1

Chapter 1
Rocks and minerals and their exploitation
Learning outcomes
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
■ describe, with examples, the characteristics of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
■ explain the formation of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
■ explain the rock cycle
■ describe surface and subsurface mining
■ describe the reasons for extracting rocks and minerals
■ describe the impact of rock and mineral extraction on the environment and human populations
■ discuss methods of landscape restoration after rock and mineral extraction
■ explain the terms sustainable resource and sustainable development
■ discuss how rocks and minerals can be used sustainably.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Environmental Management

The third rock from the Sun with oil. In 1956, the originator of the peak mineral idea,
M. K. Hubbert, predicted that the peak oil date for the
The Earth is a rocky planet, compared with, for example USA would be 1970. This did not happen, and in fact the
Jupiter, which is a gas giant. This means that the Earth production of oil in the USA is still rising today. However,
is made from rocks and metal ores. The Earth weighs it is true that the resources of all these commodities, such
5 973 600 000 000 000 000 000 000 kg (5.97 × 1026 kg) and has as coal, oil and phosphorus (current estimated peak date
a density of 5.2 g cm–3, which makes it the densest planet in 2030), copper (current estimated peak date 2040) and
the solar system. This is mainly because the core consists uranium (current estimated peak date 2030s), are finite.
of iron surrounded by a mantle of rock. However, it is It is therefore important that we limit the use of these
only the very outside part of the Earth, above the mantle, resources, and reuse and recycle them whenever we can.
that humans can use. The material that makes up this
region is what we call rocks and minerals. Although this
represents a vast amount of material, the quantity of it, like
everything else, is limited. What is more, extraction and
use can cause environmental and other problems. We are
in danger of using up the available sources of many rocks,
the most well known of which is probably coal.
Peak mineral is a concept that provides a date after which
there will only be less extraction of a mineral. Peak coal, for
example, is the date at which it is calculated that the most
coal is being extracted, after which it will decline. Because
we do not know exactly how much coal exists, estimates
of peak coal vary. Some say it is 200 years away, others
2 say it could be soon, maybe 2020. This unpredictability Figure 1.0 A giant bucket wheel excavator in use in an
because of future unknowns is illustrated by the situation open-pit mine.

1.1 Formation of rocks Igneous rocks

When molten rock from the crust and upper mantle cools,
The planet Earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago.
igneous rocks are formed. The molten rock is called
The force of gravity pulled the heavier elements together
magma when it is still below the surface and lava when it
first, forming the core. The lighter elements then formed
reaches the surface.
the Earth’s crust about 3–4 billion years ago. The mantle
developed as a layer between the dense core and the light Magma is found in the outer mantle; it is hot, liquid rock
crust. This structure still exists today (Figure 1.1). that is under pressure from the rocks above it. When it

crust continental crust

0–100 km
mantle
oceanic crust
outer core
2900 km

inner core 5100 km

6370 km

mantle

Figure 1.1 The structure of the Earth.

 Chapter 1: Rocks and minerals and their exploitation

cools it turns to solid rock. When liquid magma rises to

the surface from volcanoes the cooling occurs quickly and
forms lava. Igneous rocks are made of material that was
once molten; they usually contain crystals that are formed
as the molten material cools.
The crystals found in rocks are formed when solutions
of minerals cannot absorb any more dissolved minerals.
Some of each mineral type precipitates out of solution to
form the centre of a crystal. This then provides a surface
for more mineral ions to precipitate onto. The crystal
becomes larger until the solution disappears.
If the rock cools quickly, only very small crystals can form
before the rock becomes solid. Rapid cooling occurs when
Figure 1.3 A piece of basalt.
magma is released from volcanoes onto the surface of the
Earth’s crust.
If magma rises from the mantle into the crust without
Sedimentary rocks
reaching the Earth’s surface, then the magma cools more Sedimentary rocks are formed by the weathering of
slowly, allowing the formation of larger crystals. Many of existing rocks at the Earth’s surface, the accumulation
these crystals contain valuable minerals that are used for a and fossilisation of living material, or the precipitation of
wide range of industrial processes. dissolved materials out of solution in water. Weathering
processes release small mineral particles that accumulate
Heat and pressure are the usual reason for minerals to form sediment. Over time, layers of sediment build up to
becoming dissolved; a reduction of heat and pressure form sedimentary rock.
usually leads to the formation of crystals. 3
The sediments include different-sized mineral particles.
Examples of igneous rocks are granite and basalt The smallest particles are clays, followed by silts and then
(Figures 1.2 and 1.3). sands. These particles are important in the formation of
soils (see Section 3.1). Larger particles of gravels and small
boulders can also be found in sediments.

