1.What is a phase of compiler? Explain the func on of each phase?

A phase of a compiler is a dis nct stage in the process of transla ng source code into
executable code. Each phase performs specific tasks sequen ally to analyze, transform, and
generate op mized code. The main phases of a compiler include:

1. **Lexical Analysis:** This phase breaks the source code into tokens and removes
whitespace and comments.

2. **Syntax Analysis (Parsing):** It checks the syntax of the code against the grammar rules
of the programming language and builds a parse tree.

3. **Seman c Analysis:** This phase ensures that the code follows the seman cs (meaning)
of the programming language, performing type checking and resolving references.

4. **Intermediate Code Genera on:** The compiler generates an intermediate

representa on of the code that is easier to analyze and op mize.

5. **Op miza on:** This phase applies various transforma ons to the intermediate code to
improve performance, such as removing redundant computa ons or rearranging
instruc ons.

6. **Code Genera on:** Finally, the compiler translates the op mized intermediate code
into machine code for the target architecture.

4.What is Cross compiler? How boot strapping of a compiler is done to a second machine?
A cross-compiler is a compiler that runs on one pla orm (the host) but generates executable
code for a different pla orm (the target). It is commonly used in so ware development
when the host pla orm cannot execute the generated code directly. Cross-compilers are
essen al for developing so ware for embedded systems, cross-pla orm applica ons, or
when targe ng hardware with different architectures.

Bootstrapping a compiler to a second machine involves ini ally compiling the compiler's
source code on a different machine, typically one with a similar architecture and an exis ng
compiler. The process typically follows these steps:

1. **Por ng:** Modify the compiler's source code as necessary to make it compa ble with
the target machine's architecture and opera ng system.

2. **Cross-compila on:** Use a cross-compiler on the host machine to compile the modified
compiler's source code into executable code for the target machine.

3. **Transfer:** Transfer the compiled compiler executable to the target machine using a
suitable method, such as copying over a network or using removable media.

4. **Tes ng:** Validate the compiled compiler's func onality on the target machine and use
it to compile programs for the target pla orm.
6.What do you mean by Lexical Analyzer? Explain the working of Lex?
A lexical analyzer, also known as a lexer, is the first phase of a compiler that processes the
input source code and breaks it down into meaningful units called tokens. Tokens represent
the smallest individual components of the source code, such as keywords, iden fiers,
operators, and constants.

Lex is a widely-used tool for genera ng lexical analyzers. It operates by defining pa erns
using regular expressions to recognize tokens in the input source code. Lex reads a
specifica on file containing these pa erns, along with corresponding ac ons to be taken
when a pa ern is matched. It then generates a lexical analyzer in C or another programming
language based on the provided specifica ons.

When the generated lexical analyzer encounters input source code, it scans through the
characters, matching them against the defined pa erns. Once a pa ern is recognized, the
corresponding ac on is executed, such as returning a token or performing some other
processing. Lex simplifies the implementa on of lexical analysis by automa ng the
genera on of efficient lexical analyzers from high-level specifica ons.

8.Differen ate between compilers and Interpreters?

Compilers and interpreters are both tools used to translate and execute high-level
programming languages, but they differ in their approaches to this task:

1. **Compila on vs. Interpreta on:**

- Compilers translate en re source code files into machine code or bytecode before
execu on.
- Interpreters translate source code into machine code or bytecode line-by-line or
statement-by-statement during execu on.

2. **Execu on Model:**
- Compiled programs execute directly on the target machine, without the need for the
compiler.
- Interpreted programs require an interpreter to execute, as they are translated at run me.

3. **Performance:**
- Compiled programs typically execute faster as the transla on process op mizes code for
performance.
- Interpreted programs may have slower execu on due to the overhead of transla ng and
execu ng code line-by-line.

4. **Portability:**
- Compiled programs are o en less portable as they generate machine-specific code.
- Interpreted programs are more portable as they rely on the interpreter to execute the
code, which can be ported to different pla orms with minimal changes.
10.What do you mean by bo om up parsing? Explain with example?
Bo om-up parsing is a parsing technique used in compiler construc on that starts from the
input symbols and works up to the root of the parse tree. It begins with the individual tokens
of the input and combines them into higher-level syntac c structures un l it reaches the
start symbol of the grammar.

One common bo om-up parsing algorithm is the shi -reduce parsing technique, o en
implemented using a stack and a parsing table. In shi -reduce parsing, terminals are shi ed
onto a stack un l a valid produc on rule can be applied, at which point a reduc on (or
reduc on ac on) is performed.

Example:
Consider the grammar:
S -> E
E -> E + T | T
T -> int

For the input string "int + int":

1. Shi "int" onto the stack.
2. Reduce "int" to T.
3. Shi "+" onto the stack.
4. Shi "int" onto the stack.
5. Reduce "int" to T.
6. Reduce "T + T" to E.
7. Reduce "E" to S.

At the end of parsing, the stack contains the start symbol S, indica ng a successful parse.

13.What are shi reduce parser?

Shi -reduce parsing is a bo om-up parsing technique used in compiler construc on to build
a parse tree for a given input string. In shi -reduce parsing, terminals from the input string
are shi ed onto a stack un l a produc on rule can be applied. Once a valid rule can be
reduced, a reduc on ac on is performed, replacing a sequence of symbols on the stack with
a non-terminal symbol.

Shi -reduce parsers typically use a parsing table to determine whether to shi a terminal
onto the stack or to reduce a sequence of symbols. The parsing table is constructed based on
the grammar of the language being parsed.

Shi -reduce parsing is commonly implemented using a stack data structure to keep track of
the symbols and a state machine to control the parsing process. This technique is efficient
and widely used in prac ce due to its ability to handle a wide range of grammars and
languages.
14.Discuss Operator Precedence parsing algorithm ?
Operator Precedence parsing is a bo om-up parsing technique used to parse expressions
based on the precedence and associa vity of operators. It uses a precedence table to
determine the next ac on to take based on the current input symbol and the top of the
operator stack.

The algorithm operates by comparing the precedence levels of the current input token and
the top of the stack. If the precedence of the input token is higher, it is shi ed onto the stack.
If the precedence of the top of the stack is higher, reduc ons are performed un l the
precedence of the input token matches or exceeds that of the top of the stack.

Operator Precedence parsing is efficient and requires no lookahead, making it suitable for
simple expressions. However, it has limita ons in handling complex grammars and resolving
shi -reduce conflicts, par cularly in ambiguous grammars.

20.Explain the Top Down Parsing? What is drawback of top down parsing?
Top-down parsing is a parsing technique used in compiler construc on that begins with the
start symbol of a grammar and tries to derive the input string by recursively expanding non-
terminals using produc on rules. It operates from le to right, mimicking a depth-first
traversal of the parse tree.

Top-down parsing algorithms, such as recursive descent parsing and LL parsing, employ
predic ve parsing to choose the produc on rule based on the current input symbol and
lookahead tokens. These algorithms are intui ve and easy to implement, making them
suitable for hand-wri en parsers.

However, the main drawback of top-down parsing is its inability to handle le -recursive
grammars directly, as it may lead to infinite recursion. Addi onally, top-down parsers require
explicit le -factoring or elimina on of le -recursion in the grammar, which can complicate
grammar design and parsing process. This limita on makes top-down parsing less suitable
for parsing languages with complex or ambiguous grammars.

21.What is recursive decent Parser Explain with the example?

A recursive descent parser is a top-down parsing technique where each non-terminal in the
grammar corresponds to a recursive procedure in the parser implementa on. It starts
parsing from the start symbol and recursively expands non-terminals using produc on rules
un l it matches the input string.

For example, consider the following grammar for simple arithme c expressions:

```
E -> E + T | T
T -> T * F | F
F -> (E) | id
```
Using a recursive descent parser, we can implement parsing func ons for each non-terminal:

```python
def parse_E():
parse_T()
while next_token == '+':
consume('+')
parse_T()

def parse_T():
parse_F()
while next_token == '*':
consume('*')
parse_F()

def parse_F():
if next_token == '(':
consume('(')
parse_E()
consume(')')
else:
consume('id')
```

The parser recursively invokes these func ons based on the grammar rules and the current
input tokens un l it successfully parses the en re input string or encounters an error. Each
parsing func on corresponds to a non-terminal in the grammar and handles the parsing logic
for that non-terminal.

22.What is Predic ve parser and how it works?

A predic ve parser is a type of top-down parser that uses a parsing table to predict which
produc on rule to apply based on the current input symbol and a fixed number of lookahead
tokens. It is called "predic ve" because it predicts the next produc on to apply without
backtracking or guessing.

The parsing table is constructed from the grammar and contains entries for each
combina on of non-terminal and lookahead token. Each entry specifies the corresponding
produc on rule to apply.

During parsing, the predic ve parser consults the parsing table to determine the next
produc on rule based on the current input symbol and lookahead tokens. It then applies the
predicted produc on rule and advances to the next input symbol.

Predic ve parsers are efficient and can parse determinis c grammars without backtracking.
However, they require grammars to be free of le -recursion and common prefixes, and they
cannot handle ambiguous grammars.
23.What is LR parser? Discuss in detail?
LR (Le -to-Right, Rightmost deriva on) parsing is a bo om-up parsing technique commonly
used in compiler construc on to parse context-free grammars. LR parsers are more powerful
than LL parsers and can handle a broader class of grammars, including le -recursive and
ambiguous grammars.

The LR parsing algorithm builds a parse tree from the input string by repeatedly applying
reduc on and shi ing opera ons. It employs a determinis c finite automaton (DFA), called
an LR parsing table, to determine the next ac on based on the current state and the
lookahead token.

LR parsers are classified into different types, such as LR(0), SLR(1), LR(1), LALR(1), etc., based
on the lookahead symbols used and the amount of lookahead required. LR parsing is efficient
and can handle a wide range of grammars, making it a popular choice for implemen ng
parsers in prac ce. However, construc ng LR parsing tables for complex grammars can be
challenging, and LR parsing may require more memory and processing me compared to
other parsing techniques.

24.What are First & Follow and how they are computed, write down procedure?
First and Follow sets are used in compiler construc on to analyze and parse context-free
grammars.

