Computer Games

Development 8

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 UNIT 8

Getting to know your unit

The UK games industry is one of the fastest growing job markets today.
Assessm ent The UK is a world leader in producing amazing, interactive experiences for
You will be assesse d by a desktop PCs, consoles, and handheld and mobile devices. The computer
games industry is a team-based and fast-moving area that involves
series of assignm ents set
many different job roles. The production of computer games requires an
by your tutor.
understanding of the whole process from concept art through to formal
testing. You may want to become a games programmer, concept artist or 3D
animator but, for whichever role you want to focus on in the future, you will
have to a good understanding of the entire games development process first.
In this unit, you will investigate how and why people play games, what
is changing in games hardware and development, and how to design and
create games.

How you will be assessed

This unit will be assessed by a combination of theory, design and practical tasks set by
your tutor. Throughout this unit, you will find assessment practice activities that help
you work towards your assessment. Completing these activities will not mean that
you have achieved a particular grade, but you will have carried out useful research or
preparation that will be relevant when it comes to your final assignment.
In order for you to complete the tasks in your assignment successfully, it is important
to check that you have met all of the Pass grading criteria. You can do this as you work
your way through the assignment.
If you are hoping to gain a Merit or Distinction, you should make sure that you
present the information in your assignment in the style that is required by the relevant
assessment criteria. For example, Merit criteria require you to analyse and discuss, and
Distinction criteria require you to assess and evaluate.
The assignment set by your tutor will consist of a number of tasks designed to meet
the criteria in the table. This is likely to consist of a written assignment but may also
include activities such as:
▸▸ writing an article about the current trends in gaming
▸▸ designing a game from a set client brief
▸▸ creating and testing a 2D or 3D game level.

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 Getting to know your unit UNIT 8

Computer Games Development

Assessment criteria

This table shows what you must do in order to achieve a Pass, Merit or Distinction grade, and where
you can find activities to help you.

Pass Merit Distinction

Learning aim A Investigate technologies used in computer gaming

A.P1 A.M1 A.D1

Explain social and technological trends of Discuss how current and emerging Evaluate the impact of current and
computer games. technologies impact on how games are emerging technologies on the design
Assessment practice 8.1 designed and developed to meet the and development of computer games to
requirements of the users and the larger meet the requirements of the users and
A.P2 computer games industry. the computer games industry.
Explain how current and emerging Assessment practice 8.1 Assessment practice 8.1
technologies impact on computer games
design and development.
Assessment practice 8.1
Learning aim B Design a computer game to meet client requirements

B.P3 B.M2 BC.D2

Produce designs for a computer game Justify decisions made, showing how the Evaluate the design and optimised
that meet client requirements. design will fulfil its purpose and client computer game against client
Assessment practice 8.2 requirements. requirements.
Assessment practice 8.2 Assessment practice 8.2
B.P4
Review the designs with others to identify
and inform refinements.
Assessment activity 8.2
Learning aim C Develop a computer game to meet client requirements

C.P5 C.M3 BC.D3

Produce a computer game to meet client Optimise a computer game to meet client Demonstrate individual responsibility,
requirements. requirements. creativity and effective self-management
Assessment practice 8.2 Assessment practice 8.2 in the design, development and review
of a computer game.
C.P6 Assessment practice 8.2
Test a computer game for functionality,
usability, stability and performance.
Assessment practice 8.2

C.P7
Review the extent to which the computer
game meets client requirements.
Assessment practice 8.2

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 Getting Started
It is important to understand all of the different roles involved in the
computer games development workflow. Write down a list of all the different
jobs that you think are involved in the making of a computer game, splitting
your list into different categories, such as artistic or technical.

A Investigate technologies used in computer gaming

Computer and video games are big business and a Popular genres
continuing source of exciting and creative jobs that require Innovation and originality are keys to the success of a
strong IT skills and original ideas. The next big successful game publisher and players are always willing to explore
title could be just around the corner and one of the most different genres of games. One of the most popular genres
exciting elements of the computer games industry is how in gaming is the First-Person Shooter (FPS) genre where
small teams with great ideas can become international the player sees through the eyes of a character and must
success stories. Different genres can grow out of new fight through different levels to achieve a particular goal,
titles and create entire new fan bases of dedicated gamers, for example Call of Duty®. Genres can grow and change,
sometimes forming strong communities of players. Many they can spawn sub-genres that take the original definition
of the recent game genres have grown out of innovative of a genre and spin it off in a different direction, or they
technologies such as virtual reality, augmented reality, new may become hybrid genres that take elements of other
operating systems and advances in streaming. genres and merge them together. An example of this is
an online FPS, such as Star Wars™ Battlefront™, which
Gaming trends and society features many players fighting at the same time. This game
The original gaming device was a cathode ray tube has all the features of an FPS game but it also fits into the
amusement device in 1947. There have been nearly seven massively multiplayer online (MMO) game genre. So it
decades of gaming developments since then and people could be called an MMOFPS. To muddy the waters further,
access and enjoy computer games in many different ways. this game also allows you to switch to third-person mode
These different trends have led to an ever-evolving industry so that you can see the character you are playing.
that seeks to bring interactive entertainment to all areas Key terms
of society, whether they are casual gamers wanting a few
minutes of distraction with Angry Birds™ or hard-core gamers Genre - a genre is a category of computer game that
who eagerly anticipate the newest release of the Halo® series. describes the style of play, types of challenges and the
perspective of the player.
Massively multiplayer online (MMO) game – a game
played by multiple players, across the internet, all online
at the same time.

Role-playing games (RPGs) have been popular since before

games were created digitally. Classic pen and paper games
such as Dungeons and Dragons™ saw players work against a
dungeon master, having chosen a particular character and, as
the game progressed, their character would grow and
improve as they made choices. This role-playing concept
works very well in computer game format and some RPGs,
such as The Elder Scrolls V: SKYRIM®, have had massive
success. Other games developers have noticed the appeal of
RPG game players improving their characters and have been
adding this feature to titles from other genres, such as Call
of Duty®, enabling them to ‘level up’ and receive perks and
▸▸ Figure 8.1: A scene from a video game rewards.

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 Learning aim A UNIT 8

The nature of constant change within computer games, of borrowing of ideas from

Computer Games Development

Research
other genres and adapting to player feedback, means that it is impossible to write a
definitive list of genres. How do people play games
together? Try to list as many
different ways in which
traditional games (pen and
paper, board games etc) and
computer games provide
multiplayer activities.

Key terms
▸▸ Figure 8.2: Games bring people together as a common interest and popular pastime Casual gamers – people who
only play games for short
Types of player periods of time and prefer
As computer game titles can be categorised into different genres, it is also important to simpler games.
consider different types of player. When a game studio pitches an idea for a new title to Immersive – a term which
a publisher, one of the most important factors they have to consider is the audience of refers to how focused you
the game they want to make. It is impossible to make a game that will please everyone as are on the experience that
players have different tastes and interests, and psychologists such as Richard Bartle and you are having. An immersive
David Keirsey have even made academic studies into how and why people play games. game will keep your attention
The table below (Table 8.1) looks at the main factors that determine the types of player. for long periods of time and
The table above represents basic demographics, that is, measurements used to put block out distractions. It
people into different categories so that their likes and dislikes can be understood more should make you enjoy the
easily. However, there are other considerations to look at when designing games. game more, but only if you
In recent years, as home broadband speeds have increased, online games have soared have the time to spend on it.
in popularity and the previous generation of home consoles (PlayStation 3™, Xbox Franchise – a series of game
360®) were designed to appeal to people who wanted to play together in engaging, titles that feature the same
online worlds. Our most recent generation of consoles (Wii U™, PlayStation 4™ and world, the same characters or
Xbox One™) have all included the ability to play online and stream content so that the same setting.
other people can watch the play and comment on the skills of the players.

▸▸ Table 8.1: Main factors that determine the different types of computer game players

Age range In the UK, games are rated by PEGI. PEGI decide what is appropriate for different age groups. Game designers will tend
to create bright, cartoon adventures for younger players and darker, more realistic worlds for adult players.
Gender Despite being commonly considered to be a ‘boy thing’, gamers are split between male and female, with roughly 60
per cent of players being male and 40 per cent female. Game designers often design children’s games for a specific
gender, but the older the target audience gets, the less targeted to a particular gender the content becomes.
Time Possibly one of the most important factors is how much time a person is willing to spend playing a game. This can
commitment affect the design of a game greatly.
Casual gamers will happily load a game for a few minutes at a time. They may play on mobile devices while
travelling or download digital games that cost a lot less than boxed games. Casual gamers will not be particularly loyal
to one genre, worried about saved games or necessarily interested in sequels.
Players who want a much more immersive experience will spend hours exploring their favourite worlds. They will be
loyal to particular brands and spend a lot of their spare time playing games. Immersive gamers may also be referred to
as ‘hard-core gamers’. Some people may criticise the time they spend on games, but is it any different from spending
hours watching TV?
Theme The content or style of a game and any ideas that tie all of its features together are called its theme. People may choose
choice a game based on its story, setting or design. There are many different game themes: a fantasy adventure, a realistic war
game, a puzzle game with fun characters or a game that follows the stories and characters from a well-known film or
book franchise.

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 Game production responsible for funding the production of many different
The production of a game is a complicated event. It game titles at the same time. Smaller publishers, such as
usually begins with an idea being pitched by a game Telltale Games®, will usually specialise in one particular
development studio to a game publisher. This pitch will genre and will often release only one game at a time.
contain an overall concept of the game with details about Indie games
the characters, game mechanics and who the game When development of a game is started before it has a
is being designed for, that is, the audience. Without an publisher, it is known as an indie game. Studios who make
identified audience, there would be no financial incentive indie games fund the development themselves. This means
for making the game. Sometimes the publisher will that they do not have the same restraints placed on them
approach the studio with an identified audience or by publishers during development so they can make their
game genre and/or theme and ask them to create a own decisions about the content and style of the game.
game for that market. After the studio has been given the This often leads to innovative and original game designs
funding to start development, they will begin by creating but it also means that the studios can struggle to pay the
concept art that illustrates the graphical style and theme bills, as they do not make any money until the game has a
of the game (see Figure 8.3). publisher. When a studio has proved that there is a market
for their game, through research or testing, a publisher
Key terms will fund their project. Good examples of successful indie
Game development studio – a team of people who games are Minecraft™, Super Meat Boy™ and No Man’s
create computer games. Sky™.
Game publisher – a company that releases games to Indie games are able to start making a profit when they
shops or online platforms, and pays for development. find a publisher. Often the profit is fed back into the
Game mechanics – the way a game world works, its development of their next game, before it gets a publisher.
features and its rules such as double jumps or collecting Indie games usually get published as digital downloads
items. because getting a game disc printed, boxed and shipped
to game shops all around the world costs a lot of money.
Concept art – drawings and paintings created before a
It is partly because there are so many good indie games
game is developed to show how the game world should
now that digital download providers (such as Steam™,
look and feel.
PlayStation™ Store) have become so popular. Mainstream
publishers will now decide before development if a game
is going to be printed on disk or released through a digital
platform. If they expect to sell to a wide audience then
they will make the investment in a boxed game sold in
a shop, but if the game is more niche then it may only
be released digitally, as there is a greater financial risk in
printing on disc because it costs more.
Crowdfunding
Indie developers are able to raise funds directly from
players through crowdfunding websites such as
Kickstarter™ or Indiegogo™.
Crowdfunding is a recent phenomenon and it has really
▸▸ Figure 8.3: Concept art by Ewon Harding exploded over the last ten years to a point where it has
The concept art will be referenced throughout the game’s gone from being a gimmick, which could be used to top
development so that everyone on the development team up the finances of a struggling studio, to a viable means of
knows what the game should look like, and the kind of funding large-scale projects. Virtual reality hardware such
feelings that the game should be evoking in the player. as the Oculus Rift™ would not exist without crowdfunding.
Equally, some very successful games have been funded
Mainstream publishers through this model, for example Broken Age™, which was
Some publishers are large international companies, known one of the first games to raise far more funding than it
as mainstream publishers, such as Electronic Arts (EA™ asked for. Star Citizen™ is the most successful crowdfunded
Games) or Nintendo®. These mainstream publishers are game to date, having made over £25 million.

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 Learning aim A UNIT 8

The crowdfunding model differs from traditional game Search algorithms

Computer Games Development

development not only in how the money is raised but Different algorithms are used when designing AI and
also in the inclusion of ‘stretch goals’. This means that programmers often use search algorithms, such as the
developers will commit to a certain scope for the game, A* Algorithm, which is a path-finding algorithm. A search
but given additional funding they would make additional algorithm allows the AI attached to a NPC to solve problems,
promises. These ‘stretch goals’ may be different platforms such as the problem of where to go next. The problem of
for release, extra levels or a virtual reality mode. One of the deciding the best route to take from one point to another
disadvantages of crowdfunded games is the delays to titles, is quite easy for humans: we look at the area around us and
over which customers have no control, as extra features can decide the best way to get somewhere using the smallest
push back delivery dates and people can often wait a long amount of effort. It is not as easy for an NPC (often an enemy)
time for their games. in a game; the NPC has no real concept of where it is or
where it should be. Therefore, when a player is seen by the
Free-to-play
enemy at the end of a hallway that contains several crates,
Another model of game production is the free-to-play barrels and piles of rubble, it needs an algorithm to figure out
model, which has become a mainstay of mobile apps how to get down the hallway to the player. The A* Algorithm
games development. Using this approach, smaller studios would break the hallway and obstacles down into a series
and publishers release games for free and then include a of steps and work out the best set of steps to get the NPC
number of paid-for upgrades or features. The idea is that from its starting point to its goal. There would be a choice of
players will get hooked on the game when they can play it different routes to take and the algorithm uses mathematical
for free and will then be willing to spend money unlocking optimisation to work out the best route to take.
extras. These free-to-play games are also known as
freemium titles. Some players find it frustrating to begin a Key term
game that they think is free only to find later that they have
Algorithm – a set of instructions that are executed in
to pay to keep playing. Publishers of free-to-play games
order to solve different computer problems.
can avoid making players pay for the games after a certain
period by placing adverts in the games, which pay for the
cost of development. Mathematical optimisation
Mathematical optimisation is the selection of the best
Link solution to a problem when given a selection to choose
The development of mobile games apps is covered in Unit from. It forms a part of all AI and is often tied to a game’s
7: Mobile Apps Development. difficulty setting. Most game NPCs would have the ability
to get rid of a player quickly, if programmed correctly,
but that would render the game impossible. Therefore,
Artificial intelligence a game’s difficulty setting will change the possible
Artificial intelligence (AI) is the name given to the solutions available to NPCs, from a simple approach such
programming that makes machines (or non-playable as lowering the enemy’s health value or making a less
characters (NPCs), in the context of games) seem like they powerful adversary, to more sophisticated AI such as the
are thinking for themselves. enemy being able to change tactics.
Programmers have to think about how an NPC in a game Logic
should react to where they are or what they are supposed An important factor in creating realistic AI is considering
to be doing. A soldier guarding a gate should be looking in the logic and patterns of behaviour that a human would
certain directions but should have moments where their normally follow. Does the enemy behave in a way that is
attention lapses so that the player can sneak past. All of logical and reasonable? If it emerges in the testing phase
this character behaviour has to be coded into the game. of a game’s development that the answer is no, then the AI
Modern game AI has developed to the point where programmers must go back to their code and improve it
enemies are able to have realistic reactions to players: until a player is not puzzled by the behaviour of an enemy.
such as an enemy blocking an attack in a fighting game, This is a difficult task as games are very complex, interactive
or more strategic behaviour such as enemies responding software applications and it is hard to predict what players
to patterns in the player’s choices by avoiding a ‘duck and might do in a game. In fact, players often cheat by finding
cover’ attack or trying to flank enemies, in multiplayer an ‘exploit’ or vulnerability in a game’s AI. This often leads
games. The more sophisticated the AI, the more to developers having to find a fix that they then patch onto
complicated the programming required to create it. the game as a download after the game has been released.