Key terms

Rock: a combination of one or more minerals

Mineral: a naturally occurring inorganic substance with a
specific chemical composition
Igneous rock: rock made during a volcanic process
Magma: molten rock below the surface of the Earth
Solution: formed when a solid is dissolved in a liquid
Precipitates: when a substance comes out of solution
Ion: an atom in which the number of positively charged protons
is not equal to the number of negatively charged electrons
Sedimentary rock: a rock formed from material derived from
the weathering of other rocks or the accumulation of dead
plants and animals
Figure 1.2 A piece of granite.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Environmental Management

The particles are transported by streams and rivers and Metamorphic rocks
then deposited as sediment. Each layer of sediment Metamorphic rocks are created from existing rocks when
becomes more compact and harder because of the the heat (above 150 °C) or pressure (above 1.5 × 108 Pa or
pressure created by the newer deposits above them. 1480 atm), or both heat and pressure, causes changes in
Examples of sedimentary rock are limestone, sandstone the rock crystals without melting the existing rock. The
and shale (Figures 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6). existing rock therefore changes in structure, becoming
a metamorphic rock. The changes in structure can be
chemical or physical or both.
Sedimentary and igneous rocks can become metamorphic
rocks, and a metamorphic rock can become another
metamorphic rock. Metamorphic rocks are usually harder
than sedimentary rocks.
Examples of metamorphic rocks are marble and slate
(Figures 1.7 and 1.8).
When the Earth’s crust first formed, all the rocks were
igneous. These rocks were slowly eroded, releasing small
particles that formed sediment, and these sediments
built up over time to form sedimentary rocks. The rocks
that make up the Earth’s crust are always moving,
Figure 1.4 A piece of limestone.
which creates the heat and pressure needed to form
metamorphic rock. All rock types are constantly eroded
and formed in the rock cycle (Figure 1.9). Table 1.1
4 compares the characteristics of the different rock types.

Key terms

Metamorphic rock: a rock formed from existing rocks by a

combination of heat and pressure
Rock cycle: a representation of the changes between the three
rock types and the processes causing them

Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic

Made from liquid Made from other Made from
magma rock fragments existing rock
Magma cools to Rock fragments The original
form solid rock become buried and rock is changed
Figure 1.5 Sandstone. increased pressure in form by heat
forms a rock and pressure
Mineral crystals Crystals absent Mineral crystals
sometimes present
present; the size
of the crystals
depends on the
speed of cooling
No fossils Fossils may be No fossils
present present present
Figure 1.6 A piece of shale. Table 1.1 Characteristics of the different rock types.
 Chapter 1: Rocks and minerals and their exploitation

Figure 1.7 A piece of marble. Figure 1.8 A piece of slate.

1. Weathering and erosion break off fragments

of surface rock.
2. The eroded rock is transported to another
location.
5
3. The fragments of rock are deposited and build
up in layers. As the layers build up, the lower
1 layers are compacted into sedimentary rock.
weathering and erosion 4. Sedimentary and igneous rocks subjected to
surface rock heat and pressure underground form
metamorphic rocks.
5. At higher temperatures rocks melt to form
2 magma.
7 transportation
uplift 6. Magma cools to form igneous rock.
7 7. Movements in the Earth raise rocks to the surface
uplift via a process called uplift.
7
uplift
igneous rocks
4 3
heat and pressure sedimentation
metamorphic rocks

6 sedimentary rocks
5 5 4
cooling
melting melting heat and pressure

magma

Figure 1.9 The rock cycle showing the relationship between the three rock types, sedimentary, metamorphic and
igneous. The diagram also shows the interactions between these types, their origins and the processes by which they
are interconverted.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Environmental Management

Self-assessment questions

1.1 Figure 1.10 shows the rock cycle. Copy and complete Figure 1.10 with processes on
the arrows and intermediate stages in the ovals.
igneous The processes should be chosen from the list
rock
provided; one has been done for you.
1.2 Add the names of the correct rock type to Table 1.2.
Description Rock Type
Rocks formed in the sea from
particles of eroded rock
compaction Rocks changed by heat
and
cementation Rocks formed from the
cooling of other molten rock
metamorphic sedimentary
rock rock Table 1.2 Rock types.

heat and weathering heat and

pressure and erosion pressure
melting melting cooling magma sediment

Figure 1.10 The rock cycle.

6
practical activity 1.1

Rocks and the rock cycle • Return your rock to the table, and put a letter by it.
Each rock should end up with a different letter by it.
Materials
• Working on your own, select another rock but this time
• For the first part you will need to be able to access the
do not pick it up.
Interactives Rock Cycle website (www.cambridge.org/
links/scspenv4000). • Spend about five minutes writing a description of your
rock, without anyone else knowing which one it is.
• For the second part, which can be done on a different day,
your teacher will provide you with a selection of rocks. • Swap your description with someone else and take it in
turns to work out which rock has been described.
Method
Questions
• For the first part of the practical, go to the web page
and look at the interactive diagram. 1 Test yourself on what you have learnt about the rock
cycle using another version of the interactive diagram
• For the second part of the practical, choose one of
on the web page.
the rocks.
2 Answer the questions provided on the web page.
• Observe and describe your chosen rock, thinking about
things like shape, colour, weight, softness or hardness.

