1.
CARPENTRY SHOP
INTRODUCTION:
Wood work or carpentry deals with making joints for a variety of applications like door
frames, cabinet making furniture, packing etc.,
Timber:
Timber is a name obtained from well grown plants or trees. The timber must cut in such a
way that the grains run parallel to the length. The common defects in timber are knots,
wet rot, dry rot etc.
Market sizes of timber:-
Timber is sold in market in various standard shapes and sizes. They are:-
Log:-
The trunk of a tree, which is free from branches.
Balk:-
The log sawn to have roughly square cross section.
Post:-
A timber piece, round or square in cross section with more than 275 mm in width, 50 to
150 mm in thickness and 2.5 to 6.5 mm length.
Board:-
A sawn timber piece, below 175 mm in width and 30 mm to 50 mm in thickness.
Reapers:-
Sawn timber pieces of assorted and nonstandard sizes, which don’t conform to the above
shapes.
WORK HOLDING TOOLS:
Carpentry vice:-
It is a work holding device. When handle vice is turned in a clockwise direction, the
sliding jar forces the work against the fixed sawn. The greater the force applied to the
handle, the tighter to the work held.
Bar clamp:-
It is a rectangular (or) square block with V-groove on one or both sides opposite to each
other. It holds cylindrical work pieces.
C-Clamp:-
This is used to hold work against an angle plate or V-block.
MARKING AND MEASURING TOOLS:
Try square:-
It is used for marking and testing the squareness of planed surfaces. It consists of a steel
blade, fitted in a cast iron stock. It is also used for flatness. The size of a try square
used for varies from 150 mm to 300 mm, according to the length of the blade. It is less
accurate when compared to the try square used in fitting shop.
Marking gauge:-
It is a tool used to mark lines parallel to the edges of wooden pieces. It consists of a square
wooden stem with a riding wooden stock on it. A marking pin, made of steel is fitted on the
stem. A mortise gauge consists of two pins. In these it is possible to adjust the distance
between the pins, to draw two parallel lines on the stock.
Fig : 1 steel rule fig: 2 marking Gauge
Fig: 3 steel tape fig: 4 Try square
Fig: 5 corpenter vice Fig: 6 Bar clamp
Fig: 7 metal jack plane Fig: 8 compass and divider
Compass and dividers:-
This is used for marking circles, arcs, laying out perpendicular lines on the planed surface
of the wood.
CUTTING TOOLS:
Hack saw:-
It is used to cross cut the grains of the stock. The teeth are so set that the saw kerfs will be
wider than the blade thickness. Hard blades are used to cut hard metals. Flexible blades
are having the teeth of hardened and rest of the blade is soft and flexible.
Chisels:-
These are used for removing surplus wood. Chisels are annealed, hardened and tempered
to produce a tough shank and a hard cutting edge.
Rip saw:-
It is used for cutting the stock along the grains. The cutting edge of this saw makes a sleeper
angle about 60o whereas that saw makes an angle of 45o with the surface of the stock.
Tenon saw:-
It is used for cutting tenons and in fine cabinet works. The blade of this saw is very thin
and so it is used stiffed with back strip. Hence, this is sometimes called back saw. The
teeth shapes similar to cross cut saw.
DRILLING AND BORING TOOLS:
Auger bit:-
It is the most common tool used for boring holes with hard pressure.
Gimlet:-
This is a hand tool used for boring holes with hand pressure.
Hand drill:-
Carpenters brace is used to make relatively large size holes, whereas hand drill is used for
drilling small holes. A straight shank drill is used with these tools. It is small light in
weight and may be conveniently used than the brace. The drill is clamped in the chuck.
MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS:
Ball peen hammer:-
It has a flat face, which is used for general work and a ball end is used for riveting.
Mallet:-
It is used to drive the chisel, when considerable force is to be applied, steel hammer
should not be used for these purpose, as it may damage the chisel handle. Further, for
better to apply a series of light taps with the mallet rather than a heavy single blow.