1. **First Set:** The First set of a non-terminal symbol in a grammar consists of all terminals
that appear as the first symbols of some strings derivable from that non-terminal. To
compute the First set:
- If X is a terminal, First(X) = {X}.
- If X -> Y1Y2...Yk is a produc on rule, add First(Y1Y2...Yk) to First(X), excluding ε.
- If X -> ε is a produc on rule, add ε to First(X).
- Repeat un l no changes occur.

2. **Follow Set:** The Follow set of a non-terminal symbol in a grammar consists of all
terminals that can appear immediately to the right of the non-terminal in some string
derivable from the start symbol. To compute the Follow set:
- Add $ (end of input) to Follow(S), where S is the start symbol.
- If A -> αBβ is a produc on rule, add First(β) to Follow(B), excluding ε.
- If A -> αBβ and ε is in First(β), add Follow(A) to Follow(B).
- Repeat un l no changes occur.
26.Give the algorithm for construc on of Canonical LR parsing table?
The construc on of a Canonical LR (CLR) parsing table involves crea ng a parsing table for an
LR(1) parser using the items of LR(1) automaton. Here's the algorithm:

1. **Create LR(1) items:** Construct LR(1) items for each produc on rule of the grammar
augmented with the dot nota on indica ng the current posi on in the produc on and the
lookahead symbol.

2. **Compute LR(1) closure:** Compute the closure of each LR(1) item by adding items for
all possible produc ons reachable from the items' dots.

3. **Construct LR(1) automaton:** Build the LR(1) automaton using LR(1) items and
transi ons based on the input symbols and the lookahead symbols.

4. **Construct parsing table:** For each state of the LR(1) automaton, determine the ac on
(shi , reduce, or goto) based on the transi ons and lookahead symbols.

5. **Resolve conflicts:** Resolve any conflicts in the parsing table, such as shi -reduce or
reduce-reduce conflicts, by applying precedence rules or disambigua on techniques.

6. **Finalize parsing table:** Once conflicts are resolved, the parsing table is complete and
can be used for LR(1) parsing.
29.Give the algorithm for construc on of LALR parsing table ?
The construc on of a Look-Ahead LR (LALR) parsing table involves crea ng a parsing table for
an LALR(1) parser, which is a varia on of the LR(1) parser with fewer states. Here's the
algorithm:

1. **Create LR(1) items:** Construct LR(1) items for each produc on rule of the grammar
augmented with the dot nota on indica ng the current posi on in the produc on and the
lookahead symbol.

2. **Compute LR(1) closure:** Compute the LR(1) closure of each LR(1) item by adding items
for all possible produc ons reachable from the items' dots.

3. **Merge states:** Merge LR(1) states with iden cal cores but differing lookahead sets to
create LALR states.

4. **Construct LALR(1) automaton:** Build the LALR(1) automaton using merged states and
transi ons based on the input symbols and the lookahead symbols.

5. **Construct parsing table:** For each state of the LALR(1) automaton, determine the
ac on (shi , reduce, or goto) based on the transi ons and lookahead symbols.

6. **Resolve conflicts:** Resolve any conflicts in the parsing table, such as shi -reduce or
reduce-reduce conflicts, by applying precedence rules or disambigua on techniques.

7. **Finalize parsing table:** Once conflicts are resolved, the parsing table is complete and
can be used for LALR(1) parsing.
31.What do you understand by syntax directed transla on?
Syntax-directed transla on is a method used in compiler construc on where seman c
ac ons are embedded within the produc on rules of a grammar. These seman c ac ons
specify the transla on of source code constructs into intermediate code, target code, or
other representa ons. The transla on process is driven by the syntac c structure of the
input program, with each produc on rule associated with specific transla on ac ons.

Syntax-directed transla on allows for the integra on of transla on tasks directly into the
parsing process, enabling the genera on of code or other output simultaneously with syntax
analysis. It facilitates the crea on of compilers and interpreters by providing a structured
approach to associa ng seman cs with syntax. Addi onally, it allows for the enforcement of
seman c rules during parsing, ensuring the correctness and consistency of the translated
output. Examples of seman c ac ons include a ribute evalua on, code genera on, and
error detec on and repor ng.
32.Explain the terms in reference to syntax directed transla on
i.) A ributes (ii) Seman c Rules / Seman c Ac on
ii.) Synthesized A ributes (iv) Inherited A ributes
In syntax-directed transla on, a ributes and seman c rules play crucial roles in associa ng
seman cs with syntax:

i) **A ributes:**
- **A ributes** are proper es associated with grammar symbols (terminals or non-
terminals) in a context-free grammar.
- They represent addi onal informa on or proper es that are computed or inherited
during the parsing process.
- A ributes can be associated with terminals (lexical a ributes) or non-terminals (syntac c
a ributes).

ii) **Seman c Rules / Seman c Ac ons:**

- **Seman c rules** or **seman c ac ons** are code fragments or opera ons embedded
within the produc on rules of a grammar.
- They define the transla on or computa on of a ributes associated with grammar
symbols.
- Seman c ac ons are triggered during parsing when specific produc on rules are applied,
allowing for the manipula on of a ribute values or the genera on of output.

iii) **Synthesized A ributes:**

- **Synthesized a ributes** are a ributes whose values are computed solely from
a ributes of child nodes in the parse tree.
- They are typically associated with non-terminals and are determined during bo om-up
parsing by propaga ng a ribute values upward from child nodes to parent nodes.

iv) **Inherited A ributes:**

- **Inherited a ributes** are a ributes whose values are computed from a ributes of
parent nodes or are provided as input from the parent nodes.
- They are typically associated with non-terminals and are determined during top-down
parsing by passing a ribute values downward from parent nodes to child nodes.
In summary, a ributes represent addi onal informa on associated with grammar symbols,
and seman c rules define the computa on or transla on of a ribute values. Synthesized
a ributes are computed bo om-up, while inherited a ributes are propagated top-down
through the parse tree. Together, they facilitate the transla on of source code constructs into
target representa ons in a syntax-directed manner.

33.What is dependency graph? Also write procedure for dependency graph?

A dependency graph is a directed graph used to represent dependencies between various
en es, such as variables, instruc ons, or opera ons, in a program or system. In the context
of compiler op miza on, a dependency graph is commonly used to model data
dependencies between instruc ons or opera ons in a program's control flow graph.

Procedure for construc ng a dependency graph:

1. **Iden fy en es:** Determine the en es (e.g., variables, instruc ons) for which
dependencies need to be analyzed.

2. **Analyze dependencies:** For each en ty, analyze its dependencies with other en es
based on data flow, control flow, or other criteria relevant to the specific context.

3. **Construct the graph:** Represent the dependencies as edges in the dependency graph,
with en es as nodes. Directed edges indicate dependencies from one en ty to another.

4. **Op miza on:** Analyze the dependency graph to iden fy opportuni es for
op miza on, such as paralleliza on, scheduling, or data flow analysis, based on the
dependencies iden fied.

5. **Iterate:** Refine the dependency graph and op miza on strategies itera vely to
improve program performance or other relevant criteria.

34.Explain the following categories of intermediate code ?

(A) Three Address Code (B) Quadruples (C) Triples
Intermediate code serves as an intermediary representa on of a program between the
source code and the target code. Three common categories of intermediate code are Three
Address Code, Quadruples, and Triples:

A) **Three Address Code (TAC):**

- TAC represents instruc ons where each opera on involves at most three operands or
addresses.
- It typically consists of statements in the form `x = y op z`, where `x`, `y`, and `z` are
variables or constants, and `op` is an opera on such as arithme c, assignment, or control
flow.
- TAC simplifies code genera on and op miza on processes by providing a straigh orward
representa on of opera ons.

B) **Quadruples:**
- Quadruples represent instruc ons in a four-field format: `(op, arg1, arg2, result)`.
 - `op` denotes the opera on, `arg1` and `arg2` represent the operands, and `result`
indicates the result of the opera on.
- Quadruples allow for more flexibility in represen ng complex opera ons compared to
TAC, as each instruc on can have mul ple operands and a result.

C) **Triples:**
- Triples represent instruc ons in a three-field format: `(op, arg1, arg2)`.
- Unlike Quadruples, Triples do not explicitly specify the result of the opera on; instead,
the result is assumed to be stored in a designated loca on.
- Triples provide a compact representa on of opera ons, making them suitable for
op miza on and analysis algorithms.

Each category of intermediate code has its advantages and is suited to different stages of
compila on or op miza on processes, depending on the specific requirements and goals of
the compiler or analysis tool.

35.What is indirect triple representa on? Give the indirect triple representa on for
X=(a+b)*c/d.
In indirect triple representa on, each triple consists of three fields: an opera on, and two
pointers to memory loca ons where the operands are stored. This representa on is useful
when dealing with dynamic memory alloca on or when the actual values of operands are
not known at compile me.
For the expression X = (a + b) * c / d, we can represent it using indirect triple representa on
as follows:
1. Let's assume that 'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', and 'X' are stored in memory loca ons represented by
pointers: P1, P2, P3, P4, and P5 respec vely.

2. We represent each opera on with its corresponding operands' memory loca ons:
a. Addi on (a + b):
```
(ADD, P1, P2)
```
b. Mul plica on ((a + b) * c):
```
(MUL, RESULT_OF_ADDITION, P3)
```
Here, 'RESULT_OF_ADDITION' refers to the memory loca on where the result of the
addi on opera on is stored.
c. Division (((a + b) * c) / d):
```
(DIV, RESULT_OF_MULTIPLICATION, P4)
```
Here, 'RESULT_OF_MULTIPLICATION' refers to the memory loca on where the result of
the mul plica on opera on is stored.
d. Assignment (X = (((a + b) * c) / d)):
```
(ASSIGN, RESULT_OF_DIVISION, P5)
```
 Here, 'RESULT_OF_DIVISION' refers to the memory loca on where the result of the
division opera on is stored, which is then assigned to the memory loca on of 'X'.

36.Give the quadruples and triples for the expression a= b* -c + b*-c?

To represent the expression "a = b * -c + b * -c" using quadruples and triples:

1. Quadruples representa on:

```
1. (MULT, b, -c, t1)
2. (MULT, b, -c, t2)
3. (ADD, t1, t2, t3)
4. (ASSIGN, t3, a)
```
Here, t1, t2, and t3 are temporary variables represen ng the intermediate results of
mul plica ons and addi on.