1.2 Extraction of rocks and such as computers, mobile phones, cars, wires and nails.
The demand for minerals continues to increase, both from
minerals from the Earth developed and developing countries.
Minerals provide us with a wide range of materials that
we use in everyday life. Coal and oil provide energy and Searching for minerals
many chemicals used in industry. Metallic ores provide People have searched for minerals for thousands of
us with the metals and alloys needed to make products years. The simplest way to find mineral deposits is to
 Chapter 1: Rocks and minerals and their exploitation

look carefully at the surface of rocks. This process of Other satellites operate by sending signals to the surface of
prospecting has found nearly all the surface deposits of the Earth and then collecting reflected signals. The system
minerals worldwide. works in all weathers, through complete cloud cover and
at night.
Deposits on the Earth’s surface can also be found using a
range of remote sensing methods. For example, an area Valuable mineral ores in the rocks below the surface
of land can be photographed from the air and the images can be located from the satellite images. Computers
carefully analysed for signs of minerals. Aerial photography are used to process the data from a region of interest to
can cover much more ground than a person walking over see whether any minerals are present in the area. The
the surface of rocks (Figure 1.11). Images and other data satellite’s positioning system records the exact location,
from satellites can also be used to analyse very large areas. and the geologists then visit the location to confirm the
minerals have been identified correctly. Once in an area
identified from satellite data, the geologists can check
Key terms
further locations to see whether the minerals of interest
Ore: a rock with enough of an important element to make it are present nearby as well. Using satellites means large
worth mining areas can be geologically mapped quickly and at low cost.
Prospecting: a process of searching for minerals
Field surveys on the ground are used to take samples.
Remote sensing: a process in which information is gathered
about the Earth’s surface from above
These are sent to a laboratory for geochemical analysis,
so that the chemicals in the samples can be identified. The
Geochemical: the chemical properties of rocks
samples can be taken from stream sediments, soil or rocks
(using shallow drilling). The points where the samples are
Mineral deposits are weathered at the Earth’s surface, taken are usually selected by overlaying a grid on a map of
producing mineral oxides. These can be detected by their the survey area. The location of the sample points in the
unique radiation pattern, which is recorded by a satellite field can be found accurately using the Global Positioning
7
and downloaded to a computer for analysis. System (GPS).

1 2 3 4 5 6

ground

4
1 3 5 6
2
forward overlap

12
10 8 7
11 9 lateral overlap

Figure 1.11 Aerial photography used for mineral prospecting. Photographs are taken with an overlap both front to back and
side to side. If the overlap is sufficient, three-dimensional views can be generated, which makes the prospecting easier.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Environmental Management

Another method used to identify the mineral ores present in out to evaluate all the financial and technical risks of any
rocks is geophysics. A series of vibrations (seismic waves) proposed mining project (see below). The final decision
are sent through the Earth’s surface. Several sensors at may be to develop a mine straight away or wait until
different distances from the source of vibrations are laid on conditions change in the future.
the ground. The vibrations create shock waves that travel
down into the rock layers and are reflected back to the Methods of extraction
sensors on the surface. The shock waves record different
There are two main types of mining. Surface mining
patterns depending on what minerals are present in the
includes open-cast, open-pit, open-cut and strip mining.
rock layers. Explosives can be used instead of vibrations but
Sub-surface mining includes deep and shaft mining.
this is potentially more dangerous (Figure 1.12).

Mining rocks and minerals Key terms

To make sure that the deposits of mineral ores are large
Geophysical: the physical properties of rocks
enough to be extracted, a resource evaluation is carried
out. The aim of the evaluation is to estimate the grade and Surface mining: a type of mining used when the mineral
is either exposed on the surface or overlain by only small
tonnage of the mineral of interest present in a deposit. Drilling amounts of overburden
to collect rock samples must be done to carry out a resource
Overburden: the rock and soil overlying an economically
evaluation. For small deposits, only a few samples are viable mineral deposit
needed. For larger deposits, more drilling is required, following Open-pit mining: a type of surface mining
a grid pattern on the ground. The aim is to identify the size of
Strip mining: a type of surface mining
the deposit as well as the mixture of mineral ores present.
Sub-surface mining: a type of mining used when the deposit
From the information collected, the deposit may be is covered by a deep layer(s) of unwanted rock
classified as a mineral ore reserve. Classifying the deposit Deep mining: a type of sub-surface mining
8
as a reserve takes into account the amount of material that Shaft mining: a type of sub-surface mining
it is practical to extract. Finally, a feasibility study is carried
sensors pick up
reflected wave

recording truck collects information

vibrator truck from sensors

rock A

P
rock B

Figure 1.12 Seismic shock waves being used to locate rock or mineral deposits.
 Chapter 1: Rocks and minerals and their exploitation

