash, downwash, and
the bite of the downward moving propeller blade is wingtip vortices.
greater than the bite of the upward moving blade.
• Maneuvering speed – speed where an aircraft stalls first
before experiencing possible structural damage
• Adverse Yaw
◦ When the aircraft is turning left, the downward de flected CENTER OF GRAVITY CHARACTERISTICS
aileron on the right produces more lift on the right wing. As Forward CG Aft CG
the right aileron produces more lift, it also produces more
drag, while the left aileron has less lift and drag causing Stall Speed Higher (Higher AOA) Lower
the nose to veer right in the direction of the raised wing. Cruise Speed Lower (More drag Higher
because of AOA)
SPIN RECOVERY
• PARE Stability More Less (stall recovery
◦ Power Idle more dif ficult)
◦ Ailerons Neutral
◦ Rudder opposite against rotation
◦ Elevator down
HIGH ALTITUDE OPERATIONS
Supplemental Oxygen Requirements §91.151 Cabin pressurization is the compression of air to maintain a
cabin altitude lower than the flight altitude
◦ Removes the need for full-time use of supplemental
oxygen
◦ A cabin pressure altitude of approximately 8,000' is
maintained
• Differential pressure – the difference in pressure between
the pressure acting on one side of a wall and the pressure
acting on the other side of the wall (the difference between
cabin pressure and atmospheric pressure)
◦ The degree of pressurization is limited by several design
factors
◦ Each fuselage is designed and rated to withstand a
maximum differential pressure.
• Air is brought into the fuselage
◦ Turbine powered aircraft – bleed air from the engine
compressor section is used to pressurize the cabin
◦ Piston-powered airplanes often use air supplied from
each engine turbocharger
◦ The air is compressed, conditioned, and sent to the
Rapid Decompression Problems and Solutions fuselage
• Decompression is the inability of the pressurization system to • Air is released from the fuselage through an out flow
maintain its design pressure differential. valve
◦ Caused by malfunction in the pressurization system or ◦ By regulating the air exiting the airplane, the out flow
structural damage to the plane valve can maintain constant pressure and allow for a
• Two categories of decompression constant in flow of air to the pressurized cabin
◦ Explosive decompression – possible for lung damage • A cabin pressure control system is what provides pressure
◦ Rapid decompression – no likelihood of lung damage regulation, pressure relief, vacuum relief, and the means for
• During most decompressions, the cabin will fill with fog, dust and selecting the desired cabin altitude.
flying debris ◦ A cabin pressure regulator, out flow valve, and a
• Supplemental oxygen and a rapid descent from altitude is safety valve are used to accomplish these functions
necessary in order to minimize the problems of decompression.
CABIN PRESSURIZATION – Continued
• Cabin Pressure Regulator – controls cabin pressure
◦ Typically, a cabin pressure altitude of 8,000' is maintained at the aircraft's maximum design cruising altitude
▪ Lower altitudes maintain lower cabin pressures
◦ When the aircraft reaches the maximum differential pressure, any further increase in altitude results in a corresponding increase
in cabin altitude
• The flow of compressed air is regulated by an out flow valve which keeps pressure at the desired setting by releasing excess
pressure into the atmosphere
• The Safety Valve is a combination of a pressure relief, vacuum relief, and dump valve
◦ Pressure relief – prevents cabin pressure from exceeding a predetermined differential pressure by allowing pressure to be
released into the atmosphere if necessary
◦ Vacuum relief – prevents ambient pressure from exceeding cabin pressure by allowing external air to enter when ambient air
exceeds cabin pressure.
◦ Dump valve – dumps cabin air to the atmosphere (switch in cockpit)
▪ This equalizes the cabin pressure to the outside air pressure
SUPPLEMENTAL OXYGEN
• Basic Components of an oxygen system
◦ Storage System
▪ Oxygen can be stored as a gas, liquid, or solid.
State Advantage Disadvantage
Gaseous aviator’s breathing oxygen (ABO) Economical Weight and Bulky
Liquid Aviators breathing oxygen (LOX) Expandable into ABO (Gas State) Storage Temperature (-197F)
1:900 ABO Severe Frostbite when exposed to
skin
 Sodium Chlorate Candles (Solid-State Weight and Space (Expandable Can’t be stopped when activated
Oxygen) 1:600 ABO)