Claw hammer:-
It is a striking flat at one end and the claw at the others. The face issued to drive nails into
wood and for other striking purpose and the claw for extracting nails out of wood.
Pinches:-
It is made of steel with a hinged and is used for pulling out small nails from wood.
Wood rasp file:-
It is a finishing tool used to make the wood smooth, remove sharp edge finishing fillets and
other interior surfaces. Sharp cutting teeth are provided on its surface for the purpose. This
file is exclusively used in wood work.
Fig: 9 cross cut saw Fig: 10 Tenon saw Fig: 11 compass saw
Fig: 12 Chisels Fig: 13 Carpenter’s brace Fig: 14 Auger bit
Fig: 15 Gimlet Fig: 16 wood rasp file Fig: 17 Mallet
Fig: 18 Hand drill Fig: 19 Trammel Fig: 20 Claw hammer
HALF-LAP JOINT
EXPERIMENT NO: DATE:
Aim: - To make a Half- lap joint.
Tools required: -
1. Carpenter’s vice
2. Steel Rule
3. Try square
4. Jack plane
5. Scriber
6. Cross cut saw
7. Marking gauge
8. Firmer chisel
9. Mallet
10. Wood rasp file and smooth file
Material required: - Wooden pieces of size 225 x 50 x 35 mm–1 No.
Sequence of operations: -
1. Measuring and Marking
2. Planning
3. Check for squareness
4. Removal of extra material
5. Sawing
6. Chiseling
7. Finishing
Procedure: -
1. The given reaper is checked for dimensions.
2. They are planed with jack plane and checked for straightness.
3. The two surfaces are checked for squareness with a try square.
4. Marking gauge is set and lines are marked at 30 and 45 mm to mark the
thickness and width of the model respectively.
5. The excess material is first chiseled with firmer and then planned to correct
size.
6. The mating dimensions of the parts X and Y are then marked using steel rule
and marking gauge.
7. Using the crosscut saw, the portions to be removed are cut in both the pieces,
followed by chiseling.
8. The ends of both the parts are chiseled to the exact lengths.
9. The fine finishing is given to the parts, if required so that, proper fitting is
obtained.
10. The parts are fitted to obtain a slightly tight joint.
Safety precautions: -
1. Loose cloths are to be avoided.
2. Tools to be placed at their proper placed.
3. Hands should not be placed in front of sharp edged tools.
4. Use only sharp tools.
5. Care should be taken, when thumb is used as a guide in cross cutting and
ripping.
6. Handle while chiseling, sawing and planning with care.
Result: - Half- lap joint is made as per the required dimensions.
2. SHEET METAL WORKING
INTRODUCTION:
Many engineering and house hold articles such as boxes, cans, funnels, ducts etc., are made
from a flat sheet of metals. These process being known as tin smithy. For this, the
development of the article is first drawn on the sheet metal then cut and folded to form the
required shape of the article. The edge of the articles are then secured through welding,
brazing, soldering, riveting etc.
Sheet metal materials:-
A variety of metals used in a sheet metal shop such as black iron, aluminum and stainless
steel. A sheet of soft steel which is coated with molten zinc is known as galvanized iron.
The zinc coat forms a coating that resists rust, improves the appearance of the metal and
permits it to be solderised with greater care.
Hand tools:-
The common hand tools used in sheet metals work are steel rule, usually of 60 cm length,
Vise gauge, dot punch, scriber, trammels, ball peen hammer, and straight peen hammer,
cross peen hammer, mallets, snips and soldering iron.
Trammels:-
Sheet metals layouts require marking of arcs and circles. This may be done by using the
trammels. The length of the beam decides the maximum size of the arc that can be scribed.
Wire gauge:-
The thickness of the sheet metal is referred in numbers known as standard wire gauge
(SWG). The gaps in the circumstance of the gauge are used to check the gauge number.