Surface mining Sub-surface mining

Open-pit mining is also called open-cast or open-cut Sub-surface mining (Figure 1.14) involves digging tunnels
mining. This type of mining is used when a valuable into the ground to reach mineral deposits that are too
deposit is located near the surface, often buried below a deep to be removed by surface mining. Sometimes
thick layer of worthless material. The material above the horizontal tunnels are dug directly into the coal seam in
deposit is called overburden. The overburden has to be the side of a hill or mountain: this is a drift mine entered by
removed first to expose the deposit, and is stored nearby an adit. These tunnels produce waste rock as well as the
to be used later for mine restoration (Figure 1.13). mineral ore.
Open-pit mines are carefully dug in sections called A sloping tunnel is dug to reach deeper deposits. Mining
benches. The walls of the benches are kept at an angle to machinery can be lowered down the sloping tunnels while
reduce the risk of rock falls. The safe angle of these walls waste rock and mineral ore are hauled up to the surface.
depends on the type of deposit and overburden. Roads
The deepest deposits are reached by digging a vertical shaft.
have to be made as the digging progresses to allow the
Horizontal galleries are then dug into the mineral deposits.
removal of the mineral deposit and overburden. Building
This type of mining is more expensive and technically
materials such as sand, gravel and stone are removed from
challenging than either horizontal or slope tunnelling. Only
open pits called quarries. The process of extraction from
large deposits of valuable minerals are mined in this way.
pits always uses similar methods.
Most of the material is removed from mines by machine.
There are two main reasons why open-pit mines
The miners’ job is to make sure all the machinery is
eventually stop being worked. In some cases, as much
working correctly and safely. Compared with open-pit
valuable deposit as possible has been removed. In
mining, any form of shaft mining is more difficult because a
other cases, the amount of overburden that needs to be
supply of fresh air and water drainage has to be provided.
removed has increased to an extent that the mine is no
There are also the dangers of collapsing tunnels as well as
longer profitable.
the risks of poisonous gas, explosion and underground fire. 9
Strip mining is used to mine a seam of mineral. First of all
the overburden, which consists of the overlying rock and Key terms
soil, is removed. Strip mining is mainly used to mine coal
Open-cast mining: a type of surface mining
near the surface. Figure 1.0 shows a very large bucket wheel
Open-cut mining: a type of surface mining
excavator, which is often used in strip mines. These machines
can move thousands of tonnes of material every hour. Adit: the entrance to a horizontal (drift) mine

benches

overburden

spoils reclaimed
piles land
200°
coal
50°

Figure 1.13 An open-pit mine.

 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Environmental Management

Greenfield sites are areas that have never been mined for
minerals. The chances of finding a deposit there are low.
For some metal ores, the strike rate ranges from 1 : 50 to
1 : 100. New gold deposits are very hard to find: the strike
rate may be as low as 1 : 1000.
Brownfield sites are areas that have already been mined.
They usually have a higher strike rate than greenfield sites.
Even low-grade deposits that were not extracted in the
past may have enough value that they can now be mined
for profit.

A The probable cost of extracting one tonne of ore has to

be calculated. Deposits near the surface can be extracted
by open-pit mining. There are usually fewer technical
difficulties to mining on a large scale using this method,
miners’ elevators
coal elevators

which leads to a low extraction cost per tonne.

Deeper deposits can only be extracted by shaft mining.
B
This is more costly to set up and maintain, so the cost
per tonne will be higher than open-pit mining. Only
deposits of high value can be mined economically in
this way.
C
The quality of the mineral deposit is another important
factor in deciding to open a mine. High-grade ores will
10 Figure 1.14 A drift mine with a horizontal entrance, called yield more of the required chemical elements than
an adit. B Sloping tunnel. low-grade ores.
The size of deposit that can be extracted is also important.
Self-assessment questions
Small deposits of high-grade ore and high-value ores may
1.3 What factors need to be considered before be worth mining. Small deposits of low-grade ore and
starting up a new mine? low-value ores that cannot be mined at a profit are left as
known reserves. In the future they may be mined, either
1.4 Suggest reasons why developing surface mines
because technical advances make it less costly to do so or
is easier than developing mines underground.
because of a sustained increase in world price.
It is possible to estimate the working life of a mine, but
many factors have to be taken into account. The main
Factors affecting the viability of extraction factors are the size of the deposit and the planned rate of
of minerals extraction. If a mine is projected to have a short working
Once a mineral deposit has been located, a mining life, then other factors, such as ore value, will be very
company has to decide whether it should mine the deposit important in deciding whether work should be started.
or not. Mining companies need to consider a range of Mines that are projected to have a long working life are less
issues when planning to open a mine, including: likely to prevented by other factors.
• the costs of exploration and extraction Transporting the ore from a mine to processing plants may
• geology be difficult and expensive. This factor alone could prevent
a deposit being mined. The cost of building road or rail
• climate links to the processing plants or to the nearest suitable
• accessibility port for export is a start-up cost that has to be considered.
These transport links have to be kept in working order,
• the environmental impact so there will also be maintenance costs. The cost of
• supply and demand. transporting 1 tonne of ore over 1 km can be calculated.
 Chapter 1: Rocks and minerals and their exploitation