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 Emerging technology Augmented reality and wearable technology
One of the things that makes the computer games industry Microsoft® have taken a different approach to the new
so exciting is the rapid pace of development and new ideas headset phenomenon and have focused on augmented
that change our game playing experiences. New ideas are reality (AR) instead of VR. AR uses cameras to capture the
driven by improvements and innovations in the hardware real world and layers virtual game assets over the top, so
and software that we use to play games. that they appear to exist in the real world (see Figure 8.5).
AR already existed on various mobile apps and in game
Research form on the Nintendo® 3DS™ and PlayStation Vita™
What improvements to games hardware have been but Microsoft®’s HoloLens™ seeks to outdo them all by
made in the past few years? Have a look at the creating engaging experiences with virtual characters in
technical specifications and features listed by different the real world.
hardware manufacturers and see if you can come up Once you have exhausted all the games on your PC,
with a list of the technological features that define the console, mobile and handheld games devices, you can
current generation of games platforms. look to smart watches to top up your gaming urges (see
Figure 8.6). The Apple® and Android™ smart watch app
Virtual reality stores both have a growing range of simple games, which
you can play on your wrist. These games are restricted
One of the fastest growing areas is virtual reality (VR). Back
by the size of the screen that they are played on, but
in the 1990s, VR was set to be the next big thing but the
sometimes a physical restriction can be the catalyst for an
headsets were very expensive and the processing power
amazing game idea. Lifeline™ is an example of an Apple®
was too slow, so the technology never took off. However,
Watch® game, where the player receives messages from an
more recently crowdfunding has brought about the first
astronaut stranded on an alien moon. The game’s interface
version of the Oculus Rift™ headset, which has proved
is simple text but it is an engaging and exciting story
to be an incredible success and spawned imitators from
with delays built in so that players are not staring at their
Valve™ and Sony®.
watches for hours on end.

▸▸ Figure 8.5: Whilst virtual reality

places you in a different world,
augmented reality brings virtual
objects into our world ▸▸ Figure 8.6: The Apple®
Watch gives you access
to apps on your wrist
Digital distribution
▸▸ Figure 8.4: Virtual reality is creating a whole new way of It is not just headsets that are changing the way we play
engaging with games games. Digital distribution platforms such as Steam™,
GOG™ and PlayStation™ Store have changed how we
VR in its current form consists of two screens, one over each
buy games. One of the most dominant games providers,
eye, with special lenses that magnify the screens so that they fill
Steam™ by Valve™ is also one of the best places to get indie
your field of vision (see Figure 8.4) . Added to the headsets are
games, which can often cost a lot less than console disc-
accelerometers, which measure which direction you are looking
in, and gyroscopes, that measure how much you have turned based titles. Disc-based games are often priced the same as
your head. Often a positional tracker is paired with the headset, their digital equivalents on the console’s own digital stores,
which follows your head’s position in space so that you can move as there are not any incentives for console publishers
forwards and backwards. This positional tracker can be combined to discourage their audience from buying games in a
with motion controllers, and even a treadmill, to create total traditional shop, because if the shops cease to exist then
movement in a virtual world. there are fewer places to buy the console.

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 Learning aim A UNIT 8

Steam™ has created its own operating system (OS). Steam MMO game providers can also be the targets of hackers

Computer Games Development

OS is a free, Linux®-based OS that prioritises gameplay and they often have less security in place than an online
and is available on ‘living room’ PCs. ‘Living room’ PCs are bank or shop. It is important that they protect their user’s
compact PCs that are connected to a TV and are designed data because, despite being a game rather than a bank,
to be used in a similar way to a traditional games console, by they are still holding the same level of sensitive personal
using the digital platform as the main source of content. data about customers.
Players do not just have to worry about the security
Key term systems in place on MMO games, but they also have to
Linux® – an operating system (OS) which is released be careful about the information that they give out if
‘Open Source’, meaning that the source code that they are having conversations with strangers in the game
creates it can be downloaded and adapted by anyone. through text or voice chat. Criminals are able to get a lot
Due to its adaptability, it is very popular and comes in of information out of players without them realising it, by
lots of different versions such as Steam™ OS. pretending to be friendly. Before they know it, the player’s
password has been guessed and they are locked out of
Streaming their own account. (This could be their login for an MMO
such as World of Warcraft® or a digital distribution account
Streaming has become a huge part of games culture with
such as Steam™ or Google Play™.)
websites such as Twitch™ and YouTube™ making gameplay
videos highly popular because they enable people with
limited budgets the opportunity to preview a game that Gaming technology
they might be interested in buying. Many people are used to
Keeping up to date with games technology, and how it
streaming music and films to different devices, and games can
is changing, is one of the main challenges for anyone
be streamed too, using services such as PlayStation Now™.
involved in the computer games industry.
Subscribers can rent games for set periods and download
them to their device, be it a console, PC or a smart TV. Benefits and limitations of different
platforms
Discussion Players face the added challenge of choosing which
platform to invest in. While developers may often want
Which of these emerging technologies would engage
to create games for the most popular platforms, each one
you as a gamer? Discuss, in a group, who you think
comes with its own benefits and limitations.
these emerging technologies would engage and
whether or not new audiences for games may grow
Hardware
out of these emerging technologies.
Most gaming hardware is made of the same core
components to allow digital information to be displayed
Security of integrated services and on screen and interacted with by the player.
multiplayer environments Central processing unit
As game systems become more reliant on digital services The central processing unit (CPU) is the brains of the
and streaming content, there is an increased requirement computer. It carries out all of the instructions sent to it by
for users to share their personal data with the services a computer program using thousands of tiny switches to
that they are using. Most of the digital platforms require perform arithmetic, logic and input/output. In the case of
stored credit card details and they will often ask customers a game program, the CPU is responsible for working out all
to connect their social media sites so that customers of the game’s system requirements. Most modern PCs use
can share details of what games achievements they have an Intel® or AMD CPU and the performance of PC games
gained or levels they have completed. This presents a (such as that of Steam™ titles) is dependent on the power
big security risk, as the information could be used by of the processor. For example, The Witcher® 3 is a a huge
criminals to steal a customer’s identity. For example, Sony® open world RPG with very good graphics and its minimum
was the victim of a series of cyber attacks in 2014. All system requirements include an Intel® Core™ i5 processor
the companies offering games platforms have to be very that runs at a speed of 3.3GHz (a fast processor which is
careful that new updates and upgrades to their software not sold cheaply), but its recommended requirement is
do not inadvertently create a breach that criminals can an even more expensive Intel® i7 processor running at
exploit. 3.4Ghz. Given this, many PC gamers will overclock their

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 ▸▸ Table 8.2: Benefits and limitations of different platforms (then update subsequent table numbers)

Platform Type Benefits Limitations

Windows® PC Personal computer or Easy games development; broad user No standardised technical
laptop (desktop) base; access to Steam™ specifications; some games will not
run on lower spec PCs
Mac® Personal computer or Works with most digital platforms; Fewer games are released for Mac®
laptop (desktop) powerful systems with fast CPUs
PlayStation 4™ and Xbox Console Hugely popular consoles; strong Can be expensive to develop for;
One™ hardware; OSs dedicated to playing getting disc distribution requires
games working with large publishers
Nintendo® Wii U™ Console Large fan base; not too many titles on Very specific tablet-based controls
the shelves mean that games cannot be ported
onto other systems
Apple® iOS devices (phones Mobile devices Hugely popular with owners willing All products have to be approved
and tablets) to invest in higher priced games than by Apple® who can have quite strict
non-iOS® mobile apps standards; development usually
restricted to Mac® unless using a
games engine
Android™ devices (phones, Mobile devices Much cheaper development costs So many different types of devices
tablets and notebooks) than Apple®; open source system means quality testing can be difficult
Adobe® Flash® Web-based platforms Easy to animate and create great Flash® does not have simulated
visuals on physics; due to security concerns,
many browsers are discontinuing their
Flash® support
HTML5 Web-based platforms Supported on all web browsers, No built-in support for 3D, gamepad
desktops and mobile devices; no or to save games
plugins necessary

CPUs. ‘Overclocking’ means to force the CPU to run faster the more work for the GPU. When playing PC games, the
than its recommended manufacturer speed and, while it GPU can be part of the main motherboard but is more
can be done with stability by changing the voltage, this will commonly a separate card connected to the motherboard
invalidate the warranty and put your PC at risk. through an expansion slot. Most GPUs have their own
separate random access memory (RAM) (see below) and PC
Games consoles are able to use slower CPUs because
games will often specify the minimum power of the GPU
they optimise their games to run with fewer details. For
needed by a game to run. Consoles also have their own
instance, they may use less real-time shadows or lower-
GPUs, as do mobile devices.
resolution textures. They also do not have to worry about
running large operating systems in the background, like
Key term
Windows® or OS X®.
Motherboard – a circuit board within a PC that
Mobile devices, such as smart phones, run with much
connects all the main components.
slower CPUs, which is why they are unable to run large-
scale games with complex graphics.
Memory and storage
Link Memory is split into two different types: read-only
For more information about CPUs, memory (ROM) and random access memory (RAM). ROM
see Unit 4: Programming. is used in games as storage for the game’s software. This is
usually a DVD or Blu-Ray disc, (downloaded games from
Steam or mobile app stores are stored on a hard drive
Graphics processing unit or flash memory) but cartridges were used in the past in
A graphics processing unit (GPU) works alongside the CPU consoles and handheld devices. RAM storage is used to
and its sole responsibility is to manage the production of temporarily store data when the processor is working on
images on the display. The more complex the graphics, it, and the more RAM available, the faster things usually

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 Learning aim A UNIT 8

run. Consoles and mobile devices use the amount of RAM Input

Computer Games Development

they have as a selling point of their systems whereas on a The way in which a player inputs information into a game
PC it is a lot cheaper and easier to upgrade the amount of is more crucial than any other aspect of software for
available RAM. computer games. The slightest delay in the interpretation
Long-term writable storage, unlike ROM that is read of input by a game could mean the difference between life
only, usually comes in the form of a hard drive or flash and death for your character.
memory that will store not only the game data itself but Many PC players will argue that keyboard and mouse
also user-based data such as game saves and leaderboards. controls are better than those of a gamepad controller, but
As games get more popular and people want to change it really comes down to personal preference. Keyboard
devices when new models come out, cloud storage for and mouse controls offer more customisability but players
game data has become a staple feature of consoles. Letting can use gamepad controllers when sitting on a sofa rather
players store game data and game saves in the cloud than at a desk.
means that they are able to continue playing from the
Recent developments in voice and kinetic controls have
same point if they upgrade or change their machine.
created new and innovative ways to control games that
Output not only challenge designers to come up with new ways to
Sound and display graphics are major elements of games input instructions into games, but also open gaming up to
and, as such, form the biggest share of the output. Gaming people with physical disabilities who may struggle to hold
PCs and consoles use TVs or monitors to display the traditional gamepads.
graphics but some, like the Wii U™, will have secondary
Touch input has become a big consideration as games
screens for displaying additional information or providing
for mobile devices have become more commonplace,
a screen to use when someone else wants to watch TV.
because users will need to use the touchpad of their
Smartphones and tablets are currently in a hardware war
smartphone or tablet to play games. Some gamepads now
to outdo each other’s display capabilities, with 1080 pixel
include touchpads so that casual gamers are tempted to
screens becoming the standard and 4K screens providing
move across to console titles.
unbelievable detail on a device that you can carry around
in your pocket. Connectivity
As we move into a time where society is always online,
Sound is important, as it is one of the main ways in
gaming devices are required to stay connected to the
which the game communicates with the player without
internet as much as possible. This allows operating systems
distracting them with text. A positive sound effect will
to perform fixes and updates and for games to download
inform the player that something good has happened
patches to deal with bugs and exploits. PCs and consoles
and part of a game’s learning curve is to remember which
maintain their connections through local area networks
sound effects mean which benefits or punishments.
(LAN) or wireless connections, while mobile devices can also
Another output of a game could be haptic feedback, which enjoy wireless through mobile data network connections.
is a physical sensation such as a tremble or vibration,
which is usually provided by controllers (see Figure 8.7). Link

For more on new hardware technologies, see the

Emerging technologies section.

Software
Games are software applications, written using a
programming language, and run on an operating system.
They are a lot more complicated than most software
applications but they are written using many of the same
programming processes and techniques.

Link

For more information about programming processes

▸▸ Figure 8.7: Game controllers can provide a rumble feature
and techniques, see Unit 4: Programming.
which provides extra feedback about events in game

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 Operating systems
Key term
PC games are run on either a Windows®, Mac® OS X® or
Linux® operating system. These operating systems differ Object-oriented language – uses code that is
in popularity and this is the main deciding factor in how organised into objects, which can be used to make it
many games are made for these systems. While most run in a fast and robust manner.
family homes will have run a Windows® PC, Linux® is a
more specialist operating system and Apple® Mac®s are Graphics software also needs to be considered. Systems
traditionally used by designers. If the priority use of the use application programming interfaces (APIs) for
operating system is not gaming, then fewer games will managing the tasks related to the software and the GPU.
be made using that operating system. However, digital The APIs are largely sets of routines and protocols for
platforms have started to change this. making the development of games easier. DirectX® is a
Microsoft® graphics API and OpenGL® is the open source
PC operating systems are made to work on a number of
alternative.
different hardware configurations (on various different
PCs, laptops and notebooks), unlike console operating Device drivers
systems which are designed with far fewer features and for Device drivers are another important type of software
one specific piece of hardware (one version of a console, used for running games. The drivers are responsible for
eg Xbox One™). Console operating systems are known identifying the hardware devices that have been connected
as proprietary systems, which means that the hardware to the operating systems. Drivers tell the PC, console or
manufacturers create them, and the source code is kept mobile devices which hardware is trying to communicate
private and is not intended for use anywhere else. Most with it and how it should work. This is how peripheral
mobile devices run on either Android™ or Apple® iOS, devices connect to games, such as newer controllers,
but some run on Windows®. A newer operating system is microphones or even dance mats. Console manufacturers
Steam OS by Valve™ which has been designed for PCs that such as Nintendo® or Sony® will often release extra
are primarily being used for gaming. hardware devices in order to prolong the lifespan of the
Programming languages and graphics options system and keep players interested.
The programming language in which the game is written
Audio options
can also vary quite a lot depending on the platform that
it is intended for. The dominant language for developing Audio is another important area of software. The music
games is C++, which is an object-oriented language that and sound effects are a massive part of the feeling and
has been popular for nearly thirty years. Other languages ambience that designers want to create for a game and
that use a similar structure are C# and Java. C# is used one of the best ways to evoke feeling in a player is through
within games engines and Java is used to create Android™ music. A game will have different music in the different
games. Different programming languages tend to be tied to levels and these will be similarly themed to generate a
different platforms. Some languages are described as ‘light common link across the game. Sound effects are used to
weight’ and will only run within a games engine, such as teach players when they have done something positive
JavaScript. These ‘light weight’ scripting languages rely on or negative. Music files can be quite large and developers
existing assets and features to keep the amount of code low have created a number of different file formats in order to
and to produce games quickly, but they may run slower as make the games run more smoothly, especially for online
a result. games. These file types are WAV, MP3, FLAC and AAC.