2. Triples representa on:

```
1. (MULT, b, -c)
2. (MULT, b, -c)
3. (ADD, RESULT_OF_FIRST_MULTIPLICATION, RESULT_OF_SECOND_MULTIPLICATION)
4. (ASSIGN, RESULT_OF_ADDITION, a)
```
Here, 'RESULT_OF_FIRST_MULTIPLICATION' and 'RESULT_OF_SECOND_MULTIPLICATION'
represent the memory loca ons where the results of the first and second mul plica ons are
stored respec vely. 'RESULT_OF_ADDITION' represents the memory loca on where the
result of the addi on opera on is stored, which is then assigned to the memory loca on of
'a'.

42.What is difference between syntax and sema c analysis? Give an example each for an
error found by the compiler during syntax and sema c analysis?
Syntax analysis, also known as parsing, is the phase of the compiler that checks the syntac c
structure of the source code to ensure it conforms to the grammar rules of the programming
language. It iden fies the structure of the program by construc ng a parse tree or syntax
tree. Syntax errors occur when the code violates the language's grammar rules, such as
missing semicolons, mismatched parentheses, or incorrect keyword usage.

Seman c analysis, on the other hand, checks the meaning or seman cs of the program
beyond its syntac c correctness. It verifies whether the code has meaningful or valid
constructs according to the language's seman cs. Seman c errors occur when the code is
gramma cally correct but has logical flaws, such as type mismatches, undeclared variables,
or incompa ble opera ons.

Example of a syntax error:

```
int x = 10
```
In this example, the syntax error is the missing semicolon at the end of the statement. The
compiler would detect this error during syntax analysis.

Example of a seman c error:

```
int x = "hello";
```
In this example, the seman c error is the a empt to assign a string literal to an integer
variable, which is a type mismatch. The compiler would detect this error during seman c
analysis.

43.What is a front end and back end of a compiler? What are the advantages of breaking
func onality of a compiler?
The front end and back end of a compiler represent two dis nct phases in the compila on
process:

1. **Front End:** The front end of a compiler is responsible for analyzing and processing the
source code of a program. It includes the lexical analysis, syntax analysis, and seman c
analysis phases. The front end translates the source code into an intermediate
representa on, such as a parse tree or abstract syntax tree (AST), and performs various
checks and op miza ons at the language level.

2. **Back End:** The back end of a compiler takes the intermediate representa on
generated by the front end and translates it into the target machine code or another form
suitable for execu on. It includes the intermediate code genera on, op miza on, and code
genera on phases. The back end is responsible for genera ng efficient and op mized code
that can run on the target architecture.

Advantages of breaking the func onality of a compiler into front end and back end:

1. **Modularity:** Separa ng the compiler into front end and back end allows for
modularity and easier maintenance. Each phase can be developed, tested, and op mized
independently, leading to cleaner and more maintainable code.

2. **Portability:** The front end can remain the same across different target architectures or
pla orms, while only the back end needs to be modified to generate code for specific
targets. This facilitates por ng the compiler to new architectures or pla orms.

3. **Flexibility:** Breaking the compiler into front end and back end allows for flexibility in
op miza on strategies. Different op miza on techniques can be applied at each phase,
op mizing both the source code representa on and the generated machine code.

4. **Specializa on:** Developers can specialize in either front end or back end
development, focusing on different aspects of compiler construc on such as language
parsing, seman c analysis, op miza on algorithms, or code genera on techniques. This
specializa on can lead to higher exper se and efficiency in each phase of the compiler.
45.What are the various components of a lexical specifica on file? Illustrate with an
example?
A lexical specifica on file typically consists of various components that define the lexical
structure of a programming language, including:

1. **Regular expressions:** Pa erns that describe the syntax of tokens in the language.
2. **Token defini ons:** Assignments of regular expressions to token names.
3. **Lexical rules:** Rules specifying how to handle whitespace, comments, and other non-
lexical elements.
4. **Ac ons:** Ac ons or code snippets associated with token defini ons, used to perform
tasks such as building tokens or handling special cases.

Example:
```lex
%{
#include <stdio.h>
%}

%%
[0-9]+ { prin ("NUMBER: %s\n", yytext); }
[a-zA-Z]+ { prin ("IDENTIFIER: %s\n", yytext); }
"+" { prin ("PLUS\n"); }
"-" { prin ("MINUS\n"); }
"*" { prin ("MULTIPLY\n"); }
"/" { prin ("DIVIDE\n"); }
"(" { prin ("LEFT_PAREN\n"); }
")" { prin ("RIGHT_PAREN\n"); }
[ \t\n] ; /* skip whitespace */
. { prin ("ERROR\n"); }
%%

int main() {
yylex();
return 0;
}
```
In this example, regular expressions define pa erns for numbers, iden fiers, and operators.
Token defini ons assign these pa erns to token names. Lexical rules specify how to handle
whitespace and other non-lexical elements, while ac ons in the form of prin statements
display the recognized tokens.
46. What is a deriva on? Illustrate with an example the le most deriva on and rightmost
deriva on.
In the context of formal grammars, a deriva on is a sequence of grammar rule applica ons
that transforms a start symbol into a string of terminal symbols. It demonstrates how a given
string can be generated by the grammar.

Example of a le most deriva on:

Consider the grammar:
```
S → AB
A→a
B→b
```
Star ng with the start symbol S, a le most deriva on of the string "ab" is:
```
S ⇒ AB (Apply rule S → AB)
⇒ aB (Apply rule A → a)
⇒ ab (Apply rule B → b)
```
In each step, the le most non-terminal is replaced with the right-hand side of a produc on
rule.

Example of a rightmost deriva on:

Using the same grammar, a rightmost deriva on of the string "ab" is:
```
S ⇒ AB (Apply rule S → AB)
⇒ Ab (Apply rule B → b)
⇒ ab (Apply rule A → a)
```
In each step, the rightmost non-terminal is replaced with the right-hand side of a produc on
rule.

47.Define the terms reduc on, handle and right senten al form. Explain with an example,
the importance of picking the right handles during a reducing sequence.
In parsing, par cularly in shi -reduce parsing, several terms are essen al to understand:

1. **Reduc on:** Reduc on is the process of replacing a substring of the right senten al
form with the non-terminal on the le -hand side of a produc on rule. It occurs when the
right-hand side of a produc on rule matches a substring of the input buffer.

2. **Handle:** A handle is a substring of a right senten al form that matches the right-hand
side of a produc on rule. When a handle is iden fied during parsing, it signifies a point
where a reduc on can occur, effec vely replacing the handle with the non-terminal on the
le -hand side of the corresponding produc on rule.

3. **Right Senten al Form:** The right senten al form is a sequence of terminals and non-
terminals that can be derived from the start symbol by applying produc on rules
successively. It represents the current state of the parsing process as terminals and non-
terminals are shi ed or reduced.

Example:
Consider the grammar:
```
S→E
E → E + E | id
```
Suppose we have the input string "id + id". During parsing, the right senten al form might
change as follows:
- Ini ally, the right senten al form is "id + id", with no reduc ons.
- Upon iden fying the handle "id" in the right senten al form, a reduc on occurs, replacing
"id" with non-terminal "E". The right senten al form becomes "E + id".
- Next, another reduc on occurs as the handle "E + E" is iden fied, resul ng in the right
senten al form "E + E".
- Finally, a er one more reduc on, the right senten al form becomes "S".

The importance of picking the right handles during a reducing sequence lies in ensuring the
correct interpreta on of the input string. Choosing incorrect handles can lead to parsing
errors or produce unintended results in the output. By selec ng the appropriate handles, the
parser can accurately reduce the input string to the desired output, maintaining correctness
and consistency in the parsing process.

48.Illustrate the steps in the parsing of an input x=y+z-5 by an LR parser using a pre-
constructed LR parsing table?
To parse the input "x=y+z-5" using an LR parser with a pre-constructed LR parsing table,
follow these steps:

1. **Ini aliza on:** Start with the ini al state of the LR parser and an input buffer
containing the tokens of the input string ("x", "=", "y", "+", "z", "-", "5", "$").

2. **Reading input:** Read the next token from the input buffer.

3. **Lookup ac on:** Using the current state of the parser and the token read, consult the
LR parsing table to determine the ac on to take (shi , reduce, or accept).

4. **Perform ac on:** Depending on the ac on determined from the parsing table:

- Shi : Move to the state indicated by the shi ac on and push the token onto the stack.
- Reduce: Apply the produc on rule indicated by the reduce ac on, popping the necessary
symbols from the stack and replacing them with the non-terminal.
- Accept: The parsing process is complete, and the input string is syntac cally valid.

5. **Repeat:** Con nue reading tokens, looking up ac ons, and performing ac ons un l
either an accept or an error condi on is reached.
50.Illustrates with an example the working of a backtracking parser? List out its advantages
and disadvantages of it?
A backtracking parser is a type of recursive descent parser that explores different parsing
paths and backtracks when it encounters a dead end. It a empts alterna ve choices when
parsing ambiguity arises, making it suitable for handling ambiguous grammars.

Example:
Consider the ambiguous expression "2 * 3 + 4". A backtracking parser may ini ally choose to
associate the "*" operator with the operands "2" and "3", but if this choice leads to a parsing
error when trying to parse the "+ 4" part, it can backtrack and try associa ng the "+"
operator with the operands "3" and "4".

Advantages:
1. Handles ambiguous grammars: Backtracking parsers can handle ambiguous grammars by
exploring alterna ve parsing paths.
2. Simple implementa on: Backtracking parsers are rela vely easy to implement, especially
for small-scale parsing tasks.
3. Flexibility: Backtracking parsers can handle a wide range of grammars without requiring
complex parsing techniques.

Disadvantages:
1. Inefficient: Backtracking parsers may explore many parsing paths before finding the
correct one, leading to inefficient parsing, especially for large input strings or highly
ambiguous grammars.
2. Exponen al me complexity: In worst-case scenarios, backtracking parsers can have
exponen al me complexity, making them unsuitable for parsing large or complex inputs.
3. Limited error repor ng: Backtracking parsers may not provide detailed error messages,
making it challenging to debug parsing issues.