For large tonnages, such as iron ore, rail transport is the or decrease profits from working mines. If the world price
only practical and cost-effective method of moving the remains high, then deposits that could not previously be
ore. If the ore is going to be exported, large ships, called mined at a profit may become worth mining. The amount
bulk carriers, can be used to keep the transport costs low. of money that needs to be invested in starting up a new
mine is considerable. This means that if the world price falls
Another way of keeping the transport costs low is to carry
because of a drop in demand, a new mine may not start
out some processing of the ore at the mine. The process
working at a profit. Only when the world price rises again
used depends on the chemical nature and grade of the
can a new mine become profitable. The global recession of
ore. The aim of processing is to concentrate the mineral
2008 stopped some known mineral reserves being mined
ore and separate it from the waste material. The waste
because of reduced world prices. Recently, the world
material is stored at the mine. This type of processing
price of iron ore has dropped because supply is greater
produces a higher grade of ore so it has a higher value
than demand.
per tonne. Some ores are high grade when they come
out of the ground. For example, some iron ores are called An example of changes in world price are shown in
direct shipping ores (DSO) because they have enough iron Figure 1.15.
content that they do not need processing at the mine.
Mining companies try to predict future demand very
Mining companies can only start work after they have been carefully so that periods of selling ore at less than the
given a licence to extract a deposit. The government of any cost of production are kept to a minimum. The profits
country will want to earn some money from the mining from periods of high world prices are used to make up
activity. This means there will be a tax to be paid to the for periods of low profitability, as well as to pay for the
government for every tonne of mineral ore extracted. From development of newly discovered deposits.
the point of view of the mining company, it is important
that a long-term agreement is reached to avoid rapid rises
Key terms
in tax that could make the mining operation unprofitable.
11
From the point of view of the government, the tax needs to Strike rate: the frequency with which attempts to find a
generate enough money to be invested in developments desired mineral are successful
for the benefit of the country. Supply and demand: the relationship between how much of a
commodity is available and how much is needed or wanted by
Increase in world demand for any mineral ore will drive the consumers of the product
price up. Changes in supply and demand can increase

4.5

3.5
Copper price / US$ lb–1

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
3 Jan 1 Jan 1 Jan 1 Jan 1 Jan 27 Apr
1989 1994 1999 2004 2009 2012

Figure 1.15 Changes in world price of copper, 1989 to 2012.