Create a technical specification for both a photorealistic 3D, online FPS game and
P ause point
one for a 2D casual web game. What are the main differences and what decisions
about software do you have to make?
Hint Think about the components that would be required: the basic requirements
are a CPU, GPU and memory, but what extra hardware would make the gaming
experience more complete?
Extend Can you find examples of games that stretch the capabilities of their platforms? Are
there any 3D games for the web? If so, what sacrifices do they seem to make in order
to run smoothly?

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 Learning aim A UNIT 8

Games engines

Computer Games Development

Key terms
Writing a computer game from scratch is a large
Rendering – the process of converting game assets and
undertaking and can involve writing thousands of lines
environments into 2D images that can be displayed on
of code. One way to make this easier is to use a games
a screen.
engine. A games engine is a piece of software, which
is designed to make games. Most games engines are a Physics – in the real world, gravity, mass and other laws
combination of designer and programming environments of physics apply naturally but in a world created by a
in which the user is able to place all of the graphical computer programmer the laws of physics have to be
assets for a level and then write the code that makes it made to apply through coding the game correctly.
interactive. There are a number of popular games engines Collision detection – the process of checking to see
in use today. Some of these are proprietary, meaning that which game objects have collided with each other.
they are only available to particular publishers or the large
games studios that own them. However, some others are
available to anyone, either for free or for a subscription fee. for faster game production. Other engines that do not
Popular games engines for multiple platforms are Unreal® include built-in physics can use APIs to add physics. An
Engine 4 or Unity® (see Figure 8.8), which are able to build example of this is the Box2D physics engine that was used
games for PC, consoles, the web or mobile devices. Other to create Angry Birds™, one of the most popular physics-
engines are designed for one particular platform, for based puzzle games ever made. Another physics engine is
example XCode® is designed for Apple®’s iOS. the Havoc® physics engine, which has been used in many
popular 3D games such as Assassin’s Creed®.
Collision detection
Once the objects in a game world have physics, they have
the ability to collide with one another. Working out the
correct way for objects to collide which each other, and
what occurs afterwards, is known as collision detection
and is another important role of a games engine. Objects
in a game world may have solid colliders surrounding
them so that game characters are not able walk through
them. These colliders may be the sides of a building,
the floor or even invisible walls to stop a player falling
▸▸ Figure 8.8: The Unity® Game Engine is a powerful application off the edge of the game world. The player’s character
used to build games quickly and efficiently will also be surrounded by a collider that detects where
their boundary is and stops them from moving through
Rendering engines walls. A game character, whether it is 2D or 3D, has a very
One of the main jobs of a game’s engine is rendering. complex shape and it would be too taxing on a system to
This is usually done through one or more virtual cameras make every part of their body a collider. Instead, a capsule-
that point at the actions within the game that the players shaped collider is often placed around them (see Figure
need to be focused on. The speed at which the game is 8.9) which is why, if you are careful, you can sometimes
rendered is measured in frames per second (FPS). The faster see a character’s arm or leg moving through a solid wall in
the FPS, the smoother the game appears to the player. a game. The more you learn about how games are made
When a gaming system is not powerful enough to run the the easier it is to spot things like this when you are playing
game that the player has loaded, the FPS is usually the first them.
casualty and a game may appear to run slowly or lag.
Scripting
Physics engines A games engine will always provide the ability to add
As all computer game worlds are virtual, all of the events code in order to make things happen in the virtual world
and rules that occur within them have to be programmed. that has been created. Code is added using a scripting
Some of the hardest elements to create involve the laws language such as JavaScript, or a full programming
of physics that need to be applied to the world. Most language like C++. The Unreal® Engine contains a visual
games engines include built-in physics that takes the scripting language called Blueprints. This is an easy way to
responsibility away from the programmers and allows create interaction without having to write lines of code.

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 complex the game’s mechanics, the larger the amount
of nodes on screen, and it can soon look like a scramble
of lines and nodes. If this happens, it would be better to
switch to C++ and write the game in traditional code.

Animation
The final responsibility of the games engine is animation.
Animation involves making different elements in the game
move. There are two types of animation: vertex-based
animation (which moves parts of a 3D mesh or 2D sprite)
and skeletal animation (which uses a rigged character and
sets of different animation cycles). An example of vertex-
based animation would be a door opening when the
player approaches it or a floating coin spinning around.
The image below (Figure 8.10) illustrates skeletal animation
in the Persona system within Unreal® Engine. A character
▸▸ Figure 8.9: Character surrounded by capsule-shaped collider created in 3D can be rigged with a set of virtual bones that
in Unreal® Engine to enable collision detection are, in turn, attached to different parts of the mesh. When
Graphical nodes are used to create movement, a virtual bone is moved or rotated, the mesh connected
interaction and game mechanics like health or to it will also move. The player will never see the bones
ammunition. Blueprints is similar to Scratch, a visual but the engine knows that they are there and understands
scripting language used to teach programming, but how they are supposed to act. The 3D character modeller
Blueprints provides a lot more functionality. The downside will rig the character in a design software application such
of using a visual scripting language is that the more as Autodesk® 3D Studio Max, weight the bones so that
the mesh is connected properly and then create different
Key terms animation cycles such as a walk cycle, run cycle, jump
cycle etc. These cycles are a single animation that ends
Scripting language – a programming language that at the same position as it starts so that it can be repeated
requires a separate application to run, such as a games for as long as the game requires the character to do that
engine or web browser. action. For example, when a player is pushing forward on
Graphical nodes – colourful blocks used to represent the gamepad, the game will repeat the run cycle for as
the different functions of a programming language used long as the player pushes forward. When a character is
to add easy interaction. imported into the games engine, the animation cycles will
be imported too.

▸▸ Figure 8.10: Skeletal animation in the Persona system within Unreal® Engine

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 Learning aim B UNIT 8

Computer Games Development

Games development can be an expensive process but much of the software
P ause point
mentioned so far is free for learners to use or does not cost anything until a game
is published and has made a certain amount of money. Can you find out what the
costs are for the software discussed so far?
Hint The websites for each of the different software are the best places to start.
Extend We have discussed game engines, 3D modelling software and operating systems,
but graphic design software plays a large part in games development too. What
additional software might you need?

Assessment practice 8.1 A.P1 A.P2 A.M1 A.D1

A mainstream games publisher is interested in creating a new game Plan

franchise that will have different titles that embrace the latest developments •• What am I being asked to do?
in current games technology. They want to show that they understand the •• What information do the designers
needs of gamers and the different devices on which they can play. They also need?
want to be seen as being part of the next phase in gaming. They have asked Do
you to make a presentation to one of their development studios to help •• Am I getting the most up to date
them understand the opportunities that are available. information?
They want a presentation which: •• Can I look at how past technology
•• explains the current social trends of computer games, including: has impacted on game design?
•• Different types of players. Review
•• Who buys what games? •• I can explain what parts of
•• How have habits have changed over time. researching the presentation were
•• explains the technological trends of computer games. the hardest.
•• What emerging technologies are being developed in the computer •• I realise where there are still areas
games industry? of the industry where I have
•• How are existing technologies being used alongside new ones? knowledge gaps.
•• discusses how current and emerging technologies impact on how
games are designed and developed to meet the requirements of the
users and the larger computer games industry.
•• How is this changing the games that people buy?
•• How have game designs changed to meet them?
•• Who is investing in this technology and what will they gain?
•• evaluates the impact of current and emerging technologies on the
design and development of computer games to meet the requirements
of the users and the computer games industry.
•• What technologies have failed in the past?
•• Are people playing games differently?

B Design a computer game to meet client requirements

Designing a computer game is a complex process involving their own deadlines, for example if they are working on a
team members with many different specialist skills. The commission for a large publisher. Often they will be given
design phase is vitally important and rushing this stage the contract on the understanding that they meet very
can lead to many problems for the development team, specific deadlines, so an efficient but also effective design
or even the players further down the line. However, process is crucial.
game development studios are not always in charge of

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 Computer games design processes which shots would achieve the desired result and which
shots would miss. In geometry, the point where a line cuts
and techniques through a plane is called the intersection, and it would
Understanding the formal methods used to design a game be this value that decides whether the player has been
is very important. Each member of the team is trained in successful or not.
their own specialism (art, asset creation or programming)
but they all have to understand all the steps in the game
design workflow. The first stage of the game design Y
process is the creation of a high-concept design document Z
that will outline all of the game’s unique features,
storyline, characters and mechanics. This document is
X
then expanded into a game design document (GDD),
which covers all of the detailed design specifications for ▸▸ Figure 8.11: All 3D game objects have a position in 3D space
the entire game including how it will be made, how many which is measured on an XYZ co‑ordinate
levels there will be, how the game world works etc. The
2D and 3D space
GDD is then shared between every member of the team
and extra documents are written, for example a style The various different points in game space that need to
guide and a technical specification. These two documents be monitored, such as the location of a power-up or the
contain even more detailed designs for the specialist teams exit to the level, will be stored as a vector. A vector is a
who will be working on the art or the programming sides mathematical way of representing the point in terms of
of the game. its location on the x, y and z coordinate axes. Based on its
distance from the game world’s centre point (0,0,0), you
can consider the vector value to be the object’s address
Mathematical techniques and processes
in the game world. Vectors are written as (x,y,z), always in
Maths and logic are a core element of programming that order, so that all developers and functions within the
and as such they form a crucial part of games design. game understand the vector’s location.
The technical specification outlines all of the code that is
required for the game, the platforms and languages that Vectors have two main abilities: they can move (or
are being used, as well as details of the developers who will transform) from one place to another or they can be
be responsible for creating them. The processes required rotated into a new position. The way in which a vector
for creating the functionality of the game and the maths rotates is decided by its pivot point. A spinning coin may
that will make it happen must be considered thoroughly. have a central pivot whereas a door would pivot from one
side. Vector values are also used to describe a direction
Calculations that something is going to move in, so, if a platform was
Calculations are present in all software. Every time we click going to move to (0,0,10), it would move 10 units in the z
a mouse button or a gamepad trigger there are lighting direction but stay in the same position on the x- and y-
fast calculations being performed in order to figure out axes.
what should happen as a result. Games use maths in a
You already know that maths is used in games, for example
variety of different ways. The mathematics of graphics is
path-finding algorithms such as the A* algorithm, but it is
one of the most common uses of this as geometry (the
also used as part of a game’s physics. While all objects will
area of mathematics that deals with shape, size and space)
have a vector to store their position, some will be marked
is used to position 2D and 3D assets in a virtual world and
as physics objects and they will have another vector for
then manage how they move, rotate and interact with
velocity, acceleration and mass. These vectors decide the
one another. Geometry deals with points, lines, planes
direction in which an object is moving, how quickly it is
and solids and this transfers directly to the 3D modelling
moving, whether it is speeding up or slowing down and its
of objects where we create vertices, edges, faces and
mass.
meshes. Games will use geometric calculations as part of
their game mechanics. So, if we are playing an FPS where Visual styles, graphics processing and editing
a player must fire a bullet at a target, geometry is used to
techniques
calculate what happens if the player shoots at a particular
angle and from a particular distance. Where would the The GDD will set out all of a game’s design details in terms
bullet hit the target if fired in that direction, at that angle of how the game should look, and a large part of the
and from that distance? Geometry is used to establish design process is dedicated to this.

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 Learning aim B UNIT 8

Computer Games Development

Worked example: Gravity
Now have a look at how a game would use maths to add gravity to a falling object. Most games will have a game
loop function that runs continuously. Every time the game changes frame, the game loop function will run. Some
engines call this an ‘Update function’ or an ‘EventTick’.
Now set a numerical value for the gravitational field strength. Both Unreal® and Unity® game engines use a value of
about 9.8 m/s2 (metres per second per second), so the velocity of the object increases by 9.8 m/s every second in free
fall. This is the same as the gravitational field strength on Earth.
Setting the gravitational field strength value to 9.8 and giving an object physics means that in every game loop we
would say:
If the object is still falling, keep on increasing the velocity by the gravitational field strength.
Which would mean, while the object has not hit the ground, make it fall faster until it does.
Can you see a fault in this approach so far?
The game loop function loops every time the game changes frame and gravity causes an acceleration of 9.8 m/s each
second. This means that the game’s gravity is going to be stronger than standard Earth gravity because it is going to
increase the falling velocity more often than 9.8 m/s each second. The game’s programmers would have to calculate
the game’s likely frames per second and work out a smaller amount of gravity to add with each game update, or only
add 9.8 m/s to the falling velocity after one second has passed.

Visual styles is a piece of code that defines how the object should be
While there are still a few text-based adventure fans out rendered graphically. It will set out properties such as
there, the majority of games are incredibly visual products the object’s colour, texture, reflections, metallic value
and their individual art styles and design can often be or outlines. Shaders are very important for maintaining
one of the main selling points for the game. For example a consistent graphical style across an entire game. They
Limbo™, by Playdead™, studios is a monochromatic game come into effect during the graphics processing stage
(black and white) with soft lighting and all the characters of designing a game, before all the objects are rendered
are silhouettes (see Figure 8.12). This creates an amazing into 2D images that are then animated onto the screen,
atmosphere of isolation and tension when playing the because the shaders decide how the objects should look.
game and the art style is so important that every person
working on the game had to consider it at all times. This
means that the style guide for the game would have been
of vital importance, especially to the asset designers.

▸▸ Figure 8.13: Different effects can be created using shaders to

allow the game developers to achieve the world designed by
the concept artists. Screenshot provided by Ross Everson

▸▸ Figure 8.12: A screenshot from the Playdead game, Limbo™, Editing techniques
showing its unusual visual style
There are many different visual or art styles used in games
Graphics processing and this is a major part of what makes games so popular
to different audiences. Players may like cel shaded games
Objects in a game will have a texture or sprite applied to
such as Borderlands™, an abstract art style such as The
them via a shader. Also known as a material, the shader
Unfinished Swan™ or a paper craft style such as Tearaway™.

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 the discs and game boxes. There will also be an additional
Key term
amount of time allocated to distributing the game to shops
Cel shaded – is a type of non-photorealistic rendering. around the world in time for release.
It is designed to make 3D graphics appear to be flat. It is
Games that are delivered digitally through platforms such
often used to mimic the style of comic books.
as Steam™ or PlayStation™ Store will be given a deadline
for digital distribution but it will not require as many steps
The art style of the game could be reliant on particular
to make it ready for the player. The choice of delivery
editing techniques. Editing techniques are the tools
method will often depend on the size of the game and
and features of graphic design software used to
the platform for which it is intended. Mobile games must
manipulate images to get certain effects. This would be
have digital delivery, as smartphones and tablets do not
the responsibility of texture artists, who may employ a
have disc drives. There is the option for both on PC and
particular technique, such as using a cartoon art style, to
consoles. Digital games are usually smaller. However,
create the textures for objects in the game. These textures
increasingly gamers like to have the choice of delivery
are created in a professional image-editing software
method: a hard copy on disc that they can keep or the
application such as Adobe® Photoshop®.
convenience of downloading their next game.