◦ Delivery System
Type Characteristics Altitudes
Continuous Flow • Economical (no complicated 28,000 ft and lower
masks and regulators)
• Wasteful since oxygen still
supplies when exhaling
Diluter Demand • Compensates for the short- Up to 40,000 ft
comings of the continuous flow
System
• Conserves Oxygen
Pressure Demand • Provides oxygen under positive Above 40,000ft
pressure
• Pressurizes lungs to a lower
altitude

◦ Mask or Cannula
Type Characteristics Altitudes
Nasal Cannulas • Comfortable to use Up to 18,000 ft
Oral-nasal re-breather • Common and least expensive Up to 25,000 ft
• External plastic bag in flates
every time you exhale and uses
exhaled air to mix with 100%
oxygen supply from system
Quick-don Mask • Ability to be donned with one Up to 40,000 ft
hand in 5 sec while
accommodating for prescription
glasses
Dixie Cup (Airline Drop-down) • Phase-sequential continuous- Up to 40,000 ft
flow masks (similar to GA re-
breather)
• Mixes cabin air and 100%
oxygen allowing to go higher
altitudes
• Exhalation vented to
atmosphere to bag doesn’t
in flate

NATIONAL TRANSPORTATION SAFETY BOARD (NTSB) LOST COMMUNICATION PROCEDURES

• Immediate noti fication must be done when any aircraft accident 5Cs
or any of the following listed serious incidents occur: • Circle
◦ Flight control system malfunction ◦ Stay on your position so you won't be going further away
◦ Crewmember unable to perform normal duties • Climb
◦ In flight fire ◦ A higher altitude gets you a better view of landmarks. It
◦ Aircraft collision in flight also helps with radio and navigation reception, as well
◦ Property damage, other than aircraft, estimated to exceed as radar coverage.
$25,000. • Communicate
◦ Overdue aircraft(believed to be in accident) ◦ Contact any available facility using the frequencies
◦ Release of all or a portion of a propeller blade from an found on your sectional chart. You can also try a flight
aircraft service station on the universal frequency 122.2 MHz.
◦ Complete loss of information (excluding flickering), from ◦ If the situation becomes threatening, use 121.5 MHz and
more than 50 percent of an aircraft's EFIS cockpit display set the airplane’s transponder to 7700.
• Aircraft accident means an occurrence associated with the • Confess
operation of an aircraft which takes place between the time any ◦ Tell the controller you’re lost and you need assistance.
person boards the aircraft with the intention of flight and all such The controller will give you a unique transponder code in
persons have disembarked, and in which any person suffers order to locate you on her radar screen.
death or serious injury, or in which the aircraft receives • Comply
substantial damage. ◦ Do what you’re told. Assistance may come in the form of
◦ Serious Injury means any injury that: radar vectors or direction-finding assistance.
▪ Requires hospitalization for more than 48 hours,
commencing within 7 days from the date the injury was
received
▪ Results in fracture of any bone (except simple fractures
of fingers, toes or nose)
 NATIONAL TRANSPORTATION SAFETY BOARD – Continued
▪ Causes severe hemorrhages, nerve, muscle or tendon
damage TRAFFIC PATTERN RECOMMENDED ENTRY
▪ Involves any internal organ; or
▪ Involves second- or third-degree burns affecting more
than 5% of the body surface
◦ Substantial damage – damage which adversely affects the
structural strength, performance or flight characteristics of
the aircraft and which would normally require major repair or
replacement of the affected component.
• Aircraft incident means an occurrence other than an accident
associated with the operation of an aircraft, which affects or could
affect the safety of operations.
• After an accident or incident*, a report should be filed:
◦ Within 10 days after an accident
◦ When, after 7 days, an overdue aircraft is still missing
◦ * A report of an “incident” for which noti fication is required as
described shall be filed only as requested by an authorized
representative of the NTSB.

LIGHT GUN SIGNALS § 91.125

Color and type of Signal Meaning with respect to aircraft on the surface Meaning with respect to aircraft in flight
Steady Green Cleared for takeoff Cleared to land
Flashing Green Cleared to taxi Return for landing (to be followed by steady green
at proper time)
Steady Red Stop Give way to other aircraft and continue circling
Flashing Red Taxi clear of runway in use Airport unsafe – do not land
Flashing White Return to starting point Not applicable
Alternating Red and Green Exercise extreme caution Exercise extreme caution