Bench shears:-
Sheet metal may be cut by shearing action. In this the force is applied through a compound
lever, making it possible to cut sheet metal up to 4mm thick. The chopping hole can shear
a mild steel rod up to 10mm diameter.
Snips:-
Snips are hand shears, varying in length from 200mm to 600mm. 200mm to 250mm
being the commonly used. The straight lines are curved snips or bent snips are for
trimming along inside curves.
Hammers:-
Ball peen hammer has a cylindrical slightly curved face and a ball head straight peen and
similar to the cross peen, but it is positioned paralleled to the handle which can be used
conveniently for certain operations of folding.
Stakes:-
Stakes are nothing but anvils, which are used as supporting tools and to form seam, bend,
rivet sheet metal objects.
Fig: 1 Sheet metal joints
Fig: 2 Stakes
Snips:-
Snips are hand shears, varying in length from 200mm to 600mm. 200mm to 250mm
being the commonly used. The straight lines are curved snips or bent snips are for
trimming along inside curves.
Hammers:-
Ball peen hammer has a cylindrical slightly curved face and a ball head straight peen and
similar to the cross peen, but it is positioned paralleled to the handle which can be used
conveniently for certain operations of folding.
Stakes:-
Stakes are nothing but anvils, which are used as supporting tools and to form seam, bend,
rivet sheet metal objects.
SHEET METAL JOINTS:
Various types of joints are used in sheet metal work to suit the varying requirement. These
are self-secured joints, formed by joining together two pieces of sheets metal and using the
metal itself to form the joints. These joints are to be used on sheets of less than
1.6mm thickness.
Riveting:-
Rivets are used to fasten two of more sheets of metal together. It is the common practice
to use the rivets of the same material as that of the sheets having fastened.
Sheet metal screws:-
These are used in sheet metal work to join and install duct work for ventilation air
conditioning etc. These screws are also known as self-tapping screws since they cut their
own threads.
Soldering:-
Soldering is one method of joining two pieces of metal with an alloy that melts at a lower
temperature than the metals to be joined for a good job. The metals to be joined must be
free from dirt, grease and oxide. Solder is made of tin and lead in equal proportions. It
comes either in the form of wire and bar.
Soldering iron:-
Soldering requires a source of heating. A common method of transmitting heat of the metal
surfaces is by using a soldering iron.
3.FITTING
INTRODUCTION:
Machine tools are capable of producing work at a faster rate, but there are occasions
when components are processed at a bench. Sometimes it becomes necessary to replace
or repair a component that must fit accurately with one another or reassemble. This
involves a certain amount of hand fitting. The assembly machine tools, jigs, gauges etc.,
involves certain amount of bench work.
FITTING TOOLS:
Holding tools:-
Bench vice
V-block with clamp
C-clamp
Bench vice:-
It is a work holding device, when vice handle is turned in a clockwise direction the
sliding jaw forces the work against the fixed jaw, the greater the force applied to the
handle, the tighter is the work held.
V-block with clamp:-
It is a rectangular (or) square block with v-groove on one or both sides, opposite to each
other. It holds cylindrical work pieces.
C-clamp:-
This is used to hold work against an angle plate or v-block.
MARKING AND MEASURING TOOLS:
1. Surface plate
2. Try square
3. Angle plate
4. Scriber
5. Universal scribing block
6. Odd leg caliper
7. Divider
8. Calipers
9. Dot punch
10. Vernier caliper
Surface plate:-
It is used for testing flatness of work piece, for marking out small works.
Fig: 1 Bench wise Fig: 2 V- Block
Fig: 3 C – Clamp Fig: 4 Surface plate
Fig: 5 Angle plate Fig: 6 Dot punch
Fig: 6 try square Fig: 7 scriber
Combination cutting pliers: -
This is made of tool steel and is used for cutting as well as for ripping work.