Platform Game assets

Given that platforms vary in terms of capabilities A game asset is an element of the game that is created
and features, the target platform for a game is a big outside of the games engine and which has been imported
consideration for the designers. If a game title is intended for into the engine. The asset may be a visible object that
one particular platform, then it must be designed to take full makes up part of the game environment, or it may be a
advantage of that platform. For example, PC games should sound effect that plays at certain times during the game.
take advantage of keyboard and mouse controls as they Game assets can be 2D or 3D and they can be graphical,
are the most configurable controllers available and players audio or triggers. The assets are the building blocks of the
can decide exactly where they want to map action buttons. game, that is, the game objects.
Equally, games for the Wii U™ should take advantage of its
tablet controller, which has its own touch-screen display
Key terms
that can be used to display extra information and provide
additional interaction with the game. Trigger – invisible collisions in a level that will prompt
(trigger) a function or event.
Other titles are designed to be played on multiple
platforms. If a game is designed for smartphones, will it Sprites – images used to represent characters and
work on Apple® iOS, Android™ and Windows® phones? objects in a 2D game.
If it does, will it connect to all of a player’s game centre
social networks and allow players to compare scores or
Gameplay features
challenge each other? Will it scale up to tablets such as the
iPad® or the Nexus® 9? All of these questions have to be A game’s design has to cover all elements of the gameplay
answered during the design phase of a game’s production. features. The GDD should cover all of these elements
Crowdfunded games may have stretch goals to expand and ensure that the developers understand exactly
their titles to different platforms after initial design, while how everything should work in a game. The following
games that are funded by mainstream publishers will have sections outline the different features of gameplay that are
set agreements with different platforms before the game is designed for a game.
made and they will only expand a game to new platforms Interaction model
if it has done well in sales. How is the player interacting with the game? Is it through
an avatar, that is, a virtual character who represents the
Delivery player, or is it through some omnipresence, an invisible
Games are designed for either physical or digital delivery, hand of god, which controls events in the game and of
that is, their distribution to customers will either be by which the game world’s inhabitants have no awareness?
means of a physical product (a disc) or digitally (via a The type of interaction sets a variety of design decisions,
download or online streaming). If it is physical delivery, such as the position and viewpoint of the game’s camera,
then there will be set deadlines for when the game code the way information is delivered to the player and how
needs to be supplied to the factory responsible for printing NPCs are interacted with.

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Computer Games Development

Case study

Forest Jump
Consider a 2D platformer game called Forest Jump where a character must jump forever upwards through a forest
canopy. The image below shows a scene from the game with labels indicating the types of asset involved.
The character is an asset made up of animated sprites that make her appear to jump and run.
The background is a static asset showing the forest background which never changes.
The trees are sprite assets and there are branch assets that have colliders so that the player can land on them.
Each time the player presses the jump button, a springy sounding audio asset is played and when the player reaches
the top of the canopy of trees they pass through an invisible trigger asset that tells the game’s code that the level
has been successfully completed.

The character is an asset made up of animated When the player reaches

sprites that make her appear to jump and run. the top of the canopy of
trees they pass through an
The trees are sprite invisible trigger asset that
assets and there are tells the game’s code that
branch assets that the level has been
have colliders so successfully completed.
that the player can
land on them The background is a static
asset showing the forest
Each time the player presses the jump button, background which never
a springy sounding audio asset is played. changes.
▸▸ Figure 8.14: A 2D game uses sprites for all its assets

The assets are created using various different tools. 3D assets are created in a 3D modelling software package, such
as 3D Studio Max by Autodesk®, and the GDD needs to generate enough concept art for the 3D modellers to be able
to create the assets. There is usually a full asset list in the appendix of a GDD, but additional small environmental
assets are often added during development as long as they conform to the overall visual style of the game.

game? If it is an online multiplayer game, is it a player vs

environment (PvE) game where groups of people work
together against AI enemies or is it a player vs player (PvP)
game where they battle each other in different modes?
These decisions will radically change the design of the game.
A network programming team is needed for multiplayer
games in order to write the code and set up game servers
that players will connect to.
Narrative
Does the game have a story? If so, then is it a linear story
which will have the same events and outcomes every
time, or is it a story with branching narrative where the
▸▸ Figure 8.15: Examples of 3D assets player’s choices affect the outcome of the story? Branching
narrative requires multiple scenes and levels to be
Participation designed, some of which may never be seen by the player
What exactly is the player taking part in? Is it a single player depending on what decisions they make. A story treatment
campaign where they follow a story alone? Is it a multiplayer is written as part of the GDD and then, if the game has
game and, if so, is it a local multiplayer or online multiplayer dialogue, a script will be written for each part of the

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 game. The designers need to decide if the game dialogue a cause but, whatever it is, ethical decision-making can
is spoken, in which case voice actors must be hired, or make games incredibly immersive and rewarding. A good
onscreen text needs to be produced. While players prefer example of this is Papers, Please™, a 2D job simulator
audio dialogue to having to read text onscreen, it makes it where you take on the role of an immigration office official
difficult to release the game in multiple countries around checking who is allowed into the country. Once the sob
the world because, for every different language region stories start flowing, the bribes are not far behind and
that you want to release your game in, all the dialogue has the game becomes a series of ethical dilemmas where
to be translated and re-recorded. This is part of a process the player must either risk losing their job for a deserving
called localisation and can be very expensive. stranger, or feed their own family.
Game setting Goals
Lots of decisions have to be made about the setting of a The designers decide the main purpose or objective of a
game and some of these may affect what genre the game game and players will not engage with a game unless it has
is marketed as. The physical setting refers to how the game a point. The designers will decide how the goals are broken
world is made up. Is it 2D or 3D? How are objects scaled in down into different levels within the game. Often there is an
the world? What are the boundaries and are there invisible item that the player has to retrieve or a fellow character who
walls to stop the player wandering off the path? needs rescuing, and this is the goal of the game.

Next the temporal setting needs to be decided. When Challenges

does this game exist in time? Is it in our past, our present The challenges that the player must overcome in order
or our future? Once that has been established, we need to to achieve their goals are the next focus of the designers.
know how quickly time is going to pass in the game. Is it What are the actual threats or hazards that the player
real time where every game minute is a real-world minute must face? This stage of the design will see the creation
or will time speed up and slow down depending on the and allocation of NPC enemies to different areas in the
events unfolding? game as well as the design of environmental hazards,
such as falling floors or jets of fire, which need to be
The environmental setting decides where the game is
circumnavigated to get to the goal.
set. Is it in our world or a fantasy world? Is it on a distant
planet or inside a microscopic universe? The environmental Rewards
setting can also dictate what the world is like in theme or The designers will come up with a list of potential rewards
culture. It could be a post-apocalyptic world ravaged by for the player. One of the most commonly found game
zombies or it could be a world under the sea at risk from an rewards are experience points or XP. Players will receive XP
environmental threat. Lots of settings in games are repeated for defeating enemies or using a particular skill effectively.
from title to title but elements of originality can still be Once they have enough XP they may be able to spend it on
found even in the most clichéd of settings. levelling up or new skills, depending on how the game is
We are used to novels and films telling us stories of designed. Other rewards could be unlockable areas within
emotional highs and lows such as love, loss and betrayal. the game, or, perhaps, additional time or a temporary
Games are able to take on an even greater emotional power-up that can be saved and spent in a future level.
journey by letting us make our own decisions about what Player actions
happens in the story: this is the emotional setting. What What can the player do? Can their character perform
can be more heart breaking than watching your character basic movements like walk, run and jump? Do they have
lose the one they love when it was your decision-making a more sophisticated set of skills such as magic spells,
that led them to this loss? Games that manage to immerse wielding powerful weapons or teleporting across worlds?
us in their worlds and combine this with great emotional All these decisions, while easily made, have far-reaching
plots are always well received, and are responsible for consequences. For instance, if you give the character the
moving games forward as an art form rather than just pure ability to fly, what is to stop them from just flying right
entertainment. to the end of the level over the heads of all the enemies
Ethical decisions are also a cause of great emotion in that have been put in their path? Player actions have
games. The designers may choose to give a game an to be designed to give the player the tools they need
ethical setting by putting the player in a situation where to complete the game, but not too easily. Some game
they have to make an ethical choice. For example, it could designers will not introduce all of the player’s abilities at
be between saving one life or a million, or it could be the start of the game, but allow them to be gained, one by
whether or not to perform criminal activities to further one, as the rewards of different levels. There is a style of

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 Learning aim B UNIT 8

game design called Metroidvania where the entirety of the level. Many games allow the player to set the overall level

Computer Games Development

game world is available from the very beginning but some of difficulty at the start of the game depending on their
parts are only accessible after certain tools or abilities confidence, and some games will release a new difficulty
are won by the player. The name comes from the classic level once the game has been completed on its hardest
games, Metroid and Castlevania, which had this design. setting.

Rules Game mechanics

Once a character’s abilities are decided, the rules of the The mechanics of the game include all of the functional
game must follow. If the player is able to make their game elements that need to be designed and are taught
character jump, then how high? Can they double jump? to the player, through either a tutorial level, dialogue or
Wall jump? The movements of a player significantly trial and error. Game mechanics may include an inventory
affect their progression through the game world, and the system that lets players collect items, a crafting system
movement rules need to be carefully considered. A player’s that combines items to create new ones, or a scoring
valid moves are the ones that they are allowed to make system whereby different accomplishments generate
and the game should ensure that no invalid moves are higher scores and win conditions. A win condition is the
made accidentally. The rules of a game world do not just rule that sets the circumstances in which the player wins
apply to the player character, they also apply to enemies, either an individual level or an entire game. In the classic
and they decide the physics of the game world as well. If a arcade game Donkey Kong™, the win condition is reaching
character has magic, for instance, is it limitless or will they the princess at the top of the scaffold tower. Other titles,
have to top it up with something like mana potions? If that such as strategy games, may have more complex win
is the case, then how many mana potions should there be conditions, whereby you must beat the enemy within a
per level, and how many can a character hold? All this has certain time frame using only particular resources.
to be designed and decided before building the game.
Game structure
Feedback The actual structure of the game includes the number of
The way in which a player is aware of their progress levels, cut scenes, enemies and the progression that the
is crucial in a game. The way in which software player must make to complete the game. This is shown in a
communicates with humans is a field of study called number of design documents, such as storyboards which
human computer interaction (HCI) and it is never more show simple drawings of the sequence of events in a game,
crucial than in games design. The last thing you want as a flowcharts, diagrams that explain how different rules or
player is for your attention to be taken off your object of algorithms will work, and activity diagrams that show
focus in a game. If you are fighting a boss, you do not want the way in which a player navigates the game from the
an indicator to start flashing in the middle of the screen opening menu to the final credits.
and block your view. Games use a head-up display (HUD)
to show information in a discrete and unobtrusive way. Key term
The more subtly information is fed back to players, the
better the feedback, although it does need to be clear. Cut scene – a cinematic sequence in a game that tells
part of the story. Cut scenes can be a separate movie clip
Key term or can be shown during a level.

Human computer interaction (HCI) – the study

of how people interact with machines, and the best Quality
possible ways to design interfaces between people and Games should be designed in such a way as to ensure
machines. that they are as high quality as possible, otherwise they
will receive poor scores when reviewed and sales will be
low. A game’s compatibility with its platform needs to
Difficulty be considered during the design phase. For instance, if a
The difficulty of a game, or degree of challenge, sets out game is being made for a touch-screen device, how many
how hard it is going to be for a player to complete the different buttons will the player be able to cope with at
game. Many games use a difficulty curve where the game once? If a game is being developed for multiple platforms,
starts easily and gets progressively more difficult the then it must not rely on specific platform features that are
further through it the player gets. This may be actioned not common to all of the platforms it is being designed for.
through enemy strength or a number of hazards in a

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 The performance of a game is also a consideration, as different types of player buying games today and the game
the designers making a game for a device with a lower designers have to be acutely aware of this. Almost every
specification GPU and CPU would not be able to design decision they make when preparing the design document
photorealistic graphics and hours of cut scenes with should consider the audience and, because of this factor,
audio dialogue, because the system would not be able to it must open with a very clear specification of whom the
handle it. game is for.

In addition, the designers have to consider the gaming The audience for a game is worked out by looking at
experience at all times during the design stage. Why would various demographics, that is, categories of people
people play this game? What is unique about it? How does based on their age, gender, spending power, education,
the level being designed compare to the previous level? location and family status. The amount of time that they
Does it have anything new or interesting for the player to spend playing games and their gaming experience is also
engage with? Bad games are games where these kinds of important. You could design a simple platform game in the
question have not been asked or answered, and where the style of Super Mario Brothers™ for a child based on simple
player is not considered enough. game mechanics, but you could also design a similar game
for a 30–40 year old who had enjoyed the original games
and wanted to enjoy a nostalgic experience. A game studio
Design documentation might identify its audience based on similar titles that a
The game design documentation (GDD) is passed from particular audience has previously enjoyed, sometimes in
team to team throughout the games development a bid to steal market share from a competing publisher or
process. It is of crucial importance and will be referred platform.
to constantly by artists, asset creators, programmers and There may also be a specific purpose to a game as well.
testers. While most games are designed purely for entertainment
purposes, sometimes a developer will create a game that
Audience, purpose and client requirements is designed to introduce a new peripheral device, such as a
The GDD must begin with an overview of the requirements motion controller, educate the player in how to train their
that the client has set out. The client will be the publisher brain or learn to play an instrument, or help to advertise
for most games, but for crowdfunded games it will be a new film or TV series. Creating games for marketing
the backers. Their requirements may include a series of purposes, nearly always creates weak games because
milestones, at certain dates, that the client wants you to their design and development is rushed so that they
meet, or a particular emotion or atmosphere that they can be released in time to advertise the new film or TV
want the game to evoke. series that they are tied into. If you wait too long to release
a game for marketing purposes, then all interest in that
The design will then go on to specify the audience film/TV series diminishes, so games are rushed out to
requirements, that is, who exactly is the game for and market without being properly designed or tested. It is only
why would they want to play it? Pinning down the target when the game is begun at the early stages of a film or
audience is crucial; it is nearly impossible to design a single TV series’ development that it stands a chance of being a
game that will cater for everyone. There are so many quality title.

Case study

A sample client brief

Frodo Games, an international publisher, has asked the game will contain no violent scenes, does not
your development studio to make a game that serves portray Seb or any of the Teds acting aggressively,
as a prequel to the popular children’s TV series Seb’s and maintains the ethics and morals that the show is
Teds which follows the adventures of a young boy and known for.
his teddy bears. The TV production company that owns •• What game mechanics would you consider
the rights to Seb’s Teds are letting you use the names appropriate for this title?
and images from the show on the understanding that •• Write a description of the audience for this game.