53.How do we evaluate synthesized and inherited a ributes in the sema c rules during
bo om up parsing? Illustrate with an example?
During bo om-up parsing, synthesized a ributes are evaluated when a reduc on occurs,
while inherited a ributes are passed up the parse tree from child nodes to parent nodes.
This process involves traversing the parse tree in a bo om-up manner, applying seman c
rules at each reduc on step and propaga ng a ribute values accordingly.
Example:
Consider the grammar:
```
E→E+T|T
T→T*F|F
F → (E) | id
```
Let's define two synthesized a ributes: `value` for non-terminals `E`, `T`, and `F`, and `type`
for non-terminals `E` and `T`. Addi onally, we'll define an inherited a ribute `type` for non-
terminal `F`.
When reducing a produc on rule, synthesized a ributes are computed based on the
a ributes of child nodes. For example, when reducing `T → F`, the `value` a ribute of `T` can
be synthesized from the `value` a ribute of `F`. Similarly, inherited a ributes are propagated
up the parse tree. For instance, when reducing `E → E + T`, the `type` a ribute of `E` can be
inherited from the `type` a ribute of `T`.

By evalua ng synthesized and inherited a ributes during bo om-up parsing, we can perform
seman c analysis and propagate informa on through the parse tree, enabling us to enforce
seman c rules and compute values or proper es associated with the parsed input.

54.What is a symbol table? Explain how the symbol table in compiler can be implemented
by a hash table?
A symbol table is a data structure used by compilers to store informa on about iden fiers,
such as variables, constants, func ons, and their associated a ributes, such as data type,
scope, memory loca on, and other relevant proper es. It serves as a central repository for
managing symbol-related informa on during various stages of the compila on process,
including parsing, seman c analysis, op miza on, and code genera on.

One common implementa on of a symbol table is using a hash table data structure. In this
implementa on:
1. **Hashing Func on:** Each iden fier is hashed to generate an index in the hash table.
The hashing func on maps the iden fier to a unique hash value.
2. **Collision Handling:** If mul ple iden fiers hash to the same index (collision), collision
resolu on techniques such as chaining or open addressing are used to handle collisions.
3. **Key-Value Pairs:** Each entry in the hash table stores a key-value pair, where the key is
the iden fier name and the value is a structure containing the a ributes associated with the
iden fier.
4. **Lookup and Inser on:** Symbol table opera ons, such as lookup and inser on, are
performed by hashing the iden fier and accessing the corresponding entry in the hash table.

Using a hash table for symbol table implementa on provides efficient lookup and inser on
opera ons, with average-case me complexity of O(1). It allows for fast retrieval of symbol
informa on during compila on, contribu ng to the overall efficiency of the compiler.

73.Explain sta c and dynamic type checking with examples?

Sta c type checking is a process performed by the compiler during compile me, where the
types of variables, expressions, and opera ons are verified against the language's type
system rules. It ensures that type mismatches and errors are detected before the program is
executed. For example, in a sta cally typed language like Java, if we try to assign a string
value to an integer variable, the compiler will raise a type error during compila on.

Dynamic type checking occurs at run me and verifies the types of variables and expressions
as the program is executed. It allows for more flexibility but may lead to type errors during
run me if the types are incompa ble. For instance, in Python, a dynamically typed language,
the type of a variable can change during program execu on, and type errors are detected
only when the corresponding code is executed. For example, if we a empt to perform
arithme c opera ons on variables of different types in Python, a type error will occur at
run me. Dynamic type checking is o en associated with languages that use type inference
or have more flexible typing systems.
74.Describe the parse tree method of evalua ng seman c rules. What are its limita ons?
The parse tree method of evalua ng seman c rules involves traversing the parse tree
generated during the parsing process and applying seman c ac ons or rules associated with
each grammar rule. As nodes in the parse tree correspond to grammar symbols or
produc ons, seman c ac ons are executed at each node to compute a ributes, perform
type checking, or generate intermediate code.

This method allows for a clear and structured way of associa ng seman cs with syntax,
making it easier to implement and maintain complex seman c rules. It also facilitates
separa on of concerns between parsing and seman c analysis phases of compila on.

However, the parse tree method has some limita ons:

1. **Memory overhead:** Parse trees can be large and memory-intensive, especially for
programs with complex syntac c structures. Storing and traversing large parse trees can lead
to increased memory usage and slower processing mes.
2. **Efficiency:** Traversing the en re parse tree to evaluate seman c rules may result in
inefficiencies, par cularly for languages with deeply nested or recursive grammars. This can
impact the overall performance of the compiler.
3. **Lack of op miza on:** Parse tree traversal may not always be the most op mized
approach for seman c analysis, especially when op miza ons such as bo om-up or on-the-
fly analysis can be more efficient. This can lead to subop mal performance in some cases.

75.What is structural equivalence? Give examples of variables in C language that are

structurally equivalent and different ?
Structural equivalence refers to the concept that two variables or data structures are
considered equivalent if they have the same underlying structure, regardless of their
iden fiers or names. In other words, structural equivalence is based on the similarity of the
types and arrangements of elements within the variables or data structures.

In the C programming language, variables can be structurally equivalent if they have the
same type and arrangement of elements. For example:

1. **Structurally Equivalent Variables:**

```c
int a[5];
int b[5];
```
Both variables `a` and `b` are arrays of integers with the same size and type, so they are
structurally equivalent.

2. **Structurally Different Variables:**

```c
int c[5];
float d[5];
```
Variable `c` is an array of integers, while variable `d` is an array of floats. Although they
have the same size, their types are different, so they are structurally different.
Another example:
```c
struct Point {
int x;
int y;
};

struct Point p1;

struct Point p2;
```
Both `p1` and `p2` are structurally equivalent because they have the same structure,
consis ng of two integer fields `x` and `y`.

Structural equivalence is important in various contexts, such as type compa bility, func on
argument matching, and parameter passing in programming languages.

76.What is name equivalence? In what context is name equivalence used during the type
checking?
Name equivalence, also known as name iden ty, refers to the concept that two types are
considered equivalent if they have the same name or iden fier, regardless of their internal
structure or representa on. In other words, name equivalence is based solely on the name
or label assigned to a type, rather than its structure or contents.

In the context of type checking, name equivalence is o en used to compare types and
determine compa bility between different en es, such as variables, func ons, or classes.
When performing name equivalence type checking, the compiler checks whether the names
of the types match exactly, without considering their internal structures or representa ons.

Name equivalence is commonly used in languages with strong typing systems, where types
are explicitly declared and defined. For example, in Java or C#, classes are name-equivalent if
they have the same class name, even if their internal members or implementa ons differ.

Name equivalence is par cularly useful for ensuring type safety and consistency in programs,
as it allows the compiler to enforce strict type checking based on the declared types of
variables, func ons, and other en es. It helps prevent type-related errors and ensures that
opera ons involving different types are handled correctly.

77.Describe the three address code form of the intermediate code. List out some of
opera ons used in three address code with examples?
Three-address code (TAC) is an intermediate representa on of code that is closer to machine
code than the original source code but easier to work with than machine code. In TAC, each
instruc on involves at most three operands, allowing for simple and efficient manipula on
during op miza on and code genera on.

The basic form of a three-address code instruc on is:

```
x = y op z
```
where `op` is an operator, and `x`, `y`, and `z` are operands represen ng variables, constants,
or temporary values.

Some common opera ons used in three-address code include:

1. Assignment: `x = y`
2. Arithme c opera ons: `x = y + z`, `x = y - z`, `x = y * z`, `x = y / z`
3. Condi onal jumps: `if x relop y goto L`
4. Uncondi onal jumps: `goto L`
5. Func on calls: `x = f(y1, y2, ..., yn)`
6. Memory access: `x = *y`, `*x = y`
7. Array access: `x = a[i]`

Example of TAC:
```
t1 = a + b
t2 = t1 * c
d = t2 / e
```
In this example, `t1`, `t2`, and `d` are temporary variables, and `a`, `b`, `c`, and `e` are
operands represen ng variables or constants. The TAC instruc ons perform arithme c
opera ons to compute the value of `d`.

78.How is an abstract syntax tree different from a parse tree? List out some of the nodes in
the AST for a C compiler?
An abstract syntax tree (AST) and a parse tree are both hierarchical representa ons of the
syntac c structure of a program, but they differ in their levels of abstrac on and the
informa on they contain.

1. **Abstrac on Level:**
- Parse Tree: Represents the concrete syntax of the program, including all syntac c details
such as parentheses, commas, and semicolons. It closely mirrors the grammar rules used to
parse the input.
- AST: Represents the abstract syntac c structure of the program, omi ng unnecessary
details and focusing on the essen al elements of the program's structure. It captures the
seman c meaning of the code rather than its specific syntax.

2. **Informa on Content:**
- Parse Tree: Contains all tokens and grammar produc ons used to parse the input,
including non-terminals, terminals, and syntac c constructs.
- AST: Contains only relevant nodes represen ng language constructs, such as expressions,
statements, declara ons, and control flow constructs. It excludes tokens and syntac c details
not essen al for understanding the program's structure.

Nodes in the AST for a C compiler may include:

1. Variable declara ons
2. Func on declara ons
3. Assignment statements
4. Arithme c expressions
5. Condi onal statements (if-else)
6. Loop statements (while, for)
7. Func on calls
8. Return statements
9. Unary and binary operators
10. Control flow constructs (break, con nue)

79.How is an abstract syntax tree different from a parse tree? List out some of the nodes in
the AST for a C compiler?
An abstract syntax tree (AST) and a parse tree both represent the syntac c structure of a
program, but they differ in their level of abstrac on and the informa on they capture.

1. **Abstrac on Level:**
- Parse Tree: Represents the concrete syntax of the program, including all syntac c details
such as parentheses, commas, and semicolons. It closely mirrors the grammar rules used to
parse the input.
- AST: Represents the abstract syntac c structure of the program, abstrac ng away from
low-level syntac c details and focusing on the essen al elements of the program's structure.
It captures the seman c meaning of the code rather than its specific syntax.

2. **Informa on Content:**
- Parse Tree: Contains all tokens and grammar produc ons used to parse the input,
including non-terminals, terminals, and syntac c constructs.
- AST: Contains only relevant nodes represen ng language constructs, such as expressions,
statements, declara ons, and control flow constructs. It excludes tokens and syntac c details
not essen al for understanding the program's structure.