GROUND-BASED NAVIGATION
• VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) is a ground-based electronic system that provides azimuth information for high and low altitude
routes and airport approaches
◦ Pilots must verify correct and usable VOR station with morse ID before using it.
◦ UNMONITORED means always tune to the radio station if using since the station may become unserviceable while using.
◦ Limitations:
▪ Cone of confusion
▪ Reverse sensing (if used incorrectly)
▪ Requires line-of-sight between aircraft and station
◦ VOR Receiver Checks (§ 91.171) – Perform every 30 calendar days (for IFR)
▪ VOT ± 4°
▪ Repair Stationary ± 4°
▪ VOR ground checkpoint ± 4°
▪ VOR airborne checkpoint ± 6°
▪ Dual VOR cross-check ± 4°
▪ Above a prominent ground landmark on a selected radial at least 20NM from a VOR,
flying at a “reasonably low altitude” ± 6°
• VOR checkpoints found on AF/D or Chart Supplement
• Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) is a radio navigation aid used by pilots to determine the aircraft's slant range from the DME
ground station location
◦ The DME avionics in aircraft send a pulse signal to the ground based DME, which responds with an answer pulse signal. The
receiver in the aircraft measures the time delay between the sent and received pulses and calculates the slant range distance.
◦ DME measures slant distance. Due to slant range error, when flying overhead the station, DME indication is not “0”.
• Nondirectional radio beacon (NDB) is a ground-based radio transmitter that transmits radio energy in all directions.
◦ The automatic direction finder (ADF), when used with NDB, determines the bearing from the aircraft to the transmitting station.
The ADF needle points to the NDB ground station to determine the relative bearing (RB), which is the number of degrees
measured clockwise from the aircraft's heading to the station.
◦ Magnetic Bearing = Magnetic Heading + Relative Bearing
SATELLITE-BASED NAVIGATION
• Area navigation allows navigation on any desired path without the need to over fly ground-based facilities.
• Global Positioning System (GPS) is a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) operated by the United States.
◦ The constellation consists of a minimum of 24 satellites (with some spares) orbiting above the earth at 10,900 NM. The system is
designed so that at least 5 satellites are in view at any given location on earth.
◦ GPS is a satellite-based radio navigation system that broadcasts a signal used by receivers to determine precise position
anywhere in the world. The receiver tracks multiple satellites and determines a pseudorange measurement that is then used to
determine the user location.
 Aircraft Airmen Three Main Types of Transponders
1. Transponder A
Category Normal Airplane ◦ sends back a transponder code to ATC
Utility Rotorcraft 2. Transponder C
Experimental, etc. Lighter-than-air, etc. ◦ sends a transponder code plus altitude information to ATC
Class Airplane ASEL 3. Transponder S
Rotorcraft AMEL ◦ sends transponder code, altitude information, to ATC and
Lighter-than-air, etc. ASES, etc. receive and reports information to other transponders of
the same type
Transponder Codes
7500: entered if the aircraft has been hijacked.
7600: entered if the aircraft has lost radio communication abilities.
7700: entered if the aircraft is in any other type of emergency.
1200: entered when the aircraft is flying VFR.

Task Objective Minimum Acceptable Standard of Performance

Takeoff
Normal/Crosswind Vy ± 5
Short/Soft Vx ± 5, then Vy ± 5
Landing
Normal/Crosswind 1.3 Vso ±5, touch at or within 200 feet beyond target
Forward Slip Min float, touch at or within 200 feet beyond target
Short 1.3 Vso ±5, touch at or within 100 feet beyond target
Soft 1.3 Vso ±5, touch at or within 200 feet beyond target
Go Around 1.3 Vso ±5, touch at or within 200 feet beyond target
Power-off 180 touch at or within 200 feet beyond target
Emergency Operations Use recommended descent con figuration and airspeed
Emergency Approach and Landing
Heading Altitude Speed
or bank ± ° ± ft ± kts
Traf fic Pattern Accurate track and safe spacing 100 10
Pilotage/NAV/Diverting Know position ± 3NM 10 100
Slow Flight and Stalls (no flight below 1,500
AGL)
Power-off stall S & L or max 20° bank 10

Power-on stall S & L or max 20° bank 10

Maneuvering during Slow Flight, Straight & 5 50 MCA

level, turns, climbs, descents +5/-0
Performance Maneuvers
Steep turns 10 100 10
360° with 50° ±5° bank,
coordinated
Ground Reference Maneuvers Remain 600-1000 AGL 100 10

Disclaimer: While attempts have been made to verify the accuracy of the information in this report, the author does not assume any
responsibilities or liabilities for errors contained in it or for misuse of this information. You may only use this report at your own risk.