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 Learning aim B UNIT 8

Legal and ethical considerations Consumer rights

Computer Games Development

There are several laws covering the design and production As computer games become a common part of our daily
of computer games and these need to be considered when lives, existing laws have been adapted to consider games.
looking at a game’s design. One of these laws is the Consumer Rights Act 2015, which
gives customers stronger rights as the consumers of (ie
Copyright the people who buy) video games. UK residents can now
The most important law to consider is the copyright law claim a refund or repair if the digital content that they
that protects creative works made by an individual or a have bought, that is the game, is not working or is of
company and stops other people from copying them and unsatisfactory quality. Poor quality is often a consequence
making money from the copies. The copyright laws cover of a publisher rushing the development to meet deadlines
game content such as characters, places and specific game and not testing the game properly. Interestingly, this does
designs, but the creation of clones in gaming is as old as not just cover digital games that need to be paid for, but
the games industry itself. Consider the mobile hit Flappy it also covers disc-based games and games that are free
Bird™. As soon as that became popular, it was very quickly to download. Therefore freemium titles also have to be
followed by Flappy Shark™, Flappy Duck ™ etc, which are of a decent quality or the developers are obliged to fix
clones of the original game with just enough difference that the defective product. This is a good example of the law
the developers could not be sued for breach of copyright. changing to include new products and patterns in society.
The trouble is that the law does not protect the look and feel Game designers have to stay up to speed with the constant
of a game; only the intellectual creation itself is protected so changes in law and the differences between the laws of
many popular games are cloned and rebranded. However, different countries.
the developers doing the copying will not have access to the
original game code so it will always be an approximation of Licence fees
the original instead of a complete copy. Part of the problem Games designers have to consider other laws when
is that it is argued that the functionality of one game is very releasing their games and a lot of these are to do with the
much like another or similar to hundreds of other titles that financial side of games development. If a game is going to
have a small element of the game in question. If so many be released on a platform such as a console, they will have
characters run, jump and shoot, would the creator of the to pay a licence fee to the console manufacturer to get
first game that contained a character running claim that all their game released for that system. Therefore, if a game
other games have stolen their copyright? Games contain is made for PlayStation 4™, then the developer would
lots of elements that fall under copyright protection, for have to pay Sony® a licence fee. This would be paid on
example the images, titles, names and the design of the the understanding that the game was of sufficient quality
levels themselves. All this comes under the term intellectual to appear on Sony®’s system as the company’s reputation
property (IP), which is used to describe the content within a would be damaged if inferior products were released. This
game as well as the game itself. You might hear a publisher agreement would be made using a legal contract that sets
bragging about a ‘brand new IP’ which means a new title out the responsibilities and actions of both parties.
that has not had any previous games out and is all-original. Royalties
A game tied to a film cannot claim to be a new IP, because
Another financial consideration is the payment of royalties.
the film has the IP; neither can a sequel.
If a game is made using a commercial engine such as

Have a look at the blog www.gamerlaw.co.uk

P ause point
Now imagine that you have created an amazing new game that is unique in its story,
features and visual style.
Find out how you would be protected by copyright law.
Hint Copyright law protects ‘the expression of an idea’ but not ‘the idea itself’. How will
this protect you?
Extend What will happen if you release your game in different countries?

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 Unreal® Engine, there may be an understanding that games in games.) If they are putting the player in a questionable
can be published for free, but, if they earn over a certain situation, are they clear that they appreciate that this is an
amount in profit, then they must start giving a percentage ethical question and not something that the player should
of the game’s profits to the commercial engine. Music just accept? Questions about violence and sex in video
within a game will also be subject to royalty payments in games are always present in the media and many games
the same way that it is for a film or TV show. In terms of have been accused of provoking all sorts of real-world
royalties for the actual developers, they tend to be paid crimes. Therefore games designers have to think very
an agreed fee at certain stages of the game’s development carefully about what they are depicting in their games and
and, after it has been released, they do not have any claim who could be influenced by them.
to the profits. A few games publishers do offer royalties to
developers, but it is not commonplace. Game design
Digital rights management The following features should be included in the design
Digital rights management (DRM) is another legal documentation for a game.
consideration for games developers. This is the area of law ▸▸ Type of gameplay – a definition of what the game
that concerns itself with how digital products are used and involves, eg FPS, MMO, RPG.
shared. Once a game has been purchased as a download, ▸▸ Data dictionary – a table showing all the data used in
is it acceptable to copy this to other devices in the same the game, its type (eg number or text) and its purpose.
household or to give copies to friends, or even sell copies? ▸▸ Algorithm design – designs for the game’s functions and
If you bought a DVD of a game you could lend it to friends features using pseudocode.
and later sell it on, but you would only ever have the one
copy. Different companies take different approaches to Key term
DRM. Apple® will let you set up family networks that share Pseudocode – a way of writing code without it being
apps, while Google™ lets you log into as many different in a specific programming language.
devices with your Android™ account as you want. Steam™
forces you to authenticate whichever machine you log ▸▸ Storyboards, flowcharts and an activity diagram – all
into with Steam™ and, if another user is on there, you can show the structure of a game, how the game should
request access to their game library. Microsoft® originally look and flow.
announced that the Xbox® One™ would have a constant
▸▸ Visual style:
internet connection to check the DRM of any game played.
•• world – the type of terrain, style of architecture and
This was introduced so that they could monitor which
style of objects
games people were playing and for how long. They tried to
•• characters – player, enemies and other NPCs
spin it to customers as a way to get constant updates, but
•• feedback interface – how information is
this received such a backlash from players that they quickly
communicated to the player
changed their mind. Their competitor Sony® introduced
•• perspective – 2D, 3D, first-person, third-person,
a ‘virtual couch’ that lets friends play each other’s games
scrolling, aerial, context-sensitive.
whenever they are both online.
▸▸ Full motion video – used for cut scenes and menus.
Ethical considerations ▸▸ Asset lists – graphical, audio, video.
No specific law covers the ethical considerations of games ▸▸ Gameplay features – what features make this game
design, but it is something that games designers have original and unique.
to think long and hard about. If they are representing a
particular country or culture, are they doing it in a way Link
that is ethically acceptable? (For example, they should not For more on gameplay features, see the section on
suggest that all the people from a particular religion are Gameplay features.
violent. They cannot discriminate or portray stereotypes

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 Learning aim B UNIT 8

Computer Games Development

Worked example: Hazman
Here is a sample of the game design for a strategy game called Hazman. (The full design documentation would be a
lot longer and more detailed.)
Type of gameplay – a point and click strategy game for PC that sees a young hero clearing chemical spills in
industrial areas around the world. As the game goes on, Hazman starts to suspect that these incidents are not
accidents after all and a conspiracy theory soon leads to a dramatic rescue.
The player will quickly assess an area and race against the clock to find the right solutions to clearing up the different
spillages. The gameplay is a combination of solving coded puzzles by mixing the right chemicals together and
‘escape-the-room’ style puzzles to get the hero and any good NPCs to safety.

Data dictionary – each level will have the following data requirements.

Name Data type Data length Scope Purpose

LevelNumber Integer 1–99 Public Stores the current level number that the player has reached.
MovementSpeedMax Float 0–25 Public Stores the current movement speed based on input from
player.
PlayerScore Integer 0–4 Public Stores the current score of the player.
ChemicalTypes Integer 0–9 Public Stores the amount of different chemicals that can be spilled
in current level.
ExitPosition Vector3 (0–999,0–999,0–50) Public Stores the position of the level exit.

Algorithm design – the game level will be split into tiles, with 4 rows by 4 columns. Each spilled chemical will start
on one tile and, as the game progresses, will spread onto more tiles until the player becomes stranded.

Pseudocode:
LevelGridArray{0000,0000,0000,0000};
On Game Start
While ChemicalTypes>0 – Set random grid element to 1, ChemicalTypes--
On Game Loop
For Each Chemical – Spread to next available empty grid space till array full

Storyboards – the opening cut scene for the game will be a series of still cartoon panes that tell the story of the first
chemical spills. Additional cut scenes will be made after release, available as downloadable content.

▸▸ Figure 8.16: A storyboard is a visual plan of how aspects of the game should look, usually showing cut scenes

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 Visual style – the game’s style will be highly stylised cartoon visuals with thick black outlines around all assets. All
floor tiles will have simplified textures and the chemicals will have a unique colour that is bright and has a shiny
surface. The characters will only be seen from above and they will have exaggerated proportions (large heads
and eyes, a small torso, short limbs and large feet). The HUD will display the time prominently on the top right
and messages will be presented to the player in the centre of the screen (gameplay will pause until the message is
discarded by the player).
The game will have a top down perspective throughout gameplay where the player clicks on different tiles to
activate the puzzles and solutions. Where a solution is a success, a context-sensitive perspective will zoom in on
the player’s character whose animation will change to celebration mode.

Full motion video – there will be a cut scene at the start and end of the game. This will be an MP4 containing static
images and the game’s theme tune.

Asset Lists

Graphical Audio Video

Player sprites Level specific theme tune Opening cut scene
Floor tile sprites Spillage Sound Effect (SFX) Closing cut scene
Wall sprites Creeping chemical SFX
Hazard sprites Death SFX
Crates sprite Win SFX
NPC sprites Time running low SFX
Chemical sprites Countdown SFX
Menu textures
HUD textures

Gameplay features – the game is puzzle based. The first four levels will contain chemical puzzles where each
chemical has an antidote, made up of ingredients that Hazman must collect, which will be spread around the level.
Once these ingredients are mixed together, the level will be complete. The next four levels will involve escape-the-
room puzzles where there are no antidote ingredients, but Hazman must assemble items to escape from the room.
For instance, he will need to get a key from a monkey in a cage, and, once he opens the cage with a crowbar, the
monkey will jump to a higher shelf out of reach, Hazman must then find a banana to tempt the monkey down and
retrieve the key.

that the game is only going to be released on one specific

Key term
platform, then they will be able to find out the language
Context-sensitive perspective – this is when the in- that the platform is designed to be used with along
game camera changes to focus on something that the with all the different games engines that can be used to
player has selected or a change that they have caused. create games for that platform. If they know that they are
going to release the game onto multiple platforms, then
they must use a games engine that supports all of these
Development choices different platforms, or risk increasing the development
There are many different decisions that the development time, because they would have to start from the beginning
team need to make as they embark upon the creation of a for each intended platform.
computer game.
If you are writing games purely in code, then an integrated
Platforms and programming languages development environment (IDE) is used. This is a system,
A number of different factors decide how a game is made such as Visual Studio®, which supports one or more
and one of the most crucial of these is which platform it programming languages and is able to find errors in the
is being developed for. If the developer knows in advance program and, once finished, package the code into an

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 Learning aim B UNIT 8

executable application. A games engine will use an IDE to Computer game development kits

Computer Games Development

write the code portions of the game or it will have the IDE If a game is being designed for PC or web, then it is quite
built in. For example, a console game that is going to be straightforward to test the code during development and
exclusively for the PlayStation 4™ could be written in C++ the designers will ensure that the correct hardware is present
and all of the input and output will be designed specifically before the build begins. If the game is being built for a
for the PS4™. It could be written in the Visual Studio® IDE. console however, the development team will need to buy
It is not possible to build levels and arrange assets visually a console development kit for whichever platform they are
in an IDE alone, which is why games engines are used. designing it for. A console development kit is a version of
If a game were going to be released on PC, Mac® and the console that can connect to a PC and have test builds of
Linux®, then it would be best to create it on a games the game deployed directly onto the console, to test how it
engine that supported all three platforms as it would be works on the system for which it is being designed. This is the
difficult to write the game code to work on three different best way to test a game for a console and it ensures that all
operating systems directly in code. of the controls work, that the game loads and saves correctly
and that any communication with the console’s online
Some programmers are able to use a simple text editor to capabilities work correctly. Some console manufacturers sell
write code and make games. In the 1980s, it was possible to development kits while others are willing to lend them out to
buy magazines which contained code samples for players to developers, especially ones they have worked with before.
copy to create their own games on systems such as the ZX
Spectrum or Commodore 64. Intended platform/media for delivery
C++ is the most widely used programming language for An important question for developers to ask themselves
games. C# is a derivative of C++ but it is missing some considers which features of the intended platform the
features and does not run as fast. However, it is very useful game will take advantage of. You may want to keep all the
for writing game mechanics for engines such as Unity® game’s features common to all platforms or have specific
because it is easier to understand, but still powerful. functionality designed for individual platforms. These
Java is another object-oriented language, which can run features should be included throughout the game, and
slowly due to the way it is translated for any platform. It should also be promoted in the marketing for the game as
has not been embraced by games console developers unique selling points.
for this reason, but it is the best way to write programs In addition, the intended rating of the game needs to be
for Android™ without using a games engine, because the considered during the design process (see Table 8.3). If a
Android™ system is based on Java. Scripting languages like game is going to have a PEGI rating of 7 then it may have
JavaScript and HTML5 are widely used for making web violence but the violence must be unrealistic (ie something
games because they are quick to run and small in file size. that could not happen in real life, like a magic spell or a
Older languages such as Python™ or Delphi® are not really piano falling on someone and them recovering instantly).
used in professional games development but are very The rating makes a huge difference to a game’s design and
useful for learning how to program. everyone involved in the design needs to know what the
intended rating is so that they can make their designs age
Application programming interfaces appropriate.
The design of the game should also include reference to Another consideration is whether a game will be delivered
any application programming interfaces (APIs) that are as a digital download or a boxed game. If it will be
going to be used. An API is a code library that has been released as a digital download, then there needs to be a
written for use in other programs in order to quickly add series of graphical assets created for the game’s entry on
extra functionality. It may be that the game needs to the download page. Digital platforms will also ask for a
communicate with an external service, such as Apple®’s number of differently sized icons: these are graphics that
iOS Game Center for Developers to take advantage of can be resized, and graphics that can be used as part of
online leaderboards, or it could be that the developers a marketing promotion or sale (boxed games also need
want to add a virtual reality option so the Oculus Rift™ API graphics for online advertising). All of these images have
might be used. When a programmer wants to use an API, to be provided by the game’s development team. If it is
they reference it at the top of the code where it is needed going to be a boxed game, then it also needs to have box
in an ‘Include or Using statement’. After the API has been art drawn up, an image to go on the printed disk and any
included, the programmer can reference it whenever they instructions or promotional codes that are going to be
want during development. included inside the game box.

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 ▸▸ Table 8.3: PEGI games ratings, for more information visit www. management software to create and share the schedule.
pegi.info It is usually a live document that is regularly updated and
Suitable for ages 3 and older. May contain very adapted based on changes during development.

3 mild violence in an appropriate context for

younger children, but neither bad language nor
frightening content is allowed.
Resources
Games cannot be designed without various pieces of
Suitable for ages 7 and older. May contain mild hardware and software and this can be one of the biggest

7 or unrealistic violence (eg violence in a cartoon

context), or elements that can be frightening to
younger children.
expenses for a games studio, especially if they are making a
game for the first time. Every developer in the team will need
access to a PC and the appropriate software. 3D modelling
Suitable for ages 12 and older. May contain

12
software is very expensive, as is graphic design software,
violence in either a fantasy context or
a sporting action, profanity, mild sexual but they can be purchased on a monthly basis which means
references or innuendo, or gambling. that the studio only has to pay for what they need. However,
Suitable for ages 16 and older. May contain this is not a good long-term approach. The PCs required for

16 explicit or realistic-looking violence, strong

language, sexual references or content,
gambling, or encouragement of drug use.
games development need to have a good enough hardware
specification to be able to model and animate in 3D.
Graphic designers and concept artists will need additional
Unsuitable for persons under 18. May contain
resources such as graphics tablets in order to complete
extreme or graphic violence, including ‘violence

18 towards defenceless people’ and ‘multiple, their tasks (see Figure 8.17). They will also require
motiveless killing’, strong language, strong traditional drawing equipment (pencils, pens and paper)
sexual content, gambling, drug glamorisation, and scanners to make these images digital so that they can
or discrimination. be shared.