Nodes in the AST for a C compiler may include:

1. Variable declara ons
2. Func on declara ons
3. Assignment statements
4. Arithme c expressions
5. Condi onal statements (if-else)
6. Loop statements (while, for)
7. Func on calls
8. Return statements
9. Unary and binary operators
10. Control flow constructs (break, con nue)
80.How is a call to a procedure translated into TAC? Illustrate with an example?
A call to a procedure in three-address code (TAC) involves several steps to ensure correct
execu on and proper handling of parameters and return values. Here's how a call to a
procedure is typically translated into TAC:

1. **Preparing Parameters:** Assign values to parameters and store them in temporary

variables if necessary.
2. **Call Instruc on:** Generate a TAC instruc on to call the procedure, specifying the
procedure name and any parameters passed.
3. **Procedure Entry:** Create a label or instruc on to mark the entry point of the
procedure.
4. **Parameter Passing:** Transfer control to the procedure and make the parameters
accessible within the procedure.
5. **Execu on:** Execute the code within the procedure, which may involve further TAC
instruc ons for computa ons, assignments, condi onals, loops, etc.
6. **Return Value:** If the procedure returns a value, store the result in a temporary
variable.
7. **Return Instruc on:** Generate a TAC instruc on to return control from the procedure
to the caller, op onally including the return value.

Example:
Consider a procedure `add` that takes two parameters `a` and `b` and returns their sum.
Here's how a call to `add` might be translated into TAC:
```
// Prepare parameters
t1 = 10 // Value of parameter a
t2 = 20 // Value of parameter b

// Call instruc on
call add, t1, t2

// Procedure entry
add:

// Parameter passing (a and b accessible)

// Execu on (sum = a + b)
t3 = t1 + t2

// Return value
return t3
```
In this example, `t1` and `t2` are temporary variables holding the parameter values. The `call`
instruc on invokes the `add` procedure with parameters `t1` and `t2`. Inside the `add`
procedure, the parameters are accessible for computa on, and the result is stored in `t3`.
Finally, the procedure returns the sum.
81.How is a switch case statement translated into TAC? Illustrate with an example?
Transla ng a switch-case statement into three-address code (TAC) involves genera ng code
to handle each case and the default case, along with the necessary branching instruc ons.
Here's how a switch-case statement might be translated into TAC:
Consider the following switch-case statement:
```c
switch (x) {
case 1:
// code block for case 1
break;
case 2:
// code block for case 2
break;
default:
// code block for default case
}
```

1. **Evaluate Expression:**
Evaluate the expression `x` and store its value in a temporary variable.
2. **Branching Instruc ons:**
Generate condi onal branch instruc ons to compare the value of `x` with each case label
and branch to the corresponding code block or the default case if none of the cases match.
3. **Code Blocks:**
Generate TAC code for each code block associated with the case labels. Include instruc ons
to perform the ac ons specified in each case.
4. **Break Statements:**
Include instruc ons to jump out of the switch statement when a case is matched using
break statements.
Example:
```c
t1 = x // Evaluate expression

// Branching instruc ons

if t1 == 1 goto case_1
if t1 == 2 goto case_2
goto default_case

// Code block for case 1

case_1:
// code block for case 1
goto end_switch

// Code block for case 2

case_2:
// code block for case 2
goto end_switch
// Code block for default case
default_case:
// code block for default case

// End of switch statement

end_switch:
```

In this example, `t1` is a temporary variable holding the value of expression `x`. Condi onal
branch instruc ons are generated to compare `t1` with each case label (`1` and `2`). If a
match is found, the corresponding code block is executed, followed by a jump to the end of
the switch statement. If no match is found, the default case is executed. Finally, the end of
the switch statement is marked by a label.

82.What does a target generator do? Explain the various form of a target program that a
target code generator can produce?
A target code generator is a component of a compiler responsible for transla ng
intermediate code (such as three-address code or abstract syntax trees) into machine code
or assembly language specific to a target pla orm or architecture. The target generator
performs several tasks to produce executable code tailored to the target environment.
1. **Instruc on Selec on:** Select appropriate machine instruc ons that closely match the
seman cs of the intermediate code instruc ons while considering the capabili es and
constraints of the target architecture.

2. **Register Alloca on:** Assign temporary variables and values to hardware registers
efficiently to minimize memory accesses and op mize performance.

3. **Addressing Modes:** Choose appropriate addressing modes (such as immediate, direct,

indirect, indexed) to access memory loca ons and operands efficiently based on the target
architecture's memory model.

4. **Op miza on:** Apply op miza on techniques (such as instruc on scheduling, loop
unrolling, and peephole op miza on) to improve the generated code's speed, size, and
resource u liza on.

5. **Error Handling:** Handle errors and excep onal condi ons encountered during code
genera on, such as unsupported features or constraints viola ons.

The target code generator can produce various forms of target programs, including:
- **Assembly Language Code:** Human-readable representa on of the machine code
instruc ons, which can be further assembled into machine code.
- **Object Code:** Binary representa on of the generated machine instruc ons, typically in
a relocatable format suitable for linking with other object files.
- **Executable Code:** Fully linked and executable machine code ready to be loaded and
run on the target pla orm.
- **Intermediate Representa on:** Target-specific intermediate code, such as LLVM IR,
which can be further op mized and compiled to machine code by another compiler or
run me system.
83.What are the registers available in 86 architecture for a target generator to generate
code?
In x86 architecture, there are several registers available for a target code generator to
generate code. These registers are used for various purposes, including storing data,
addressing memory, and performing arithme c and logical opera ons. Some of the
commonly used registers in x86 architecture include:

1. General-purpose registers:
- EAX, EBX, ECX, EDX
- ESI (source index), EDI (des na on index)
- ESP (stack pointer), EBP (base pointer)

2. Segment registers:
- CS (code segment), DS (data segment), SS (stack segment), ES (extra segment), FS, GS

3. Instruc on pointer register:

- EIP (instruc on pointer)

4. Flags register:
- EFLAGS (contains status flags such as zero, carry, overflow)

These registers are u lized by the compiler and the generated code to efficiently manage
data and control flow during program execu on on x86-based systems. They play a crucial
role in op mizing code performance and implemen ng various programming constructs.

84.What is the format of 86 assembly language Program? Describe the different type of
statement found in it?
The format of an x86 assembly language program typically consists of several sec ons, each
containing specific types of statements:
1. **Data Sec on:** Declares data elements such as variables, constants, and arrays using
direc ves like `.data` and `db`, `dw`, `dd`, `dq` for declaring bytes, words, doublewords, and
quadwords respec vely.
2. **Text Sec on:** Contains the program instruc ons or code using direc ves like `.text`.
Instruc ons are wri en using mnemonic opcodes, operands, and op onal labels.
3. **Direc ve Statements:** Direc ves provide instruc ons to the assembler and do not
correspond to machine instruc ons. Examples include `.data`, `.text`, `.sec on`, `.globl`,
`.byte`, `.word`, `.asciz`, etc.
4. **Label Statements:** Labels mark specific loca ons in the program and are followed by a
colon (`:`). They are used for branching, looping, and referencing memory loca ons.
5. **Instruc on Statements:** Instruc ons represent the actual machine instruc ons
executed by the CPU, such as `mov`, `add`, `sub`, `jmp`, `call`, etc. Each instruc on consists of
a mnemonic opcode and operands.

Overall, an x86 assembly language program consists of a mixture of direc ve, label, and
instruc on statements organized within appropriate sec ons.
85.Explain the following terms
i. Ac va on and life me of a procedure
ii. Control Stack
iii. Ac va on Tree
iv. Binding of a variable to Memory
i. **Ac va on and Life me of a Procedure:** Ac va on refers to the process of execu ng a
procedure or func on in a program. When a procedure is called, an ac va on record (also
known as a stack frame) is created on the stack to store informa on such as local variables,
parameters, return address, and other bookkeeping data. The ac va on record remains on
the stack un l the procedure completes execu on, at which point it is deallocated. The
life me of a procedure starts when it is called and ends when it returns control to its caller.
During its life me, the procedure may execute its code, manipulate its local variables, call
other procedures, and perform other tasks as required.

ii. **Control Stack:** The control stack, also known as the call stack or execu on stack, is a
data structure used by a program to manage procedure calls and returns. It stores ac va on
records for each ac ve procedure in the program. When a procedure is called, its ac va on
record is pushed onto the stack, and when the procedure returns, its ac va on record is
popped off the stack. This allows for nested procedure calls and ensures proper control flow
and execu on order within the program.

iii. **Ac va on Tree:** An ac va on tree is a hierarchical representa on of procedure

ac va ons in a program. It visualizes the nes ng of procedure calls and their rela onships.
Each node in the tree represents an ac va on record, and parent-child rela onships
between nodes represent caller-callee rela onships between procedures. The root node
typically represents the main program, with child nodes represen ng called procedures and
their respec ve ac va ons.

iv. **Binding of a Variable to Memory:** Binding refers to the associa on between a variable
and its memory loca on or storage space. This process occurs during program execu on and
is essen al for accessing and manipula ng variables. Binding can occur at various stages:
- Sta c Binding: Occurs at compile me, where variables are bound to memory addresses
before program execu on.
- Dynamic Binding: Occurs at run me, where variables are bound to memory addresses
when they are declared or ini alized.
- Lexical Binding: Determines the scope of a variable based on its lexical context, such as
block or func on scope.
- Run me Binding: Involves resolving variable references dynamically during program
execu on, o en used in languages with dynamic scoping or late binding.
87.Explain the terms (a) Actual Parameter (6) Formal parameters. Illustrate with an
example?
(a) **Actual Parameter:** Actual parameters, also known as arguments, are the values
supplied to a func on or procedure when it is called. These values are passed from the
calling code to the func on being called, and they provide the data that the func on
operates on. Actual parameters can be literals, variables, expressions, or func on calls
themselves.

**Example:** Consider a func on `calculateArea` that calculates the area of a rectangle

given its length and width. In this func on, `length` and `width` are formal parameters, and
the values passed to them when calling the func on (`lengthValue` and `widthValue`) are
actual parameters.

```c
// Func on declara on
int calculateArea(int length, int width) {
return length * width;
}

// Calling the func on with actual parameters

int lengthValue = 5;
int widthValue = 3;
int area = calculateArea(lengthValue, widthValue);
```

In this example, `lengthValue` and `widthValue` are the actual parameters passed to the
`calculateArea` func on when it is called. Inside the func on, these actual parameters are
assigned to the formal parameters `length` and `width`, allowing the func on to perform its
computa on using these values.