 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Environmental Management

1.3 Impact of rock and Key terms

mineral extraction Environmental impact assessment: a process by which
Environmental impacts the probable effects on the environment of a development are
assessed and measured
Impacts on the environment from the extraction of
Biomagnification: the process in which the concentration of
rocks and minerals range from large-scale habitat
a substance in living things becomes higher at progressively
destruction to pollution of the atmosphere, land and higher levels in a food chain or web
water. Those living near the site are also affected by noise
and visual pollution.
Pollution
Ecological impacts The working life of any type of mine will result in some
Any mining activity will involve the loss of habitat for some pollution of the environment (Figure 1.16).
species of plants and animals. Even small-scale surface
mineral extraction requires the vegetation to be cleared This can take the form of noise, water, land, air and
from an area of land. The plants removed have lost a place visual pollution. Noise pollution is a problem when
to grow, and so have the animals that depend on the large-scale surface mining takes place. The overburden
plants for food and shelter. is loosened by explosive charges and then removed by
large machines. The noise can disturb the behaviour of
Deep mining means that shafts have to be dug down to many animal species near the mine and cause health
the seams of valuable minerals. At the beginning of deep problems for people. Deep mining usually produces less
mining operations, only a small area of land is cleared noise than surface mining. Mining licences set limits on
of vegetation. After this type of mine has been working the levels of noise and working hours of a mine.
for several years, more habitats will be destroyed as the
amount of mine waste stored aboveground increases. Water pollution from any type of mine can be a major
12 problem that can continue for many years after a mine has
Any form of large-scale surface mining causes the greatest stopped working. The water that drains through mine waste,
loss of habitat. Large areas of vegetation have to be or comes directly from mine shafts, can cause dramatic
removed and then large volumes of removed overburden changes to the populations of living organisms in streams
have to be stored. After the seams of valuable mineral and rivers. Drinking water supplies may also be polluted by
have been removed, the overburden is spread over the drainage from mines, making it unsafe for people to drink.
mined area to restore the land. The new land surface will
slowly become covered in some plant species. However, This pollution is caused by chemical reactions between
this vegetation will have less biodiversity compared water and exposed rocks and mine waste. The water may
with the original vegetation. This means that some become acidic and then dissolve toxic metal ions. The
plant and animal habitats will still be lost from an area combination of acidic water with a high concentration of
for many years, even though the land surface has been toxic metal ions kills many aquatic organisms. Some of the
restored. metal ions exist only in low concentrations in bodies of
water. However, organisms absorb these ions and retain
When a company applies for a licence to start working, an them in their body, reaching concentrations much higher
environmental impact assessment is carried out. The than that in the water. This is called bioaccumulation.
licence application is usually approved if the company The concentrations increase further in organisms that
has a plan to keep the loss of habitat as small as possible are higher up the food chain. This process is called
and then to restore the land after mining has finished. An biomagnification, and can cause the death of top
environmental impact assessment tries to identify all the consumers. There are other metal ions that are toxic in
possible types of damage to the environment. To have the high concentrations that do not bioaccumulate.
licence application approved, any mining company must
have detailed plans to control the amount of damage to The land surrounding a mine will become polluted by
the environment. mine waste. In some cases the area will be quite small but
the toxic nature of the waste means that only a few plants
can grow, even many years after mining has stopped.
 Chapter 1: Rocks and minerals and their exploitation

13

Figure 1.16 Pollution and land degradation around a copper mine.

When mine waste is stored above natural water courses, masks to protect the health of mine workers. However,
the waste pile may collapse and cover more land. The many people make a living from small-scale mining
choice of site for mine waste is an important factor to without a licence. This is often called informal mining and
consider in plans to limit the effects of pollution. it is illegal. Health problems as a result of toxic substances
are common among these miners.
Many mining activities release dust particles, which will
settle on the vegetation near the mine. Dust reduces plant Evidence of mining activity can often be seen because
growth: the leaves of plants need to absorb light energy to the landscape is damaged. This is visual pollution. Large-
perform photosynthesis. If light cannot penetrate a layer of scale surface mining will create the most obvious visual
dust on a leaf surface, then the rate of photosynthesis pollution during the working life of a mine. This type
is reduced. of pollution may only be temporary because careful
restoration of the landscape is possible.
Dust from mining activities may also have toxic effects
depending on the chemical components present in the
dust. This can also reduce or stop plant growth, and the Self-assessment questions
particles can be dangerous to human health. The biggest
risk is breathing in dust that then remains in the lungs. 1.5 Give reasons why illegal mining without a licence
Long-term exposure can lead to serious lung diseases is bad for people and the environment.
that can cause death. The lungs of children are very easily 1.6 Explain how reduced plant growth can affect an
damaged by breathing dust particles. Some harmful ecosystem.
substances can also be absorbed through human skin.
Mining companies provide safety clothing and breathing
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Environmental Management
case study

The Antamina Mine in Peru

The Antamina mine is a large open-pit mine located The mine was expected to stop production in 2022.
high in the Andes Mountains of Peru at an altitude However, more reserves have been found and increased
above 4000 m (Figure 1.17). The estimated reserve investment in efficient processing machinery has
is 1.5 billion tonnes of ore. Extraction of copper and extended the expected life of the mine to 2029.
zinc ores began in 2001. The mine employs more
than 5000 people. Questions
Before mining could begin, more than 100 million
1 Suggest why the mine was developed in such a
tonnes of surface rock had to be removed and
remote location.
placed in waste piles. The ores were then removed
and crushed in the processing plant to produce 2 Water pollution is serious risk at this open-pit
concentrate. Wastes from this process are called mine. Give three reasons why there is a high risk of
tailings. These are stored in a compound to prevent water pollution.
water pollution. The concentrate is then mixed with 3 a Suggest how the production from this mine been
water and moved in a 300 km pipeline to the coast. made more sustainable than originally planned.
After the water is removed from the concentrate it b Explain why it is unlikely that the land will be
is loaded into ships. fully restored when this mine stops production.