Please send any error corrections or feedback to: [email protected]

 Pros 94

English Proficiency

po
✓

Student Brings Prepared XC Flight Plan

:
a

@
XC Flight Planning
Weight & Balance Calculations ✓

Weather & NOTAM Information v

•
VOR Time & Distance Calculations
Performance & Limitations ✓

Multi-Engine Definitions & Abbreviations v

Advanced Aircraft Systems Knowledge V

-- Electrical System
-- Fuel System
-- Landing Gear System
-- Propeller System
Vmc and Critical Engine Considerations ✓

Aircraft Performance Considerations with One Engine Inoperative v

Inoperative Aircraft Equipment & Minimum Equipment Lists (MEL)

•
Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR's 61, 91, 119)
•
Commercial Pilot Privileges & Limitations
Emergency Procedures v

Emergency Equipment & Survival Gear v

Special Emphasis Topics (See Document)

Prog 89 It
88
•
: New one
.

Weather bit

Chance : 25% ~
50% Probability

Likely :
sreater than 55%
 High pressure : Downwards
,Outwards , clockwise , generally dry . Good WX

Low pressure
:
Upwardsinwards counterclockwise
, , ,
increasing cloudiness
and Precipitation . Thus bad WX is associated .

a) Move more rapidly

b) Towering cumulus clouds
c) Dense & relatively cold air
d) Continuous line of TS
e) Sudden storm, gusty wind, turbulence, hail, or tornadoes

a) Move slowly
b) Slope is not steep
c) Relatively warm & high humidity
d) Low ceiling -> poor visibility
3. Stationary Front a. ÷
.

a) When the forces of two air masses are relatively equal, the boundary or front that
separated them remains stationary and influences the local weather for days
b) Weather is mixture of cold & warm front → unpredictable

4. Occlude Front a.m.

a) Occurs when a fast-moving cold front catches up with a slow-moving warm front
b) A cold front occlusion: A fast moving cold front is colder than slow moving warm front
(Mix of cold & warm front)
c) A warm front occlusion: Opposite with a cold front occlusion
(more severe weather embedded TS, rain, fog)

/ Trouoh

elongated area of low Pressure

Usually associated cloudy condition ,

Possibly rain even cooler Temperature

Isobar KIFZOEE Of ?tsEH

-

Strong wind due to sharp Pressure gradient

Wind aloft .

9900
-

lisht and valiable wind

Wind within 1500 AGL not Shown

'

are
]
Temp within 2500 AGL

AIRMET IFR
-
S , Mountain Obscuration

T -

Moderate Turbulence ,
greater than 30kt

Z -

King ,
Freezing level

SLGMET Severe icins & Turbulence

f. CAT ( clear air Turbulence )

Volcanic ash . Dust storm , sandstorm , Visibility less Than 3sm

C. SIGMEI Tornadoes
Embedded Thunderstorm

( LLWS

chraeioyeartthrafnaebtkgtreater
than I inches in diameter

CG
Thunder '

formation of Thunderstorm

Storm 1
.
Sufficient water Vapor ( humidity )
2 .
An unstable temperature lapse rate

3 . An initial uplifting force ( front Passage , mountain . heating from below )

Thunderstorm hazards
-

Limited visibility ,
wind shear , Strand updrafts and downdrafts .

icins ,
hailstones ,
heavy rain , severe tubulence ,
lightning Strikes

and tornadoes
.

Life cycle of Thunderstorm

Cumulus Stage : lifting action of air begins ,

Growth rate may exceed 300ohm
.

Mature Stage :
begins Precipitation has become to fall from cloud base .

Uplift Stage may exceed GOOOFPM .

downdraft may

exceed 250 Ofpm .

greatest intensity at Mature Store

Dissipating store :
Strano downdraft and the Cell is drying rapidly .

Fog .

Cloud begins within 50ft of surface .

When air Temp reaches its dew point

-
Radiation Food .

Calm clear night ,

when ground cools rapidly
due to release of around radiation .
( HIO aK8?t )

Sunrise → food disperse

Advection fog Warm Moist air move over cold surface

-

-
.
,

winds are required for advection fog .

→ →
 '

Upslope fos -
moist , Stable air is forced up a Mountain slope and

cooled down to it's dew Point

steam fog -

Cold ,
dry air Moves over Warm water .

Moisture is added to the airmass and Steam food .

Frontal Food :
Warm moist air is lifted over a front ,

Cloud and Precipitation may form ,

If below dewpoint →
fog

Icing ZI : visual moisture ,

Temperature below 0°

lcino TIDE

1) Clear Ice : Most dangerous Type . heavy and difficult to remove .