Animation timeline
Different parts of a game will involve various different
animated sequences. Animated characters will have a
series of animation cycles that they will play on repeat
when the character performs different actions. For
example, walk cycles, run cycles, idle cycles and so on.
The artists will draw single frame images of each position
needed in the animation.
Cut scenes within a game involve assets used within the
game, so the artists will create storyboards that follow the
cut scene and may create a timeline showing the order in
which assets are needed for that scene.
▸▸ Figure 8.17: A graphics tablet is an invaluable tool which
Production schedule provides a lot more accuracy than a mouse

The schedule for a game is recorded in a number of In addition to these resources, a games studio will need a
different ways. The project milestones are set up first. building to work in, and they will need to pay for utilities
The milestones are a list of stages that the project will go such as electricity, gas and broadband internet to function
through, and the dates by which they need to happen. as a business.
The art stage is followed by asset creation, mechanics
implementation, level building and testing. Completion Test plans
of these milestones may trigger the publisher to pay the After a game has been created, it must be tested
development studio a portion of their fee, while any delays thoroughly. Players will not be happy if they have paid for
could result in a reduction in payment. something that does not work properly. Testing is taken
The GDD will contain a more detailed breakdown of the very seriously and, while a lot of people imagine it to be
schedule. This may be a Gantt chart, which is a kind of bar tremendous fun to play games for a living, professional
chart that displays all the different tasks that need to be games testers need to be able to understand both
carried out to complete the project, who is doing them and the design documentation and the programming code
when they need to be completed. The team may use project because this is what they will use as a reference when

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 Learning aim B UNIT 8

they are creating and executing their tests. The test plans scenario that the tester will undertake to try out a feature

Computer Games Development

they write need to check the playability, performance and of the game, or a command, under certain conditions.
quality characteristics of the game. These conditions might be the direction of movement or
the number of items in an inventory. It is important that
There are a number of different strategies that can be used
the test cases cover as many different scenarios as possible
when planning the testing of a game, and the producer or
so that there is nothing that the player could do when the
project manager will be responsible for employing a test
game is sold that has not already been tried during a test.
manager who will then choose the most appropriate tests.
There are various types of testing documentation that can The test plan is used as a test log, where all of the outcomes
be used to plan the tests and then record the results. are recorded and an indication of what needs to be done
to correct any errors is added. If a problem is found, the
The test plan covers the development of the entire game
tester may take a screenshot to use as test evidence. This
and makes sure that there are no flaws in the product that
screenshot is then passed on to the developer who will use
is eventually released. This is a very large-scale task and
it to get a clear idea of the problem and then fix it. Once all
if any problems are found during testing the test plan will
of the testing is complete, a test report is written to show
ensure that they are recorded and fixed. Games that are
where problems were found, what has been fixed, and
released with flaws or errors in them do not sell very well
to summarise any vulnerabilities in the software or issues
and receive poor reviews from games journalists.
that might resurface. Once a game has been tested to a
Each test will have a test case, which is a particular satisfactory level, it will then be released for sale.

Case study

Working out mesh constraints Therefore designers working on mobile games will do
The official documentation for Unreal® Engine 4 states a number of things to make sure that they can have
that the maximum vertex count for a level in a mobile multiple animated characters in their games. First, they
game is 65,000 vertices per mesh. So what does this will design the game with a very basic art style so that
mean? A 3D object in a game is created in software the meshes use as few vertices as possible. The more
such as Autodesk® 3D Studio Max and is referred to curves an object has, the more vertices it will require.
as a mesh. Meshes are made up of single points called So designers will create objects and characters with as
vertices and every vertex in a virtual world has to many straight edges as possible. If you look at 3D games
be calculated and positioned. If a simple cube mesh on old consoles, you will notice how the designers have
has 8 corners, then it has 8 vertices. If you divide the avoided creating curves because they were limited in
maximum possible amount of vertices, 65,000, by 8, the number of vertices they could have.
you get 8125. This means that you could only have 8125 Developers will also use level of detail (LOD) groups.
cubes in a mobile game. This is a process where a simpler version of a 3D model
It does not seem like that big a deal until you consider is put into a game level when it is far away from the
that a typical console character can be over 80,000 player, but, when you get closer to it, a more detailed
vertices: this is too many for a mobile game. Any version of the mesh is swapped in. For example, the
character in a game will instantly increase the vertex less detailed version of a house may be a flat cube
count, especially if they are animated, as this requires with images of windows and doors, but, when the
more vertices in order to stop the mesh looking strange more detailed version is swapped in, the house has
when it moves. doorframes, handles, window ledges and window
frames.
The next consideration is the number of bones used in
animated characters. A standard human skeleton rig in Finally, developers can design their characters so that
an animated 3D character has 60 bones. The upper limit they are either not animated at all (they could still rotate
for bones in a mobile game according to the Unreal® or move), or they have simple skeletal rigs (no finger
Engine 4 documentation is 75 per mesh. This means bones or feet bones, for example). Characters in mobile
that if you use the typical skeleton rig for animated games tend to have cube-shaped feet and hands,
characters, then you may not have enough bones left to which developers tend to get away with because these
have any other animated characters in the game. characters are viewed on small mobile device screens.

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 Constraints Primary feedback
The constraints of a platform are the limitations that After the initial design documentation is completed,
designers have to consider when producing the design a game’s designs will be shown to clients and other
documentation. These limitations can have far-reaching interested parties, potential players or any licence
effects on how the game is going to play. partners, to see what they think of them. They will be
asked about the quality, effectiveness and appropriateness
Platform limitations – hardware of the designs for the intended audience. Sometimes, a
Perhaps the biggest concern for designers is what the number of prototypes are made as part of the design
hardware can cope with. A high specification gaming PC process and these will be demonstrated to potential users
with an Intel® i7 processor, 16GB of RAM and a powerful via the internet or at gaming conventions. Designers have
graphics card will not have any difficulty running any game to be careful about showing too much too soon because
that is thrown at it but if a game is being designed for a less a lot can change during the design stage. However, much
powerful platform then the abilities of the hardware will can be gained from knowing what your potential audience
directly affect the game design. thinks about your ideas. It provides you with feedback with
which to review and refine your designs.

Key term
Prototypes – small test game levels used to make sure
that the key features of the game are working and to
illustrate to clients and potential customers what a
game will be like.

Client communication
Prompt and professional communication with the client is
crucial for the design team to show that they are on top of
the project and that they are not hiding any slipped deadlines
▸▸ Figure 8.18: A 3D Character designed for animation.
or major problems. Whether by email for brief exchanges,
Screenshot provided by Dan Bennett
or face to face with the client for important discussions,
the design team has to be in regular communication with
Platform limitations – software
their client. Many games studios subcontract some areas
The software on a system does not produce as many
of the design and development to different studios and
constraints to games designing as the hardware does,
this can cause a breakdown in communication which may
but the version of an operating system that is being used
result in a weak final product. In 2013, a highly anticipated
may cause some problems. Mobile operating systems are
game received very low review scores and disappointed
updated all the time and if a game is not compatible with a
the gaming public because it did not contain scenes that
few older versions then the designers will lose a portion of
had been in the promotional material. A group of gamers
their target audience. Apple® fans often complain that new
took the developers and publishers to court. The publisher
system updates make their hardware redundant and force
blamed the developer but the developer claimed that it was
them to upgrade, and that this also reduces the number of
the responsibility of the publisher. It is possible that these
games available to them because a newer game, marked
problems could have been avoided if there had been better
on the app store for a higher iOS version, will not even
communication between the developers and the publisher.
appear to them.
Meetings and timescales
Reviewing and refining designs Whenever different teams within a developer are working
Producing the design documentation for a game is not together, and when they are working with a publisher
something that you do once per game and then make no or subcontracting elements of the development, it is
changes. A game’s design should be reviewed as often important to have regular meetings and to keep records of
as possible, and the more time set aside in the schedule these meetings in the form of minutes, decision logs and
for looking at the designs and for seeing if they can be action lists. In the games industry, one form of project
improved, the better. management used is called Agile Scrum. This approach

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requires the teams working together on a creative project Refining ideas and solutions

Computer Games Development

to meet every day for ‘daily scrums’ where they discuss the When the design for a game is started everything is
current progress and identify any changes that need making. possible, but then, necessarily, it is slowly refined down
Key term into a more specific and sophisticated design that players
will want to play. Through making prototypes, it is possible
Project management – different methods and to see which ideas work or are popular, and then to refine
procedures used to keep a project on track and under them down to the best possible version. The game’s
budget by minimising and mitigating risks and issues. designers will choose their refinements by selecting the
most successful (popular or effective) features, and by
When changes to the designs are made, either due to removing elements that proved too difficult to get working
feedback or because of review work within the design team, properly in the prototypes. The game’s publishers and
the timescales for the overall development must be updated potential customers will be shown the prototypes and
to include how long the new changes will take to implement. asked for feedback, which will then inform their ideas.
Updating the design documentation based on feedback Problems in the game’s design that are revealed by
and reviews means that a new copy must be distributed prototypes require solutions which, once found, are then
to the entire development team as soon as the changes included in the design refinements. It is hard to find out
are approved. Alternatively, a live document can be edited which features were cut out of popular games as the games
which everyone has access to. studios tend to keep these details to themselves, but the
internet is full of rumours of features that might have been.
Theory into practice

Media and communication skills

The games industry is at the forefront of creative media and technology. Given this, its working practices tend to be
driven forward by dynamic individuals and cutting edge software. You have to be able to use excellent communication
skills to ensure that your role in the game’s design and development is as efficient and effective as possible. Below are
lists of the written and verbal skills required to work successfully in the games industry.
Written skills:
•• be able to use email to share or request information
•• create design documents that colleagues can easily interpret
•• write reports detailing a project’s progress for clients
•• create presentations with visual aids to assist understanding.
Verbal skills:
•• be able to communicate effectively one to one with colleagues and subordinates
•• be able to communicate and work effectively as part of a team
•• be able to communicate effectively in both informal and formal situations.
How effective your verbal skills are will depend on how well you use tone and body language, as well as what
you actually say, to remain professional and convey information. This is especially important when you are giving
presentations or talking to clients. You have to use positive language and be able to reassure your audience that you are
in control and you understand the scale and scope of your presentation topic. You must use the appropriate technical
language when talking to people, especially when presenting information across different teams. If you use too much
technical jargon with non-technical colleagues, the discussion may be lost on them.
1 You must always consider how you are responding to people. Are you being supportive? Are you making sure that
everyone is getting the chance to talk, not just the loudest person at the table? If you are good at resolving arguments
or conflict in teams, or managing the expectations of clients, then a leadership role in games development could be in
your future. Make a list of ways in which you can develop your written communication skills.
2 Write a list of tips for yourself on how to communicate effectively in the following situations:
•• when discussing the design of a game with teammates
•• when delegating design tasks to subordinates (people that you manage)
•• when presenting the design of a game to clients.
Write down ideas for how you would be supportive to teammates and subordinates in a design team and how you
would make sure that everyone’s opinions and ideas were heard.

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 Develop a computer game to meet client
C requirements
Programming a computer game can be very different The design documentation should have been distributed
to creating an office software application or a web to the entire team before the development phase.
application but there are still similarities. Certain technical diagrams, also known as schematics,
are delivered to the people who are responsible for the
Just as a software application uses code to create menu
production of those elements. If a 3D game has a third-
structures and events, so does a game: it can dictate
person character, then they will require a 3D mesh that
the flow of the game from the loading screen, and it
has been rigged, a series of animations, a state machine
accesses files in similar ways for game saves. When games
to control the transitions between animations, space and
programmers are deciding how to proceed from the
a player control program that reads input from the player
design documents that they have been given, they usually
and changes the animations, movement and rotation of
have the first decision made for them: which programming
the player character accordingly.
language they should use. This decision tends to be taken
out of their hands because the choice of platform will
decide how the game is going to be built. There are still Computational processes
some choices available to the programmer but they are Various computational processes are used as part of
narrowed down a lot. Some computer games development games development. These processes happen discretely
companies will have a particular house language that in the background of the development process and during
they insist that everyone uses. The implementation of the runtime when the game is playing. One example of this
programming will depend on the language that is being is the rendering engine, a system that is responsible for
used but also on the complexity of the game. changing the massive data set that represents the objects,
textures and players in a game and converts them into a
series of 2D images that are rapidly changed. We believe we
Principles of computer games are viewing a world in 2D or 3D and seeing it move but, as
development with TV, film and traditional animations, we are watching a
series of flat images being quickly animated before our eyes.
Before development begins, there is a basic understanding That is why, when a system slows down or lags, the images
shared amongst the development team about the can freeze (we are stuck on one image waiting for the next
principles of games development. When working on a one to render).
game all team members, regardless of their individual role,
have to understand every step of the process in order to The screenshot below (Figure 8.19) shows how a rendering
ensure that they are working at the optimum level. engine can also add effects on top of the world that we are

▸▸ Figure 8.19: Camera effects can be added to a game

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Computer Games Development

Step by step: Production of a third-person 3D game using a games engine 4 Steps

1 The 3D modeller is given concept art and detailed designs for the player character. As the character seen most
in a third-person perspective game, it will have lots of vertices allocated to it. The modeller will understand, based
on the animation schematics, how the character will need to move so they will create the mesh with movement in
mind. This means that when the animator takes over, they will receive a model that has the rigged bones ready for
animation and is modelled in such a way that allows for all the required animation. Imagine that a human character
had been modelled and nobody had told the modeller that one of the animations sees the character reveal a tail that
they had been hiding. If the tail was not modelled and rigged, it would not be able to feature in the game.

2 The animator will use the animation schematics to create all of the different animation cycles that
have been requested. In photorealistic games with big budgets, the animators will use motion capture
studios, where actors perform the animation movements while wearing motion capture suits. This speeds up
development but costs a lot of money.

3 The animator will then hand the animated rigs over to a technical artist who will put the animated character
into the games engine and create a state machine, which is a system that decides when one animation should
change into another, for example when a character should go from standing to walking and from walking
to running. The technical artist does not need the animator to explain all of the animations created to them
because they can see them in the design documentation and perform their part of the job easily.

4 Once the animations have been completed by the technical artist, they are handed over to the programmer who
has been writing code to make the animations change on the push of a button or pressure on an analogue stick.
This example is for the production of a third-person 3D game using a games engine. The process would differ
depending on the type of game and size of team.