Taps and die holders: -
Tap and wrenches are used for cutting internal threads in a drilled hole.
Dies and die holders:-
They are used for making external threads. Dies are made either solid (or) split type.
TYPES OF FILES:
Hand file:-
It is a rectangular in section tapered in thickness but parallel in width.
Flat file:-
Rectangular in section and tapered for 1/3rd length in width and thickness.
Square file:-
Square in section and tapered for 1/3rd length on all sides.
Half round file:-
It has one flat face, connecting by a curved (surface) face & tapered for 1/3rd length.
Round file:-
Circular in cross section and tapered for 1/3rd length, it has double cut teeth.
MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS:
Ball peen hammer:-
It has a flat face, which is used for general work and a ball end is used for riveting.
Screw driver:-
It is designed to turn the screws. The blade is made of steel and is available in different
lengths and diameters.
Spanners:-
It is a tool for turning nuts and bolts. It is usually made of forged steel.
FITTING OPERATIONS:
Chipping:-
Removing metal with a chisel is called chipping and is normally used where machining is
not possible.
Fitting:-
1. Pinning of files:-
Soft metals cause this; the pins are removed with a file card.
2. Checking flatness and square ness:-
To check flatness across thickness of plate.
MARKING AND MEASURING:
Measurements are taken either from a center line, for visibility of the non-ferrous metals
and oxide coated steels are used.
Fig: 8 odd leg clamp and divider
Fig: 9 calipers Fig: 10 Vernier caliper
Fig: 11 Parts of hand file
Fig: 12 Types of files Fig: 13 ball peen hammer
V-FIT
EXPERIMENT NO: DATE:
AIM: - To make a V-fit from the given two M.S pieces.
TOOLS REQUIRED: -
1. Bench vice
2. Steel rule
3. Try square
4. Ball peen hammer
5. Scriber
6. Hack saw with blade
7. Dot punch and Centre punch
8. Surface plate
9. Rough and smooth flat files
10. Flat chisel and triangular file
MATERIAL REQUIRED: - Mild steel (M.S) plate of size 50 x 50 x 5mm –2 Nos.
SEQUECE OF OPERATIONS:-
1. Filing
2. Checking flatness and squareness
3. Marking and measuring
4. Punching
5. Sawing
6. Chipping
7. Finishing
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MM
PROCEDURE: -
1. The burrs in the pieces are removed and the dimensions are checked with the
steel rule.
2. The pieces are clamped one after the other and the outer mating edges are filed
by using rough and smooth files.
3. The flatness, straightness and squareness i.e. right angle between adjacent sides
are checked with help of Try-square.
4. Chalk is then applied on the surfaces of the two pieces.
5. The given dimensions of the V-fitting are marked carefully.
6. Using the dot punch, dots are punched along the above scribed lines.
7. Using the hack saw, the unwanted portions are removed.
8. Using the flat chisel, the unwanted material in the piece Y is removed.
9. The cut edges are filed by the half round file.
10. The corners of the stepped surfaces are filed by using a square or triangular file
to get the sharp corners.
11. The pieces (X and Y) are fitted together and the mating is checked for the
correctness of the fit.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS: -
1. Care is taken to see that the marking dots are not crossed, which is indicated by
the half of the punch dots left on the pieces.
2. Apply pressure in forward direction during hack sawing.
3. Don’t rub steel rule on the job.
4. Fix blade in hack saw frame with correct tension.
5. During hack sawing the coolant like water or lubricating oil is to be used.
7. Files are to be cleaned properly after using.
RESULT: - The required V-fit is thus obtained as per given dimensions.
4. FOUNDRY PRACTICE
Demonstration and practice on Moulding tools and processes,
Preparation of Green Sand Moulds for given Patterns
Introduction: -
Foundry practice deals with the process of making casting in moulds, formed in either sand or other
material. This is found to be the cheapest method of metal shaping. The process involves the operations of
pattern making, sand preparation, molding, melting of metals, pouring in moulds, cooling, shake out, fettling,
heat treatment, finishing, and inspection.