88.What is an ac va on record? With the help of a diagram, show the important field in an
ac va on record?
An ac va on record, also known as a stack frame, is a data structure used by a program's
run me environment to manage the execu on of a func on or procedure. It contains all the
necessary informa on related to a specific instance of a func on call, including parameters,
local variables, return address, and other bookkeeping data. Ac va on records are typically
organized in a stack-like structure, where each func on call creates a new ac va on record
that is pushed onto the stack, and each return from a func on call pops the corresponding
ac va on record off the stack.
A typical ac va on record consists of several important fields:
Return Address: Indicates the address to which control should return a er the func on
completes its execu on.
Parameters: Stores the values of the parameters passed to the func on.
Local Variables: Memory space for storing variables declared within the func on.
Saved Registers: Registers that need to be preserved across func on calls.
Dynamic Link: Points to the ac va on record of the caller func on for nested func on calls.
Sta c Link: Points to the ac va on record of the caller's caller for accessing non-local
variables in nested scopes.
Below is a simplified diagram showing the structure of an ac va on record:

sql
Copy code
|-----------------|
| Return Address |
|-----------------|
| Parameters |
|-----------------|
| Local Variables|
|-----------------|
| Saved Registers|
|-----------------|
| Dynamic Link |
|-----------------|
| Sta c Link |

89.What is lexical scoping and dynamic scoping in the context of non-local variables?
Lexical scoping and dynamic scoping are two different mechanisms used to determine the
scope of non-local variables in programming languages:

1. **Lexical Scoping:** Also known as sta c scoping, lexical scoping determines the scope of
a variable based on its loca on in the source code. In lexical scoping, the scope of a variable
is determined by its surrounding lexical context or where it is declared. When a variable is
referenced, the compiler resolves its scope based on the structure of the code at compile
me. Languages like Python, JavaScript, and most modern programming languages use
lexical scoping.

2. **Dynamic Scoping:** In dynamic scoping, the scope of a variable is determined by the

call stack or the sequence of func on calls during program execu on. When a variable is
referenced, its value is looked up in the stack of calling func ons at run me. The scope of the
variable changes dynamically based on the func on call chain. Languages like Lisp, Perl, and
Bash support dynamic scoping.

90.How are non-local access handled in a display scheme? Illustrate with an example?
In a display scheme, non-local access is handled by maintaining a display data structure,
o en implemented as a stack of ac va on records. Each ac va on record in the display
represents the variables and parameters of a par cular func on or procedure call.

When a variable is accessed from within a nested scope, the interpreter or compiler
traverses the display stack to locate the appropriate ac va on record containing the
variable's value. This traversal con nues un l the variable is found or un l the global scope is
reached.

Example:
Consider the following code snippet in a language that uses a display scheme for non-local
access:
```python
def outer():
x = 10
def inner():
print(x) # Access non-local variable x
inner()

outer()
```

In this example, when the func on `inner` a empts to access the non-local variable `x`, the
interpreter traverses the display stack to find the ac va on record containing the value of
`x`, which is in the ac va on record of the `outer` func on.

91.What are the procedure calling and returning sequences? Explain the sequences of
ac on s in each of them?
Procedure calling and returning sequences are the processes by which a program transfers
control between procedures or func ons. These sequences consist of several ac ons that
occur when a procedure is called and when it returns.

1. **Procedure Calling Sequence:**

- **Save Caller's Context:** The caller saves its context, including the return address and
any necessary registers, onto the stack or into designated memory loca ons.
- **Pass Parameters:** The caller passes parameters to the callee, either by pushing them
onto the stack or storing them in predefined loca ons.
- **Transfer Control:** The caller transfers control to the callee by jumping to its entry
point or by invoking a call instruc on.
- **Allocate Space:** The callee allocates space for local variables and other necessary
data structures.
- **Execute Procedure:** The callee executes its code, performing the required
computa ons and opera ons.

2. **Procedure Returning Sequence:**

- **Save Result (if any):** The callee saves its result, if any, into a designated memory
loca on or register.
- **Restore Caller's Context:** The callee restores the caller's context, including the return
address and any saved registers.
- **Dealloca on:** The callee deallocates any space allocated for local variables and other
data structures.
- **Restore Stack:** The callee adjusts the stack pointer to remove its ac va on record.
- **Return Control:** The callee returns control to the caller by jumping to the saved
return address or using a return instruc on.
- **Use Result (if any):** The caller may use the returned result, if any, for further
processing.

These sequences ensure proper execu on flow and memory management when procedures
are called and return control to the calling code.
92.What is op miza on? Is there any Scope for improving the intermediate code and
target code as well?
Op miza on in the context of compiler design refers to the process of improving the
efficiency, performance, and quality of the generated code while preserving its func onality.
It involves analyzing the code and applying transforma ons to reduce execu on me,
memory usage, and other resource requirements.
There are several types of op miza ons that can be applied at different stages of
compila on:
1. **High-level Op miza ons:** These op miza ons operate on the source code level
before or during parsing, such as loop unrolling, constant folding, and dead code elimina on.

2. **Intermediate Code Op miza ons:** Op miza ons applied to intermediate

representa ons of the code, such as three-address code or abstract syntax trees. Examples
include common subexpression elimina on, strength reduc on, and loop op miza on.

3. **Target Code Op miza ons:** These op miza ons are applied to the generated machine
code or assembly language. They aim to improve the performance and efficiency of the
executable code, such as instruc on scheduling, register alloca on, and peephole
op miza on.
There is always scope for improving both intermediate code and target code op miza ons.
New algorithms and techniques are con nually being developed to analyze and op mize
code more effec vely. Addi onally, advancements in compiler technology and computer
architecture provide opportuni es for further op miza on to exploit hardware features and
improve overall program performance.
93.What are common technique for What are common technique for improving
intermediate code? Explain three of them in detail?
Several common techniques can be employed to improve intermediate code, enhancing its
efficiency and reducing its complexity. Three key techniques include:

1. **Constant Folding:** Constant folding involves evalua ng constant expressions at

compile- me rather than deferring their evalua on un l run me. This technique replaces
expressions involving only constants with their computed values. For example, the
expression `5 * 2` is evaluated to `10` during compila on. This op miza on reduces the
number of instruc ons executed at run me, leading to improved performance.

2. **Common Subexpression Elimina on (CSE):** CSE iden fies and eliminates redundant
computa ons by recognizing expressions that have already been computed elsewhere in the
code. Instead of recalcula ng the same expression mul ple mes, the result is stored in a
temporary variable, and subsequent occurrences of the same expression are replaced with
references to the stored result. This op miza on reduces computa onal overhead and can
significantly enhance the efficiency of the generated code.

3. **Dead Code Elimina on:** Dead code elimina on removes unreachable or redundant
code segments that do not contribute to the program's final output. This includes code that
follows uncondi onal branches, as well as variables and expressions that are never used. By
elimina ng dead code, the compiler reduces the size of the generated code, decreases
memory usage, and improves overall program performance by elimina ng unnecessary
computa ons and memory accesses.
94.What is constant folding in intermediate code op miza on? Illustrate with an example?
Constant folding is a technique used in intermediate code op miza on to evaluate constant
expressions at compile- me rather than deferring their evalua on un l run me. This
op miza on simplifies the intermediate code by replacing expressions involving only
constants with their computed values, reducing the number of instruc ons executed at
run me and improving the efficiency of the generated code.

Example:
Consider the following intermediate code snippet:

```
t1 = 5 * 2
```

In this code, `t1` represents a temporary variable assigned the result of the mul plica on
opera on `5 * 2`. During constant folding op miza on, the compiler evaluates the
expression `5 * 2` and replaces it with its computed value:

```
t1 = 10
```

A er constant folding op miza on, the intermediate code simplifies to `t1 = 10`, elimina ng
the mul plica on opera on and directly assigning the value `10` to the temporary variable
`t1`. This op miza on reduces computa onal overhead and improves the efficiency of the
generated code by elimina ng unnecessary computa ons at run me.

101.What are the main steps in the What are the main steps in the intermediate code?
The main steps in genera ng intermediate code involve transla ng the source code into a
simplified, machine-independent representa on that retains the essen al seman c meaning
of the program. These steps typically include:
1. **Lexical Analysis:** The source code is divided into tokens, such as iden fiers, keywords,
and operators, during lexical analysis. This step also removes comments and whitespace.

2. **Syntax Analysis (Parsing):** The tokens are analyzed and organized into a hierarchical
structure, such as a parse tree or abstract syntax tree (AST), during syntax analysis. This step
ensures that the source code conforms to the grammar rules of the programming language.

3. **Seman c Analysis:** Seman c analysis checks the validity of the source code in terms
of its meaning. This step involves type checking, scope resolu on, and other seman c checks
to detect and report errors.

4. **Intermediate Code Genera on:** Intermediate code genera on translates the parsed
and validated source code into an intermediate representa on that is simpler and easier to
analyze than the original source code. Common intermediate representa ons include three-
address code, abstract syntax trees (ASTs), and control flow graphs (CFGs).
5. **Op miza on:** Intermediate code op miza on improves the efficiency and quality of
the generated code by applying various op miza on techniques, such as constant folding,
common subexpression elimina on, and dead code elimina on.

6. **Code Genera on:** Finally, code genera on translates the op mized intermediate code
into machine code or assembly language specific to the target pla orm or architecture,
ready for execu on on the target machine.

102.How do you split the intermediate code into basic block? Explain the algorithm?
Spli ng intermediate code into basic blocks is a fundamental step in many compiler
op miza ons and analyses, such as control flow analysis and op miza on. The process
involves iden fying sequences of consecu ve instruc ons with a single entry point and a
single exit point. An algorithm commonly used to accomplish this task is the straight-line
code (SLC) algorithm:

1. **Iden fy Leaders:** Iterate through the intermediate code and iden fy leaders, which
are the first instruc ons of basic blocks. Leaders include the first instruc on in the code and
the target of any jump or branch instruc on.