-10
Temp ~0° by large Super cooled drop of water .

2) Rime ice : White , roush ice by small Super cooled drop water

4inch Monte icins :

Structural icing

LLWS
-

change in wind speed and direction

over short distance .

especially danger to landing .

sudden shift from headwind to tailwind

causerapid loss of lift .

g

VOR time & Distance Calculations

UOR Time VORI

( VOR needle E TO El KIEIOY '

Fizer .

Stop watch 2- Zero 2 Dhn '3

get
°O° Heading E Stopwatch 425¥

VOROI 1007T ezohthe his 011 Stop

( VOR 2£ tohltef 2° )

10°

( S ( 180° ) → WC 270° )

7h21 VOR 10° UTNNLREGI

1¥15 'zI¥

| g. . ,
1:15

22Mt
0°
1:15 ZEL 10° E2z Dtn 'ZDI

at 014 VORPKI 7121£47 he

17.5£ 0kt .

1:15

GS 7t 112kt Odell 7. 5¥04 Pbnetofzol

Distance →
14AM oleb

112kt
-
7.5
 Inoperative Aircraft Equipment & Minimum Equipment List (MEL)

Who operating or Reauested MEL ? why ?

1. Manufacture or Operator ( o )

2 .
When we do a preflight ,
If the equipment is not working ,

and I 'm not sure to continue to fly we can check MEL

by using short Period time

3 .
It makes master MEL simple
.

MEL ? what's That for ? MMEL ?

.
A list of eauipment That can be inoperable when the eauipment

is Inoperative we 're allow To continue to fly according To MEL

Master Minimum Eauipment List is basis for individual operator 's MEL
 Commercial Pilot Privilege & Limitations (61.133)

Private Carriage Service

Aerial Photography

B -

Banner towing
C -

Crop dusting

A-
F
P
-

Fire fighting
-

Pipeline patrol

S -
sight seeing
R -

Repair Work

Limit to Carry Passenger

X C BONM night ( If don't have IR )

1
.
.

over at

2. Within the preceding Qodaxs

Pilot Should do at least 3 Take off ,

3 Landing

in same category & Class

3 . Between I hour after Sunset to 1 hour before Sunrise ,

3 TIO ,
3417 to a full Stop

4 .
RV flight in The last 24cm

In Common Carriage ,
Private Carriage 27¥ tout ?

I .
Different rules are applied

2 .
Because ,
Common Carriage E Private Carriage EU Limitol Get .

Who operate Common Carriage ?

I .
Commuter

2 .
Airline
 .

Who operate Private Carrick ?

1. NIKE JET ( Part 1257

4 elements of common carriage

I . For Compensation or Hire

2 .
From Place to Place
3 . Transport passengers or Property

4 .
Holding out or Willingness To

: Advertisement , Post , SNS , Talk To Person

Holding out :

A. Advertising such as TV ,
Radio ,
newspaper , magazine ,
etc .

B. Also includes reputation via word of mouth

'

Private
Carria9e.tntEEht2I01Cnl2tetek2t2tohPI7.2tttE6nHh27u7.1.Itfs@ht2ls01Gl27EtEhz2r2toEer.OK2.EtEtEtLtZd7ZI7447tkjnz.2t27tal2tetekZt2thet.NO

Characteristic of Private Carriage

Common Carriage Ee 47121 11228 tilts OIDIQPE Private Carriage

There two and

" "
-

are Terms , Common Carriage

It's Opposite Carriage

" "

Private

FAR
.

91.205 ( TOMATO )

91.213 Inoperative instruments and equipment .

 Emergency Equipment &Survival Gear

:
Emergency Equipment ( 91.135 )
1. Hand Fine extinguishers
:
must Provide .

6~3O
at Fire extinguisher ( passengers )
least One hand
at least Two hand Fire extinguishers ( more Than 30 Passengers )

2. First Aid kit :

must Provide

3. Crash axe : more Than 19 Passengers must be equipped

4 .
Mesa Phone : One Megaphone ( GO ~Q9 passengers ?

TWO megaphones ( more Than 100 Passengers )

.
survival eauipment for overwater ( 91.509 )
.

No person may Take off over water more Than 50 NM from The nearest

shore unless equipped life Preserver or approved flotation each occupant

What does the scupper drain do ?

How many does The Seminole have ?

Drain excess fuel from around The filler

and tosses it overboard .

There is one Per Tank .