Mould is a cavity in a molding core, formed by a pattern. It is similar in shape and size that of the
actual casting plus some allowance for shrinkage, machining etc., molding is the process of making molds.
Moulds are classified as: -
Temporary moulds and Permanent moulds
Temporary moulds are made of sand and other binding materials and may be produced either through hand
molding (or) machine molding.
Permanent moulds are made of ferrous materials and alloys i.e., cast iron, steel etc.,
Molding Sand: -
Sand is the principle material used in foundry. The principle ingredients of molding sands are
1) Silicon sand 2) Clay 3) Sand
Clay imparts the necessary bonding strength to the molding sand, moisture when added
to correct preparation provides the bonding action to the clay sand can withstand high temperature and
doesn’t react with molten metal.
Natural molding sand is either available in river beds are dug from pits. It possesses and appreciable
amount of clay and are used as received with the addition of water. Synthetic sands are prepared by adding
clay. Water and other materials to silica sand so that the desirable strength and banding properties are
achieved.
Most of molding is done with green sand i.e.; sand containing 6 to 8%, moisture and 10% clay content
to give it sufficient bond. Green sand moulds are used for pouring the molten metal – immediately after
preparing the moulds. Green sand moulds are cheaper and take less time to prepare. These are used for small
and medium size casting.
Parting sand, which is clay tree, fence grained silica sand, is used to keep the green sand from sticking
to the pattern and also to prevent the cope and drug from cleaning. Core sand is used for making cores.
This is silica missed with core oil and other oddities.
Pattern; -
A pattern is the replica of the desired coasting, which when packed in a suitable materials
produces a cavity called mould. This cavity when filled with molten metals, produces their desired
coasting of the solidification.
Types of pattern; -
Wood are metal patterns are used in foundry practice, single piece, split loose piece and cored
patterns are some of the common types.
Tools and equipment; -
The tools are equipment needed for molding are; -
Molding board: -
It is wooden board with smooth surfaces. It supports the flasks and the pattern, while the
mould is being made.
Molding Flask: -
It is a base, made of wood or metal, open at both ends. The sand is rammed in after placing
the pattern to produce a mould it is made of 2 parts; cope is the top half of the flask, having guides
for the aligning paints to enter. Drag is the bottom half of the flask having aligning pins.
Shovel: -
It is used for mixing and tempering molding sand and for transferring the sand in to the flask.
It is made of steel blade with a wooden handle.
Rammer: -
It is used for pocking or ramming the sand, around the pattern one of its ends called the peen
end, is wedge shaped and is used for packing sand in spaces, pockets and corners in the early stages
of ramming. The other end called the But – end has a surface and is used for computing the sand
towards the end of molding.
Strike of edge / strike of bar: -
It is a piece of metal or wood with straight edge. It is used remove the excess sand from the
mould after ramming to provide a level surface.
Spruce pin: -
It is tapered wooden pin used to make a hole in the cope sand through which the molten metal
is poured into the mould.
Riser pin: -
It is tapered wooden pin used to make a hole in the cope sand over the mould cavity for the
molten metal to rise and feed the casting to compassable the shrinkage that take place during
solidification.
Trowel: -
It is used to smoothen the surface of the mould. It may also be used for reproducing the
damaged portion of the mould. A trowel is made in many different styles and sizes each one
recallable for a particular hole.
FOUNDRY
ONE STEPPED PATTERN (SINGLE PIECE PATTERN)
EXPERIMENT No: DATE:
Aim: - To prepare a sand mould cavity using One Stepped Shaft (single piece pattern).