2. **Construct Basic Blocks:** For each leader, construct a basic block by including all
instruc ons from the leader up to but not including the next leader or the end of the code.

3. **Iden fy Jump Targets:** If an instruc on is a target of a jump or branch instruc on,

ensure it is also a leader to properly split the code into basic blocks.

4. **Finalize Basic Blocks:** Remove any empty or redundant basic blocks generated by the
algorithm.

This algorithm effec vely par ons the intermediate code into basic blocks, facilita ng
subsequent analyses and op miza ons. Basic blocks are essen al for analyzing control flow,
iden fying loops and condi onals, and applying op miza ons such as loop unrolling and
instruc on scheduling.

103.Describe an algorithm to construct a DAG from a basic block?

Construc ng a Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) from a basic block involves iden fying common
subexpressions and represen ng them as nodes in the graph. Here's a high-level algorithm:
1. Traverse the basic block and iden fy expressions and operands.
2. For each expression encountered:
a. Check if it is a common subexpression by comparing with previously encountered
expressions.
b. If it is a common subexpression, add a new node to the DAG represen ng the
expression.
c. If it is not a common subexpression, add a new node to the DAG represen ng the
expression and its operands.
3. Connect the nodes in the DAG based on the data dependencies between expressions.
4. Op mize the DAG by removing redundant nodes and edges.
5. Repeat the process for each basic block in the code.
This algorithm efficiently captures and represents common subexpressions in a DAG,
reducing redundancy and facilita ng subsequent op miza ons such as common
subexpression elimina on.

104.Construct the DAG and explain the main proper es of a DAG?

A Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) is a graph data structure consis ng of nodes and directed
edges between nodes, where no cycles exist. Construc ng a DAG involves represen ng
expressions and their dependencies as nodes and edges, facilita ng common subexpression
elimina on and other op miza ons.

Proper es of a DAG:
1. Acyclicity: A DAG does not contain any cycles, meaning there are no paths that start and
end at the same node.
2. Directedness: Edges in a DAG have a direc on, indica ng the flow of data or control
between nodes.
3. Connectedness: Although a DAG may have mul ple connected components, each node is
reachable from every other node through directed paths.
4. Unique Entry and Exit Points: A DAG typically has one or more entry points (nodes with no
incoming edges) and one or more exit points (nodes with no outgoing edges).
5. Redundancy Elimina on: DAGs facilitate efficient redundancy elimina on by represen ng
common subexpressions as shared nodes.

105.What is killing of a DAG node? How does it help to rec fying issues with incorrect
op mized intermediate code genera on for array?
Killing of a DAG node refers to the process of marking a node in a Directed Acyclic Graph
(DAG) as no longer needed or relevant due to op miza on. In the context of intermediate
code op miza on, killing a DAG node typically occurs during common subexpression
elimina on or other op miza on techniques.

When op mizing intermediate code genera on for arrays, incorrect op miza ons can occur
if the compiler fails to recognize dependencies between array elements and performs
redundant computa ons. By appropriately killing DAG nodes represen ng redundant
computa ons or unnecessary array accesses, the compiler can rec fy issues with incorrect
op mized intermediate code genera on for arrays.

For example, consider a scenario where the same array element is accessed mul ple mes
within a loop, resul ng in redundant array accesses. By iden fying and killing DAG nodes
represen ng redundant array accesses, the compiler can eliminate unnecessary
computa ons and improve the efficiency of the generated code. This helps ensure that the
op mized intermediate code accurately reflects the intended behavior of the original code
while improving performance and reducing resource u liza on.
107.Explain the terms (a) Genera ons and Killings of expressions (b) universal set of
expressions
(a) Genera ons and killings of expressions are concepts used in data-flow analysis,
par cularly in the context of compiler op miza ons such as common subexpression
elimina on (CSE).

- **Genera ons:** Genera ons refer to the crea on or appearance of expressions within a
program. An expression is said to be generated at a par cular point in the program if it is
computed or assigned a value for the first me at that point. For example, in the expression
`x = a + b`, the addi on opera on `a + b` is generated when it is first encountered in the
program.

- **Killings:** Killings occur when an expression becomes invalid or overwri en by a

subsequent computa on or assignment within the program. When an expression is killed, it
means that the value it represents is no longer needed or used in the program. In the same
expression `x = a + b`, if `x` is assigned a new value later in the program, the expression `a +
b` is considered killed.

(b) The universal set of expressions represents all possible expressions that could occur in a
program. It includes every unique computa on or opera on that can be performed within
the program, such as arithme c opera ons, func on calls, and assignments. The universal
set is used as a basis for analyzing data flow and dependencies between expressions during
op miza on processes like common subexpression elimina on. By considering the en re set
of expressions, the compiler can accurately iden fy opportuni es for op miza on and make
informed decisions about which expressions to eliminate or op mize based on their
relevance and frequency of occurrence within the program. The universal set provides a
comprehensive framework for understanding the poten al interac ons and dependencies
between expressions, enabling more effec ve op miza on strategies.

108.What is an itera ve approach to solving the data flow equa ons?

An itera ve approach to solving data flow equa ons is a technique used in compiler
op miza on and analysis to itera vely compute solu ons to a set of equa ons that describe
the flow of data through a program. The process involves repeatedly applying the data flow
equa ons un l a fixed point is reached, where no further changes occur in the solu on.

The itera ve algorithm typically involves the following steps:

1. Ini alize the data flow values for each program point or variable.
2. Iterate through the program, upda ng the data flow values based on the current solu on
and the data flow equa ons.
3. Repeat the itera on process un l convergence is achieved, i.e., un l the data flow values
stabilize and no further changes occur.

By itera vely refining the solu on, the itera ve approach effec vely computes the most
accurate and stable solu on to the data flow equa ons, enabling various compiler
op miza ons and analyses such as reaching defini ons, live variable analysis, and constant
propaga on.
111.Define parse tree. What are the condi ons for construc ng a parse tree from a CFG?

A parse tree is a hierarchical representa on of the syntac c structure of a string according to

a formal grammar, typically a context-free grammar (CFG). It visually demonstrates how the
input string is derived from the start symbol of the CFG by applying various produc on rules.
To construct a parse tree from a CFG, certain condi ons must be met:
1. **Ambiguity-free produc ons**: The CFG should not contain ambiguous produc ons,
where a single string can be derived by mul ple parse trees.
2. **Le most deriva on**: The parse tree should represent a le most deriva on of the
input string, where at each step, the le most non-terminal in the deriva on is expanded.
3. **Consistency with CFG**: Each node in the parse tree corresponds to a non-terminal or
terminal symbol in the grammar, and the structure of the tree must adhere to the produc on
rules of the CFG.
4. **Leaf nodes**: Leaf nodes of the parse tree correspond to terminal symbols of the input
string.
By sa sfying these condi ons, a parse tree effec vely represents the deriva on of the input
string from the CFG's start symbol, showcasing its syntac c structure.

112.What is reaching defini on? How it is used in performing loop invariant code mo on
op miza on?
Reaching defini ons is a data-flow analysis technique used in compiler op miza on to
determine which defini ons of variables "reach" a given point in the program. A reaching
defini on for a variable at a par cular program point is a defini on that can poten ally affect
the value of that variable at that point during program execu on. This analysis helps in
understanding the flow of values through the program and is crucial for op miza ons like
loop invariant code mo on.
Loop invariant code mo on (LICM) is an op miza on technique aimed at moving
computa ons out of loops if those computa ons produce the same result for every itera on
of the loop. By doing so, LICM reduces redundant computa ons and can poten ally improve
the overall performance of the program.
Here's how reaching defini ons are used in performing loop invariant code mo on
op miza on:
1. **Iden fying loop invariants**: Reaching defini ons analysis helps in iden fying which
defini ons of variables within the loop are invariant across loop itera ons. Invariants are
expressions whose values do not change across loop itera ons. These are the computa ons
that can be safely moved out of the loop.
2. **Determining safe movement**: Reaching defini ons analysis helps in determining
whether moving a computa on out of the loop is safe. If a defini on of a variable reaches a
point outside the loop without any intervening redefini ons within the loop, then it is safe to
move that computa on outside the loop.
3. **Applying the op miza on**: Once loop invariants are iden fied and their safety for
movement is confirmed using reaching defini ons analysis, the compiler can perform the
actual code mo on by moving the invariant computa ons outside the loop. This reduces the
computa onal overhead within the loop and can poten ally improve the efficiency of the
generated code.
In summary, reaching defini ons analysis is instrumental in iden fying loop invariants and
determining the safety of moving computa ons out of loops, which are key steps in
performing loop invariant code mo on op miza on.

113.Explain the transla on scheme for Boolean expression?

A transla on scheme for Boolean expressions defines rules for conver ng expressions from
one representa on to another. It typically involves transla ng the expression from its original
form, o en in infix nota on, to a target representa on, such as pos ix nota on, abstract
syntax tree (AST), or machine code.

For example, to translate an infix Boolean expression to pos ix nota on, the transla on
scheme might involve parsing the expression and using a stack-based algorithm to rearrange
operators and operands to pos ix form. This process ensures that the expression's meaning
remains unchanged while altering its syntac c structure.

Transla on schemes can be implemented using various parsing techniques, such as recursive
descent parsing or precedence climbing, depending on the complexity of the expressions
and the target representa on. The resul ng translated expression can then be evaluated or
further processed according to the requirements of the applica on, compiler, or interpreter.
Overall, transla on schemes play a crucial role in transforming expressions between different
representa ons, facilita ng their manipula on and evalua on.

117.Write short notes on (i) Loop Unrolling (i) Loop Jamming

**(i) Loop Unrolling:**
Loop unrolling is an op miza on technique used to improve the performance of loops by
reducing loop overhead and increasing instruc on-level parallelism. In loop unrolling, the
compiler replicates the loop body mul ple mes within the loop, thereby reducing the
number of itera ons required to execute the loop. Instead of execu ng the loop's original
number of itera ons, the unrolled loop executes a frac on of those itera ons, each
containing mul ple copies of the loop body. This can lead to fewer branch instruc ons and
be er u liza on of hardware resources like instruc on pipelines and CPU registers. However,
loop unrolling can increase code size, poten ally leading to instruc on cache misses and
reducing the effec veness of the op miza on. The decision to unroll a loop depends on
factors such as the loop's itera on count, the size of the loop body, and the target
architecture's characteris cs.