14

Figure 1.17 The Antamina Copper mine, Peru, showing benches and the sheer size of the mine.
 Chapter 1: Rocks and minerals and their exploitation

Economic impacts In a well-regulated system, applications must provide a

Extracting valuable minerals provides employment for detailed plan to show how mine waste will be stored to
people and provides taxes for the government. Modern prevent collapse. The site of the mine waste must also
mining is carried out using machines so only a small prevent the possibility of water pollution. The plan must
number of people will be directly employed to extract include details of how the waste will be monitored to
minerals. However, if the mineral is then refined and detect any movement or water pollution.
processed in the same country, further jobs are created.
In many cases minerals are exported from one country to Land restoration and bioremediation
be used in manufacturing processes in another country. When mining has finished, the land needs to be restored.
This can create jobs in the country importing the mineral. Sometimes mine waste can be reshaped to blend in with
Overall, mineral extraction does provide employment, the surrounding landforms. The waste can then be covered
even if modern methods mean that the total number of by a layer of soil, which may be enriched with fertiliser.
mining jobs may only be a few hundred. Such an area can then be planted with trees. This will help
Mineral extraction usually benefits both local and other plants and animals to colonise the area. As time
national economies. Jobs are created directly to extract passes, the soil will be improved by the addition of organic
minerals and further jobs to supply transport and mining matter from plant and animal wastes. This method of land
equipment. More jobs are created when the mineral is restoration is often used to manage the waste from coal
refined to make products. If all these activities occur in mining. Planting trees creates habitats fairly quickly even
the same country, this will generate the most income though the trees are only able to grow slowly.
for buying goods and services as well as investing in Some mine waste does not allow the growth of tree
infrastructure projects. roots, so other methods of restoration have to be used.
Some improvements to transport and services, such as Contaminated waste can be treated where it was left (in situ
healthcare and education, will be required to supply any treatment) by bioremediation. Alternatively, waste can be
15
mining industry as well as support the mineworkers and their removed from a site to a treatment plant (ex situ treatment).
families. Some improvements will be paid for by the mining
companies as a condition of their mining licence. Taxes paid Key term
by mining companies and individual workers can provide
Bioremediation: a process in which living things are used to
a country with enough revenue to invest in infrastructure
remove toxic chemicals from a natural site
projects to benefit the whole population of the country.

1.4 Managing the impact of rock Bioremediation is the process of removing pollutants
from waste using living organisms. Many organisms
and mineral extraction are able to break down toxic substances into less
Management of a mining operation should start with plans hazardous substances. This often happens slowly in
for safe waste disposal and end with plans to return the natural environments. Some microorganisms, such as
land to its original state when mining is over. bacteria found in soils, are able to absorb pollutants and
process them via metabolic pathways into less harmful
Safe disposal of mining waste substances. When bacteria take in pollutants they usually
gain either energy or nutrients.
In the past, mining waste was usually been put in piles
near the point of extraction. In some cases, stable waste Microorganisms can remove and process pollutants at
piles were placed on top of water courses, which then a faster rate if their environment provides a source of
become polluted with toxic chemicals. In other cases, oxygen and nitrogen. Some plants are also naturally able
waste piles were unstable and collapsed. Apart from the to bioaccumulate toxic metals, and this process can be
possible loss of life caused by a collapse, collapsed waste speeded up with the addition of fertilisers. These plants
piles increase land and water pollution. are grown on contaminated waste. The plants absorb
toxic metals, and later the parts of the plant aboveground
Today, safe storage and disposal of mine waste is
are removed so the waste left in the ground becomes
one of the most important aspects of any mining
less toxic.
licence application.
 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Environmental Management

Figure 1.18 Former granite quarry on Bornholm, Denmark, the steep sides now a paradise for sea gulls.

After this treatment, the land is often turned into a nature reclamation is important to reduce the incidence of such
16 reserve as, even though the ground surface is less toxic, events as landslides and erosion. However, once this has
it may still not be possible to use it for farming or to build been done, the natural process of succession can probably
houses on. Several tree and herb species are introduced, be relied on to achieved the ecosystem recovery SERI and
and as the plant populations grow they create habitats others think we should aim for.
for many animal species. These nature reserves become
valuable green spaces for human recreation, as well as
helping to maintain biodiversity (Figure 1.18). 1.5 Sustainable use of rocks
Mineral extraction often creates large holes in the landscape.
and minerals
If the rock lining the hole is impervious to water and non- The supply of rocks and minerals that are used as building
toxic then it can be allowed to fill with water to form a materials and for industrial production is finite. It is hard
reservoir. This water could be used for irrigating farmland or to see, therefore, how the use of these materials can meet
processed to provide clean, safe drinking water for humans. the definition of sustainability. Sustainable use means use
Sometimes, these holes are filled with household waste that meets the needs of the present without affecting the
until they are full. The waste is then covered with soil and ability of future generations to meet their needs. A fully
planted with trees. This is referred to as landfill. sustainable resource will never run out, and this can be
achieved in fisheries, agriculture and forestry where the
How successful are these strategies? The Society for
resource is biological and can be regrown. Unlike these
Ecological Restoration International (SERI) proposed a
biological systems, such things as rocks and minerals will
number of ecosystem-related variables to measure the
not last indefinitely.
success of a land restoration programme. In summary,
a successful scheme will return the site to as close as Human societies need to use any resource with care so
possible to the native ecosystem that existed before the that its use is at least more sustainable than it has been in
mining began. In this respect, although all strategies the past. The sustainable development of the reserves of
have a value, some scientists believe that allowing a site any rock or mineral must take into account environmental,
to undergo a natural process of recolonisation and slow economic and social factors. The aim is a planned and
change to the environment (a process called succession) controlled use of any reserve to provide the most benefit
may actually be the most beneficial method. Active to people, maintain economic growth and stability and
 Chapter 1: Rocks and minerals and their exploitation