Key terms being shown. It might be a temporary effect tied into the
game’s story or an artistic decision that is made later, but
Schematics – a technical diagram showing the content
post-processing effects can be added to change the overall
and function of game elements.
look and feel of a game. The example in the screenshot
Rendering engine – the software in a games engine shows a film-grain effect being added to make a game
that converts virtual worlds into 2D images which are seem more ‘old world’.
then animated.
Lag – a delay or reduction in the game’s frame rate. Physics engines are an important computational process
that can affect the speed at which a game runs. If a game
3D Modeller – a job role that involves the creation and
uses too many physics objects, then the game can slow
texturing of 3D objects.
quite significantly.
Animator – a job role that involves the creation of
movement in game objects. Lighting is another crucial computational process and the
Technical artist – someone who works between the real-time creation of shadows is a process that can slow
technical and design teams and understands both. a game down significantly or require that it is only played
Animation cycles – different motions that characters on a very powerful machine. Some PC games allow you
will use on repeat such as running and jumping. to change the quality settings in order to run a game on a
slower specification. One of the first things to get turned
Photorealistic games – games that try to look as
off will be real-time shadows. As with game physics,
lifelike as possible.
something that happens easily in the natural world takes a
Motion capture – a process where real-life motion is
massive amount of calculations and processes to simulate
converted into data that can allow game characters to
in a game world. Shadow quality can, usually, be changed.
move in the same way.
A hard-edged shadow looks unrealistic in most situations,

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 but more realistic than an object that does not cast any shadows. Soft-edged shadows
that fade into the light are a lot more realistic, but require the shadow to be rendered a
number of times and therefore take a lot more computational power.

Research
The next time you play a game, pay attention to the shadows and physics in the
game world and see if you can notice where developers have taken short cuts. For
example, see if the main character has a shadow. Can you see any shadows that
are not affected by the main source of light in a game?

Applying mathematics
When a game is being developed, all the objects which require physics will have it
applied. This is usually done in a games engine but, when the game is written just using
code and assets, the physics will be an API which is then applied to objects that require
physics in the code.

▸▸ Figure 8.20: The barrels have got physics activated in the game engine

The screenshot above (Figure 8.20) shows how a games engine applies physics, with
a simple tick box and then the application of various different settings, such as how
much mass the object has. The image also shows the three different vector values that are
applied to the position, rotation and scale of the object. These vectors all contain three
values which correspond to the x, y and z coordinates of 3D space. The object is selected
using the rotate tool and each of the three axes are presented as a direction in which it
can be rotated.
The application of maths while the game is running is dependent on the features of
the game. One common maths function that is applied to game objects is called lerp,
which stands for linear interpolation. This is movement from one position to another
and is used on moving platforms, simple enemies and health bars, for example.

Prototypes and engines

If the development is taking place in a games engine, the correct choice of engine
must be made. There are many to choose from and, as most of them include a
purchase price or payment of royalties, it is important to get the choice correct from
the start. Two of the most popular engines, Unity® and Unreal® Engine, have achieved

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their success by being able to port games onto multiple platforms, whereas other

Computer Games Development

engines such as Cocos2D-x™ are aimed at one particular platform.

▸▸ Figure 8.21: Game mechanics should be tested in small prototype levels

Once the games engine has been decided upon, a number of rapid prototypes will
be created to test and show off some of the game’s unique features. These prototypes
will be used to check the feasibility of a feature, explore the timescales needed for
development or to solve problems and to identify issues early on. The prototypes
will sometimes be used to create trailers or promotional materials for the game, but
developers need to be careful because players have long memories and if the final
product seems too different from early footage then complaints will be likely.

Tools and techniques for development

There are many different tools and techniques used in games development, and the
more mature the industry becomes the more creative developers are getting.
The image below (Figure 8.22) shows landscape sculpting, which is a technique
available in many games engines whereby a large flat mesh is created and the
developers are given various sculpting tools in order to create a realistic landscape.

▸▸ Figure 8.22: Landscape sculpting can save huge amounts of development time

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 A multi-layered landscape material will then be applied which allows the environment
designers to colour in the landscape with different textures that will represent, for
example, rock, sand and grass (see Figure 8.22).
Another technique is high-to-low poly modelling whereby a 3D modeller will create a
highly detailed version of a mesh and then create a texture from the model that is then
applied to a low-poly mesh. Doing this creates the impression of detail without having
to render complex shapes.
Choosing the right tools and techniques depends on the type of game in development
but also the experience of the development team.

Quality assurance
The quality assurance (QA) process begins during the game design with the designing
of the test plans, and as development begins the testing team will start to grow. The
testing process is not just about finding problems – it is also about suggesting potential
fixes and refinements. Testers are more commonly known as QA technicians and it is a
very responsible role that requires people with meticulous attention to detail. Testers
should not just be people who enjoy playing games, but people who are able to think
of all of the different ways that a game can be broken, and are able to follow formal
processes to document every problem that they find in a way that can be understood
by the programmers.
The testing is split into different phases and begins with unit testing all of the individual
technical elements of the game. This is followed by alpha testing the first complete
build, beta testing the next release after bugs have been fixed and then a final quality
test to ensure that everything is working. Sometimes the developers will offer a beta
build to the public for testing, as this gives them the chance to get much more feedback.

Technical constraints
While we have already looked at the design constraints that can affect how the game
will look and feel, a number of technical constraints may affect the development stage.
The game will have a set budget and this will dictate how much time can be spent on
development, as most of the team will be on fixed-term, temporary contracts. Players
often ask why games do not have all the features it is possible to have and budget
constraints are one of the biggest reasons for features being cut back.
The size of the servers will affect the development of an online multiplayer game.
The number of players who can access the game online at one time is known as the
maximum concurrent players. If the server is unable to cope with all of the potential
players across the world, then the workload may be split between multiple servers for
set areas such as, for example, Europe and North America.

Developing computer games

In this section, we will follow the step-by-step development of a third-person game
called Jump Chase where the player has to race through different levels to get to the
end goal within a set time limit. Known as a platformer or platform game, this style of
game has always been a popular design.

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Computer Games Development

Worked example: Creating Jump Chase
Visual style
As a platform game relies on precise jumps and timing, the perspective works best with a third-person avatar so that
the player can judge all their jumps carefully. The game is being made in Unreal® Engine 4 and, as the screenshot
below shows, the sample third-person character template contains an animated character mesh which is followed by
a camera. That camera has its own settings and this includes field of view, or area of vision, which is the extent of the
area that the camera captures. A wide field of view will let the viewer see more of the scene but this may scale down
automatically if the display being used does not have enough resolution to support it.

Link

For more about avatars

and omnipresence see the
Interaction model section.

▸▸ Figure 8.23: The field of view is set by the camera that follows the player’s character in this third-person game

Input methods
In Jump Chase, the player needs to be able to control the main character as easily as possible and there are a number
of input methods available for this, depending on which controller the game will use. This game is played on PC, which
means that it could be controlled by a keyboard/mouse or by a gamepad.

▸▸ Figure 8.24: Player input can be mapped to keyboard, controllers or even both

The default settings for the third-person template in Unreal® Engine supports mouse and keyboard but it would be
relatively easy to add gamepad support as well. While many different gamepads can be purchased for PC, the majority of
them tend to have the same configuration so that they will work with the bulk of PC games. The code for the character will
not specify a particular key or button but instead it will be named, for example MoveForward, Jump, LookUp. These labels

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 are then mapped to one or more keys, so the walking movement may be mapped to the W, A, S and D keys. Some games
allow menu options to provide customisable keys so that the player can choose exactly which keys they want to use. Some
players may prefer the keys to be spread out, but some prefer them closer together. It can also work better for left-handed
players to move the controls to the I, J, L and M keys. This feature is not usually available on console games, even though
you can plug in a keyboard, but players are given control configuration choices in some games. Games consoles are sold
with their own bespoke controllers and the designers will normally have used all of the button options available.

Asset integration
Once assets have been created for Jump Chase, they will need to be imported into the games engine. 3D modelling
software exports meshes in a format called FBX that incorporates the mesh, textures and animations all in one file.
•• Graphics:
Graphics can be created in two different ways, using raster images or vector images. Raster images (known as
bitmaps) are made up of a series of pixels and it is important when making games to keep the number of pixels in
an image (its resolution) as low as possible without losing quality. This will
make the game run more smoothly. A raster image with very few pixels will Key term
be a small file size but will have a very blocky style known as pixel-art style. Bitmaps – images that are
The more pixels there are, the smoother the image. In Jump Chase the made up of individual pixels
designers will need to make raster images for the textures applied to the that together display a picture.
3D models and for the game’s interface.
Vector graphics use points and lines to define an image. Vector graphics take more computational power to work
with so are not used as frequently in games, and very few games engines support them. Even though vector graphics
scale better, it takes less memory and processing to use a series of differently sized bitmaps.
•• Texture mapping: All of the meshes that are imported into Jump Chase will have textures applied to them as set in
the software in which they were created. One way to make a game run at a faster frame rate is to have different
assets share the same texture file. This can be done when one asset, say, a floating platform, uses the top half of
an image file for its metal texture and another asset uses the bottom half of the image. This means that two assets
only need one image file. Textures are mapped to 3D meshes, which means that each flat surface on the mesh is
tied to a particular part of an image file. If you think about a textured die, each face of the die would have a square
in the image file and these squares would be mapped to each polygon in the mesh.
•• Animation and video: The main character in Jump Chase is going to have different animation cycles. The default
character has an idle cycle, a jump cycle, a walk cycle and a run cycle. The state machine uses the idle cycle as its
default setting and, when the jump button is pressed, it will transition into the jump cycle.

Key terms
Cycle – instructions or operations which are
repeated.
Idle cycle – the animation that a character
displays when the player is not moving them.
A character in an idle cycle may stand still and
breathe or tap their foot after a few seconds.
Default setting – the setting selected by the
games engine when nothing else has been input
by the developer or, if the game is running, by the
player.

▸▸ Figure 8.25: Game characters can be rigged with bones to allow them to contain multiple animations

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The walk and run cycles are blended together so that, when a speed value stored on the Jump Chase character
changes (when the player pushes or releases one of the movement buttons), it will transition from idle to walk and
then run, depending on how long the movement button has been pressed. All of these animations are used with
the skeletal rig that is inside the mesh. Figure 8.25 shows what that rig looks like and how the games engine can be
used to manually create new animations, if needed.
Other animations may be used in Jump Chase such as cut scenes or scripted events that move the story forward.
Cut scenes will usually be recorded animations that are imported into the engine as a video file or, similar to
scripted events, a series of animations controlled by the games engine. Unreal® Engine uses an animation system
called Matinee that allows the developer to use existing assets and levels to create animated sequences, which
are observed by cameras in the level. Therefore the player will lose control of the character while the cut scene or
scripted event takes place.
•• Audio: Audio is crucial to the experience of playing a game. The virtual world is made much richer by music and
sound effects that create memories and by educating the player in how the world works. As for graphic assets,
sounds can be imported into the games engine after they have been created in other software such as Logic®,
Audacity® or GarageBand®. The level in Jump Chase will have fast-paced, frantic music that indicates that there is a
time limit, but there will also be a constant ticking sound until the time runs out.

▸▸ Figure 8.26: Audio can have 3D properties so that it can become louder the closer you get to an area

Sound assets can be 2D or 3D. 2D sound assets are heard by the player at its volume setting and cued to play as
programmed by the developer. Sounds can use triggers, so when the player steps into a certain area, such as a
creepy forest, they walk through an invisible trigger and a sound effect will play (the cry of an owl, for example).
3D sounds work in the same way but they are location specific, so as the player approaches the sound will get
louder and as they move past it the sound volume will diminish. In Jump Chase, there will be a creepy building
and the sound of someone laughing coming from inside a room that cannot be opened, just to add a sense of
horror to the level and to keep the player motivated to move forward. The sound clips have to be synchronised to
the visual displays so that they happen at the right time. This is especially important when sound is being used for
spoken dialogue as the character mesh has to move its mouth at the same time.

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 Artificial intelligence
Now that Jump Chase has some assets in place, this is a good point to start
prototyping some of the more advanced features to ensure that they work correctly. A1
The game features some roaming robots that will move around the ground and make
sure that if the player falls down then there is still a challenge as they try to get back
onto the platforms above.
A2
The roaming robots will use a path-finding algorithm, a search algorithm, that needs
to be tested in a prototype. The robots will consider the landscape to be a grid that is
divided into separate nodes.
The code needs to be written such that the robots move between two different points.
We need a way of working out the best way to move from one space to another and ▸▸ Figure 8.27: Grids are used
the breadth first search (BFS) algorithm can be used. BFS is an algorithm that shows in games to map levels for
the shortest route between objects on a grid. It does this by taking one step at a time AI characters to traverse
and finding links between the different grid nodes. This is similar to a theory called six
degrees of separation that says everything is six or fewer steps away, so that any two people can be connected,
through a common experience such as being in the same film or going to the same school, by a maximum of six
steps. BFS creates a queue of all of the nodes that are connected to the current node and then loops through them,
one at a time, to see if they are connected or have been explored.
In C++, the programming language that the Unreal® Engine uses, the BFS algorithm would look like this.

Key terms
//Loop until node queue is empty
while (!nodeQueue.isEmpty()) { Grid – a network of lines that
//remove node ID from queue is projected onto a game level
in order to split it into logical
int visitedNode = nodeQueue.removeFromQueue();
sections.
//check all connected nodes in a loop
Node – a point where lines
for (int newNode = 1; newNode <= n; ++newNode)
intersect.
{
//check to see if the newNode is connected and if it has been
visited
if (isConnected(visitedNode , newNode) ) {
Link
if(!hasBeenVisited[newNode ]){
//add to queue For more about path-finding
search algorithms, see the
nodeQueue.addToQueueEnd(newNode);
section Search algorithms.
markAsVisited(newNode);
}
}
}
}

This code snippet shows a section of the BFS algorithm where it is checking through all of the nodes connected to the
current node and seeing if they have been visited yet. The robots in Jump Chase will do this before they move. Once
the code loop has finished and created a list of nodes to move through, the robot will then make its moves.
More advanced features
•• 3D rendering: Jump Chase has a 3D environment with sculpted landscape and audio. This is created in Unreal®
Engine and the platforms will be 3D meshes created in Autodesk® 3D Studio Max.

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•• Save game states and player progression: Another advanced feature is creating save files or auto-save points.
Many modern games auto-save all the time, especially online titles. Third-person platform games like Jump Chase
tend to use checkpoints, parts of the level that once reached are automatically returned to if the player’s character
loses a life. A checkpoint location will be stored in a save file locally on the player’s system or on a server if it is an
online game.
Local file saves are also used to save progression information in Jump Chase. Details about how far the players
have reached and how quickly they completed the challenges are added to leaderboards. The game will also use
an achievement system so that when a player achieves certain goals in the game, such as completing it on the
hardest level of difficulty, they will be able to see a trophy on the achievement screen.
•• Multiple players: Games developers have to think very carefully about any multiplayer or networked features
they are going to put into a game. Multiplayer games contain many advanced features such as player matching,
which is a system that finds different people around the world who are of a similar level to you and will provide an
appropriate challenge for you. Players do not like to be pitted against opponents who are too strong or too weak
for them as this makes the experience unsatisfying.
Ensuring that network connections are maintained is important, but this is not something that is in the developer’s
control. Game publishers will be responsible for creating servers that online games connect to, and the reliability
and availability of these servers is dependent on how much money is spent on them. The servers have an
important function in allowing the player’s systems to communicate with each other and in maintaining any
online leaderboards and achievements.

This example is designed to give an overview of a developed game but is too complicated
to be created by a single learner or a small team. The scope of this unit is to provide an
understanding of the whole process and to create a simple working game that will provide
an understanding of how to create something that could be developed into a wider, working
title.