**(ii) Loop Jamming:**

Loop jamming is an op miza on technique that aims to improve cache performance by
merging mul ple loops into a single loop. This consolida on reduces the overhead
associated with loop control structures and enhances data locality by keeping frequently
accessed data closer together in memory. Loop jamming is par cularly beneficial when the
loops operate on similar data sets or access adjacent memory loca ons. By combining
mul ple loops, loop jamming reduces the number of loop itera ons, poten ally reducing the
number of cache misses and improving overall execu on speed. However, loop jamming may
increase loop complexity and reduce code readability if not applied judiciously. Addi onally,
not all loops are suitable candidates for jamming, and the decision to apply this op miza on
depends on the specific characteris cs of the loops and the target architecture's memory
hierarchy.
136.Define back patching and seman c rules for Boolean expression.Derive the three
address code for the following expression: P< Q or R<S and T<U
**Back Patching:**

Back patching is a technique used in compiler design and code genera on to fill in the
addresses or labels of certain code or instruc ons a er their values are known. It is
commonly used when genera ng code for constructs like condi onals and loops, where
the target addresses or labels are not ini ally known during code genera on. Instead of
genera ng complete code for these constructs immediately, the compiler generates
placeholders (o en represented as symbols or labels) and keeps track of these
placeholders in a symbol table. Once the target addresses or labels become known,
typically a er genera ng code for subsequent parts of the program, the compiler goes
back and updates the previously generated code with the correct addresses or labels. This
process of upda ng the placeholders with the correct targets is known as back patching.

**Seman c Rules for Boolean Expressions:**

1. **Type Compa bility**: Ensure that operands in a Boolean expression are of compa ble
types (e.g., boolean, integers).

2. **Operator Compa bility**: Validate that operators used in the expression are
appropriate for Boolean opera ons (e.g., AND, OR, NOT).

3. **Short-Circuit Evalua on**: Implement short-circuit evalua on rules if applicable,

where the evalua on of the expression stops as soon as the outcome can be determined.

4. **Parentheses Handling**: Apply rules for precedence and associa vity when
parentheses are present in the expression.

**Three Address Code for the Expression:**

Given expression: P < Q or R < S and T < U

1. Compute R < S: `temp1 = R < S`

2. Compute T < U: `temp2 = T < U`
3. Compute temp1 AND temp2: `temp3 = temp1 AND temp2`
4. Compute P < Q: `temp4 = P < Q`
5. Compute temp4 OR temp3: `result = temp4 OR temp3`

Here, `temp1`, `temp2`, `temp3`, and `temp4` are temporary variables used to store
intermediate results, and `result` holds the final result of the expression.
174.What is an Abstract syntax tree? construct the tree for the input string X =-a*b+(-a*b)
and draw the DAG structure
An Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) is a hierarchical tree-like structure that represents the abstract
syntac c structure of source code. It captures the essen al elements of the code's syntax
while abstrac ng away details such as parentheses and precedence. Each node in the tree
represents a syntac c construct, such as a variable, operator, or func on call, and the edges
represent the rela onships between these constructs.
Here's the AST for the input string "X = -a * b + (-a * b)":
=
/\
X +
/\
* *
/\/\
- a- a
\ \
b b
In this AST:
The root node represents the assignment opera on "=".
The le child of the "=" node represents the variable "X".
The right child of the "=" node represents the addi on opera on "+".
The le child of the "+" node represents the mul plica on opera on "*", where the le
operand is the nega on "-" of variable "a" and the right operand is variable "b".
The right child of the "+" node represents the mul plica on opera on "*", where both
operands are the nega on "-" of variable "a" and variable "b".
Now, let's draw the Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) structure for the same expression:
[a]
|
[-]
|
[b] X
| / \
[*] * +
/ \ /\ /\
X [b] [-] X [-]
| | | |
[-] a a b
|
[b]
In the DAG structure:
Each node represents an operand or an operator.
Repeated subexpressions are shared, leading to a more compact representa on than the
AST.
Nodes are labeled with their respec ve operands or operators.
The DAG eliminates redundant computa ons by reusing common subexpressions, which can
be beneficial for op miza on purposes.
178.Apply loop unrolling op miza on
technique for the following code snippet

int i=1;
While(i<=100)
{
a[i]=b[i];
i++;
}
Loop unrolling is a compiler op miza on technique aimed at reducing loop overhead by
execu ng mul ple itera ons of the loop body within a single itera on of the loop structure.
Here's how we can apply loop unrolling to the given code snippet:

```c
int i = 1;
while (i <= 100) {
a[i] = b[i];
i++;
}
```
To unroll the loop, we can execute mul ple itera ons of the loop body within each itera on
of the loop structure. Let's unroll the loop by a factor of 5:
```c
int i = 1;
while (i + 4 <= 100) {
a[i] = b[i];
a[i + 1] = b[i + 1];
a[i + 2] = b[i + 2];
a[i + 3] = b[i + 3];
a[i + 4] = b[i + 4];
i += 5;
}
// Handle remaining itera ons
while (i <= 100) {
a[i] = b[i];
i++;
}
```
In this unrolled version, each itera on of the loop now copies five elements of array `b` to
array `a`. This reduces the number of loop control instruc ons and loop overhead,
poten ally improving performance, especially on architectures where loop overhead is
significant.
However, it's important to note that loop unrolling can increase code size and may not
always lead to performance improvements, especially if the loop body is small or if it
introduces cache inefficiencies. Therefore, the decision to unroll a loop should be made
based on performance measurements and the characteris cs of the target architecture.
204.What is DAG? Point out advantages of DAG.
A Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) is a data structure composed of nodes connected by directed
edges, where no cycles exist. Each node represents an opera on or value, and edges
represent dependencies between nodes, indica ng the flow of data or control from one
opera on to another. DAGs are commonly used in compiler op miza on and code
genera on to represent expressions and their dependencies.

Advantages of DAGs include:

1. **Common Subexpression Elimina on**: DAGs allow for the iden fica on and
elimina on of redundant computa ons by represen ng repeated subexpressions as shared
nodes. This reduces the number of computa ons required and can improve performance.

2. **Op mized Code Genera on**: DAGs facilitate efficient code genera on by represen ng
expressions in a compact and structured form. This can lead to more efficient u liza on of
resources, reduced code size, and improved run me performance.

3. **Memory Efficiency**: DAGs can significantly reduce memory usage compared to naive
representa ons of expressions, especially when dealing with complex or repe ve
computa ons. This can be advantageous in memory-constrained environments or for
op mizing memory-intensive applica ons.

207.Differen ate S-a ribute and L-a ribute defina ons

S-a ributes and L-a ributes are both used in the context of syntax-directed transla on, a
technique used in compiler construc on where a grammar is augmented with seman c
ac ons. However, they differ in their applica on and capabili es:

S-A ributes (Synthesized A ributes):

- S-a ributes are associated with the grammar's produc on rules and are computed bo om-
up during syntax tree traversal.
- They only depend on a ributes inherited from the children of a node and local a ributes
associated with the node itself.
- S-a ributes are typically used to compute proper es of a node based on its children, such
as type checking, constant folding, or intermediate code genera on.
- Example: Compu ng the type of an expression node based on the types of its operands.

L-A ributes (Inherited A ributes):

- L-a ributes are computed top-down during syntax tree traversal and depend on a ributes
inherited from the parent node.
- They allow informa on to flow from the parent to its children, enabling context-sensi ve
computa ons.
- L-a ributes are useful for tasks such as scope resolu on, symbol table management, and
context-dependent type inference.
- Example: Propaga ng informa on about variable declara ons and scope boundaries to
child nodes during parsing.
208.Differen ate TopDown and bo om up parsing?
Top-down and bo om-up parsing are two fundamental approaches used in syntax analysis
during the compila on process, each with dis nct characteris cs and strategies:

1. **Top-Down Parsing**:
- Top-down parsing starts from the root of the parse tree (the start symbol) and works its
way down to the leaves, aiming to construct a parse tree by applying produc on rules in a
le most deriva on.
- It employs predic ve parsing techniques, such as LL(k) parsing, where the parser predicts
the produc on rule to apply based on a lookahead token or symbols.
- Common top-down parsing algorithms include Recursive Descent Parsing and LL Parsing.
- Top-down parsing is o en used in hand-wri en parsers and is suitable for LL grammars,
which have a straigh orward le most deriva on.

2. **Bo om-Up Parsing**:

- Bo om-up parsing starts from the input tokens and works upward, aiming to construct a
parse tree by reducing the input string to the start symbol.
- It iden fies substrings of the input that match the right-hand side of a produc on rule and
replaces them with the corresponding non-terminal symbol.
- Common bo om-up parsing algorithms include Shi -Reduce Parsing and LR Parsing.
- Bo om-up parsing is more powerful and can handle a broader class of grammars,
including le -recursive and ambiguous grammars. It's widely used in compiler generators
due to its efficiency and versa lity.

209.Differen ate Machine dependent and Machine Indenpendent op miza on?

Machine-dependent op miza on and machine-independent op miza on are two
approaches used in compiler op miza on, each targe ng different aspects of code
improvement:
1. **Machine-Dependent Op miza on**:
- Machine-dependent op miza ons are specific to the characteris cs and features of the
target hardware architecture.
- These op miza ons focus on exploi ng low-level features of the target machine, such as
instruc on set architecture, pipeline structure, register alloca on, and cache behavior.
- Examples of machine-dependent op miza ons include instruc on scheduling, loop
unrolling, register alloca on, and cache op miza on.
- Machine-dependent op miza ons aim to improve code efficiency and performance by
tailoring op miza ons to the specific capabili es and limita ons of the target hardware.
2. **Machine-Independent Op miza on**:
- Machine-independent op miza ons are applied at a higher level and are not ed to the
details of a specific hardware pla orm.
- These op miza ons focus on improving code quality, maintainability, and portability
without considering the target machine's architectural details.
- Examples of machine-independent op miza ons include constant folding, dead code
elimina on, loop invariant code mo on, and common subexpression elimina on.
- Machine-independent op miza ons aim to produce cleaner, more readable, and more
maintainable code while preserving or enhancing its func onality across different hardware
pla orms.