prevent widespread environmental damage. National To improve the efficiency of extraction, many mine wastes
laws and international agreements encourage sustainable are now being processed for a second time. This allows
development of resources. valuable materials to be recovered and reduces the risk
of pollution from stored mine waste. New extraction
The term sustainability is now widely used. However, as
methods include chemical treatment of the waste, which
the world population continues to increase, it is difficult
extracts much of the valuable mineral still within it.
to see how the challenge of complete sustainability can
Biological treatment with microorganisms can also be
be met. Perhaps the best that can be achieved is the
used to extract more product from the waste.
prolonged use of resources with limited environmental
damage and the most benefit for human societies. Improvements in the performance of the machines used
in mining and processing also increase the efficiency of
On the other hand, it may be possible to find substitutes
extraction. Greater use of data analysis by computers is
for the use of relatively scarce materials. For example,
likely to lead to improvements as well. However, surface
copper is quite rare and is used for, among other things,
mining has more potential for an increase in efficiency of
the conduction of electricity. When the purpose is to
extraction than underground mining. This is because it is
transmit information, copper wire can be replaced by
more difficult to predict geological conditions underground.
fibre optic cables, which are made from the much more
common element silica.
Several strategies can be used to make the exploitation of Efficiency of use and recycling
rocks and minerals more sustainable. Recycling materials makes an important contribution to the
sustainable use of rocks and minerals. Many manufactured
goods, from cars to steel cans, are recycled in most
Efficiency of extraction countries. Most metals can be recovered and refined back
Increasing the efficiency of extraction seems an obvious to clean metals to be used by industries again. This uses
starting point. For example, underground coalmines only less energy than processing the ores or concentrates to 17
remove between 55 and 70% of the coal present in the make metals. Many countries still have the potential to
reserve. This is because of the technical difficulties of recycle far more materials in the future (Figure 1.19).
extracting the remaining coal in a safe and cost effective
manner. Open-pit mining is more efficient at extraction Attempts to use minerals such as metals more efficiently
than underground mining but some wastage still occurs. include engineering solutions. For example, it is possible

Figure 1.19 Scrap metal in a scrapyard.

 Cambridge IGCSE and O Level Environmental Management

to design steel beams used in buildings to have the same Directive of the European Union, was passed in 2002.
strength but use less steel. In the 1980s titanium became Although some of the items covered are not mineral rich
very expensive and there was an incentive to design (for example televisions are only 6% metal) others are: a
products that used less of this metal. Many countries may typical cooker is 89% metal.
in the future require car manufacturers by law to take back
their products when they are finished with. It is hoped this Self-assessment questions
will encourage them to make more durable products that
use less minerals and last longer. 1.7 Suggest one advantage of in situ waste
treatment and one advantage of ex situ waste
The major way in which governments are trying to
treatment.
encourage a more sustainable use of minerals and rocks
is to pass laws that requires manufacturers to become 1.8 Describe three ways in which recycling materials
responsible for recycling and reuse. For example, the is important for the sustainable use of resources.
Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE)

Summary
After completing this chapter, you should know:
■ the characteristics of named igneous, sedimentary ■ how landscapes damaged by rock and mineral
and metamorphic rocks extraction can be restored and how successful these
■ how these rocks are formed in the rock cycle strategies can be
■ the features of surface and subsurface mining ■ the meaning of sustainable resource and sustainable
■ how we decide to extract rocks and minerals development
18 how rocks and minerals can be used sustainably.
■ the environmental, economic and social impacts of ■

rock and mineral extraction

End-of-chapter questions
1 An important local fishery exists in Lake Titicaca, Peru. The lake is 100 km from a mercury
mine. A study was carried out on the levels of mercury in fish caught in the lake. Some of the
data are shown in Table 1.3.

length of fish / mm Mercury concentration / ppm

104 0.20
124 0.32
125 0.30
128 0.20
136 0.30
140 0.32
146 0.35
159 0.45
160 0.35
178 0.55
196 0.85
Table 1.3 Fish and mercury levels