Testing computer games

Once the development is completed to a point where testing can begin, it is important
to get started as the more time that can be given to testing, the better the final product
will be. The focus of the testing is split into four areas that look to answer the following
questions.
▸▸ Playability – do all the features in the game work? Can the player do everything that they
should be able to do? Is it possible for the player to get stuck anywhere?
▸▸ Compatibility – does the game work on its intended platform? Does it load and save
appropriately? Do all the system’s controllers work with the game?
▸▸ Stability – can the game be played from start to finish without breaking? Is the frame rate
consistent throughout?
▸▸ Acceptance – do the players enjoy the game? Is the challenge at the right level?

Testing tools
Games engines and IDEs contain tools that help with the testing phase of games
development. Figure 8.28 shows a statistics window that can show details of all of the assets
in the scene and how they are being rendered.

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 ▸▸ Figure 8.28: A statistics window

Other tools include debugging tools like breakpoints and watch values that allow the
Key term programmers to automatically stop the game at certain lines of code within a function
to check to see which values are being stored. This will be useful if a particular game
Bug – a problem in code that feature is not working correctly because it will help the programmer or tester to solve
causes errors or glitches in a the problem (or bug) by processes of elimination. When the programmer knows
game. where the game is going wrong, they can figure out how to fix it.

Feedback
Feedback from testers, clients and players is very important and this is why end user
testing or user acceptance testing is crucial. Testing by players may be done by small
focus groups at the development studio, in larger sessions at games conventions or a
game may be opened up to the public as part of an open beta. It is common for small
testing groups to have to sign non-disclosure agreements (NDAs), which are contracts
that prevent them from revealing details about the game. This way, if anything is taken
out of the final version of a game, the public will never know about it.
End user testers will be asked to consider the following.
▸▸ Effectiveness – how well does the game play? How good are the controls?
▸▸ Presentation – does the game look good? Does the art style work well?
▸▸ Performance – does the game run smoothly? Has it lagged at any points?
▸▸ Accessibility – how easy is the game to control? Is the difficulty level manageable?
▸▸ Portability – does the game work well on different platforms? Does it work well on
different screen sizes?
▸▸ Robustness – can you break the game? Can you get stuck anywhere?
▸▸ Purpose – do you understand what you are meant to be doing in the game? Do you
understand why you are doing it?

Refinements
The feedback gained from users will go into making refinements to the game, but the
scale of refinement depends on how much time is left before the final deadline and
may also be dependent on the budget. Small changes to layout and challenge level can
be considered but anything that requires new meshes or characters will be impossible

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after the beta stage of development. Some console games developers, when criticised

Computer Games Development

on the performance of their games, have blamed the differences between console
development kits and the retail versions of the consoles that players have at home.
The disparity can be because the retail versions are updated more frequently than
the console development kits in order to solve security issues. But if the console
development kits do not have these updates, then developers are essentially having to
test their games on slightly different systems which can lead to problems.

Theory into practice

Skills, knowledge and behaviours

If you want to work in the computer games industry, you need to develop the
following skills.
Planning and recording
•• You need to be prepared for the massive workload that is involved in the games
development process. You must have skills that include the ability to set your
own targets, consider timescales and decide how you are going to get feedback
from colleagues.
Reviewing your own work
•• You must be adept at reviewing your own work and be willing to admit when
something is not as good as it should be. Teamwork is not the place for ego and
if you cannot put your hands up and ask for help when something is not going
to plan, then working in creative teams such as games development studios is
not the right place for you.
Responding to feedback from others
•• You must be able to collect useful feedback from other creative professionals
and end users, which means putting your product in the hands of critics and
being able to listen to both positive and negative feedback.
•• You must be able to look at the feedback that you receive and compare it
against the original requirements of the brief. If an end user is demanding
unrealistic functionality, then their feedback is not that useful, but if someone is
in your target audience and they are not enjoying the game, you must find out
why and try to see if you can do something to improve their experience.

Reviewing computer games

After a game has been tested, it will then be reviewed. The review of a game is usually
completed by the development team and the games publisher. It could be tempting to
skip the review stage if deadlines are pressing but it is a really important step as it is an
opportunity to evaluate the entire design and development process.

Quality
The reviewer will first comment on the quality of the game. How well is it made? They
will consider the textures, the animations, the game mechanics, everything. Players
tend to pay around £40 for a console or PC game or half that for a digital download
game for PC. They expect to get a quality product for their money. This means that all
the controls need to work well with the game, the graphics need to look good and the
challenge levels need to be appropriate for the intended audience. All of these aspects
will be checked by the reviewer.

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 Suitability for audience and purpose
The reviewer will consider who the audience is for the new game. They will make
comments about whether or not the game has been designed with the audience
in mind and to what extent the audience will be satisfied by the title. It is not just a
question of age here – it could be a focus on the ability of the players, their intelligence
or their history with that franchise of games. If a sequel comes out that does not refer
back to the original story or move the story forward, then it is not considering its
audience, it is just trying to make more money without giving the audience what it
wants and expects from a sequel. The game must also be reviewed against the original
purpose intended for the game.

Original requirements
The reviewer will also look at the original requirements of the game. They will look
back to the original high-concept design document and comment on whether or
not the game has met the outcomes that it originally set out to achieve. It may be
that changes and refinements during development have changed some things, but a
game should generally end up in a similar state to how it was originally conceived and
designed.

Legal and ethical constraints

The games publishers should get a legal team to review the game and its content if
there is any chance that it breaches any legal constraints such as copyright law or
ethical considerations. Smaller development studios will not have the luxury of their
own legal team and may have to check potential legal issues themselves or pay for
legal advice from an external firm.

Technology constraints
Once the game has been made, its technical requirements will be confirmed and the
reviewers will be able to check to see if these cause any problems. In the previous
generation of consoles, the Xbox 360® used DVD discs and if a game was too big it
would spill onto a second disc, which meant more expensive boxes were needed and
players would be frustrated at having to change game disc halfway through the game.
PC gamers pay very close attention to the recommended technical specifications so
that they can play their games without having to sacrifice graphics or quality. When the
quality team reviews the game, they will set out the minimum technical requirements
for the game and the recommended requirements, as they will be advertised.

Strengths and improvements

A game is always sold on its strengths, and the reviewers will make sure that they are
fully aware of everything that the game does well and anything that is not perfect. If
a game is found to have an issue and it is too late to make fixes or refinements, then
the developers must produce a patch. Games which have been shipped by the time
problems are found will have what is called a ‘Day 1’ patch. A ‘Day 1’ will automatically
download and install the fix when the player goes to play the game for the first time,
but only if the player’s system has internet access and the game knows to check for
patches whenever it loads. Patches can continue to be delivered to the player’s system
long after the game has been released, but the longer the delay between fixes, the
more dissatisfied the player will be.

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Key term
Patch – a series of code fixes that are downloaded and applied to the game code
in order to fix problems.

Platforms and compatibility

The review team will look at all the different platforms that a game has been
developed for and ensure that it works correctly and runs effectively on those
platforms. There may be a certification testing phase where game code is sent to
console manufacturers or digital distribution platforms to ensure that the game’s
install process works properly and that it makes proper use of any system features that
it needs, such as network access or game saves.

External reviews and quality characteristics

Video games are big business, with millions of pounds a year being spent on games
development and even more being spent on research into new hardware systems and
advances in technology. Games journalism is crucial to both players and developers
because the review scores that games are given before they are released can make
or break it. While the games magazine industry is starting to fade, games websites
are more popular than ever and players will often look to IGN.com, Kotaku.co.uk and
Gamespot.com to decide what their next purchase is going to be.
Some games reviewers have got into trouble in the past for giving positive reviews to
highly flawed games and have been accused of being influenced by games publishers
through being given trips and lavish gifts. This has led to an increase in popularity
of Metacritic.com, a site that gives a single score for a game based on the average of
the scores from many different review websites. It also allows users to give a score to
games, so that the opinion of the audience, as well as that of the critics, can be seen.

Further reading and resources

Game software to download for free
Unreal® Engine 4 – www.epicgames.com (free for personal and educational use).
Unity® 5 – www.unity3d.com (free for personal use, educational fees vary).
Autodesk® 3D Studio Max – www.autodesk.com/education (3 year licences for
free for students and educators).
Tutorials
Brackeys.com – brackeys.com excellent free tutorials.
Pluralsight Creative – www.pluralsight.com subscription based video tutorials.
Articles
Richard Bartle – ‘Hearts, Clubs, Diamonds, Spades: Players Who Suit MUDs’.
http://mud.co.uk/richard/hcds.htm.
David Keirsey – ‘Please Understand Me II’ (1998); www.keirsey.com/.

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 Assessment practice 8.2 B.P3 B.P4 B.M2 C.P5 C.P6 C.P7 C.M3 BC.D2 BC.D3

Now that you have shown your knowledge to the games Plan
publisher about different games platforms, you have been • What am I being asked to do?
asked to design a game. The publisher wants you to create • What sort of game would the audience want?
a game for the web using the recent WebGL plugins that are • What resources do I need to complete the task?
available on the main games engines. Do
Remember that WebGL allows developers to create whole • Have a got a full set of design documents?
2D and 3D games that will run in a web browser • Have I thought about everything that needs to
In your design, you must show that you understand the be designed?
constraints of designing for a web platform and that nothing • I can identify when I have gone wrong in my
is asking too much of the system. game production and get myself back on course.
The game’s design is your choice. The publishers are open • I am recording my own observations and
to seeing your ideas but they have specified the following thoughts in a production diary.
requirements: Review
• a PEGI rating of 7 or lower • I can consider all constraints involved in a web
• either a 2D or a 3D design game.
• a third-person player character. • I realise where I might not fully appreciate how
many assets I need to create to make the game
You should produce a GDD document and a set of design
look professional.
documents that justify your design decisions, showing how
• I can explain the skills that I employed and the
they fulfil the purpose of your game and meet the client’s
new ones which I have developed.
requirements. You will need to review the designs with others
• I can explain what success looks like.
to make refinements.
You might create the following:
• storyboards
• level designs
• a summary of game mechanics
• game screen mock ups.
Having completed the design for your WebGL game, it is
now time to create it. You have been asked to produce two
working levels for the game that you have designed with a
welcome menu and a game over screen.
Remember that you have learnt how long and complicated
the game development process can be. Do not be too
ambitious in your design. You can achieve high grades with a
simple game design that works well.
You must ensure that the game is optimised for web delivery,
which means that textures should be minimal resolution, any
3D meshes should be low poly and any audio should be kept
to a minimum. Keep a production diary of your development
and testing which records your organisation and self-
management.
After you have created the game levels, you must test it
fully and produce a review for the clients that evaluates the
design.

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 UNIT 8

Computer Games Development

THINK
FUTURE
I’m an undergraduate student on a Games Programming degree course at university. I’m currently
Gemma Kellner in my second year and, so far, I have learnt how to write games code in different scripting
languages, use 3D modelling software and improve my maths so that I can code more efficiently.
Games My course is a lot of hard work and I know that when I finish I am going to have to make myself
really stand out in order to get a job in a very competitive industry. I spend my free time working
programming on my art skills, so that when I am sent art assets I have a better understanding of how they will
be used in the game and affected by the code that I write. I’m studying hard to ensure that I
university student understand the entire workflow of games development. I will also be entering Game Jam events
to network and improve my technical skills, such as writing code that will create the game’s rules,
the player controls and the win conditions.

Focusing your skills

Planning a game’s development • Communication skills are key to being a good professional.
It is important to consider the platform and audience You must use face-to-face meetings, phone calls and emails
for any game that you plan to make. in appropriate situations, and make sure that your team and
clients feel comfortable at all times. You must demonstrate
• Consider the timescales, how long have you got to
good etiquette to colleagues, always be polite and never be
complete your project?
overly personal.
• Have you done any market research? Is your idea
• You may need to demonstrate leadership skills. Taking on a
that unique?
leadership role makes you even more responsible for your
• Why is it fun? Would people be constantly
product. If you are a leader, then you are accountable for the
stimulated playing your game?
team that you are leading and it is up to you to organise and
• What is visually appealing about your game?
motivate them to get the job done.
• Who is the game aimed at?
• How long would people need to play for? Is that Evaluating outcomes
amount of time realistic? • You must be able to evaluate how well the product has met
Working in a professional games studio the original requirements of the client brief. You may be asked
to make any recommendations about taking the project
Professionalism forward or decisions about last minute patches or refinements.
• To be professional is to understand that nothing Your recommendations must be based on considered review
is personal and that everyone is working together and reflection.
for the combined good of the game. You must put
Evaluating targets
player satisfaction first and be willing to put the
extra time in to ensure that this happens. You need • You must be able to evaluate the targets that you set yourself or
to demonstrate your professionalism by being truly that your team leader set. Did you meet your targets? Was there
expert in your specialist area and delivering what enough time? Would you have approached a problem differently
you promised. You have an individual responsibility given more time? You must be able to ask yourself these kinds of
to do your job in a thorough and timely manner. question to obtain insights into your own performance.

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Getting ready for assessment

Rupert is working towards a BTEC National in Information Technology. He was given

an assignment that asked him to write a blog about ‘Social Trends in Gaming’ for
learning aim A. He had to cover all the different areas of gaming trends in order to
explore the changes in recent years and make some comments about where gaming
could go, based on emerging technologies.
Rupert shares his experience below.

How I got started What I learnt from the experience

I made a list of all of the different areas I needed to cover, I learnt that I can write a lot from keeping good notes
from my class notes, and created individual blog pages for in class, from lectures and discussions. My handwriting
each of the headings. My headings were: Genres, Players, is bad, so some of my notes were stored on my phone
Production, Multiplayer, AI, Emerging Tech and Security. because our tutor trusts us to make notes that way. I was
able to cut and paste these notes because they were
It made me feel more organised to have all of the pages
already text. I think that in future I will keep all my notes
ready before I started, even though lots of blank pages
this way and I might save up for a tablet, as it would be
were a bit daunting. I made sure that I had tagged the
easier and quicker to type on.
pages with the titles too, so that people searching through
my blog would be able to find the information they I also learnt that there is a lot of information on the
needed quickly. I then went through all the notes I had internet about games trends and not all of it is true. There
made in class and wrote the appropriate tags on the top are a lot of opinions online, and if you find out some
of the pages. For example, when I had made notes about information you should make sure that it is posted on a
the Oculus Rift™ being good for first-person shooters, I few different sites to check that it is likely to be true.
wrote ‘emerging tech’ and ‘genres’ on top of the pages. This
meant that I could order my notes ready for writing them
up in the blog. Some of the note pages had multiple tags
written on them and I photocopied these so that I could Think about it
keep separate stacks of notes for each blog section. ▸▸ Have you been keeping notes in classes so that you
can refer back to them when writing assignments?
How I brought it all together ▸▸ Do you have a list of reputable games-related
I then typed up my notes into the different sections of the websites that you can trust to give you reliable
blog but I made sure that I wrote it in a more structured way information?
than the notes. My notes were originally just for me, so I had ▸▸ Have you been keeping a note of all the places you
to make sure that they made sense to anyone reading them. got information from so that you can reference it?
A blog does not have to be written formally, like an essay,
but it should be grammatically correct and make sense.
Then I found lots of images that supported what I was writing
about and put them into each section, taking care to arrange
them so that the pages flowed nicely. I kept notes of where I
got my images from and referenced them in my blog.
I finished each page with URLs linking the reader to
websites where they could find more information.

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