Tools required: -
1. Molding board
2. Molding flask
3. Shovel
4. Riddle
5. Rammer
6. Strike-off bar or Strike Edge
7. Sprue pin
8. Riser pin
9. Trowel
10. Spike or Draw pin
11. Slick
12. Lifters
13. Gate cutter
14. Bellows
15. Vent rod
Material required: -
1. Molding sand
2. Parting sand
3. Dum-Bell
Sequence of operation: -
1. Sand preparation
2. Sand mixing
3. Pouring
4. Finishing
Procedure: -
1. Place the pattern on the molding board, with its flat side on the board.
2. Place the drag over the board, after giving a clay wash inside.
3. Sprinkle the pattern and molding board, with parting sand.
4. Allow loose sand, preferably through a riddle over the pattern, unit it is covered to a depth of 2
to 3 cm.
5. Pack the molding sand around the pattern and into the corners of the flask, with fingers.
6. Place some more sand in the flask and pack the pattern with a rammer, using first the peen end
and then butt end.
7. Strike-off the excess sand from the top surface of the drag with the strike-off bar.
8. Turn the drag upside down.
9. Blow-off the loose sand particles with the bellows and smoothen the upper surface.
10. Place the cope on to the drag in position. Locate riser pin on the highest point of the pattern.
11. Place the sprue pin at about 5 to 6 cm from the pattern on the other side of the riser pin.
12. Sprinkle the upper surface with parting sand.
13. Repeat steps 3 to 7, approximately.
14. Make holes with the vent rod to about 1 cm from the pattern.
15. Remove the sprue and riser pins by carefully drawing them out. Funnel shaped hole is made at
the top of the sprue hole, called the pouring cup.
16. Lift the cope and place it aside on its edge.
17. Insert the draw pin into the pattern. Wet the edges around the pattern. Loosen the pattern by
rapping. Then draw the pattern straight up.
18. Adjust and repair the mold by adding bits of sand, if necessary.
19. Cut gate in the drag from the sprue to the mold. Blow off any loose sand particles in the mold.
20. Close the mold by replacing the cope and placing weights on it.
Precautions:-
1. Do not get the sand too wet. Water is an enemy of molten metals.
2. Provide adequate ventilation to remove smoke and fumes.
3. Never stand near or look over the mold during the pouring because of the molten metal might be
too hot.
4. Do not shake out a casting too hastily, which may result in second and third degree burns.
Result: - A sand mold cavity is prepared by using one–Stepped Shaft.
5. WELDING
Demonstration and practice on Arc Welding and Gas welding
Preparation of Lap joint and Butt joint.
INTRODUCTION:
Welding is the process of joining similar metals by the application of heat, with or without application
of pressure or filler metal, in such a way that the joint is equivalent in composition and characteristics of
the metals joined. In the beginning, welding was mainly used for repairing all kinds of worn or damaged
parts. Now, it is extensively used in manufacturing industry, construction industry(construction of ships,
tanks, locomotives and automobiles) and maintenance work, replacing riveting and bolting, to a greater
extent.
The various welding processes are:
1. Electric arc welding,
2. Gas welding
3. Thermal welding
4. Electrical Resistance welding and
5. Friction welding
However, only electric arc welding process is discussed in the subject point of view.
Electric arc welding
Arc welding is the welding process, in which heat is generated by an electric arc struck between
an electrode and the work piece. Electric arc is luminous electrical discharge between two electrodes
through ionized gas.
Any arc welding method is based on an electric circuit consisting of the following parts:
a. Power supply (AC or DC);
b. Welding electrode;
c. Work piece;
d. Welding leads (electric cables) connecting the electrode and work piece to the power supply.
Fig:1 Arc welding set up
Fig :2 parts of an electrode
Electric arc between the electrode and work piece closes the electric circuit. The arc
temperature may reach 10000°F (5500°C), which is sufficient for fusion the work piece edges and
joining them. When a long joint is required the arc is moved along the joint line. The front edge of the
weld pool melts the welded surfaces when the rear edge of the weld pool solidifies forming the joint.
Transformers, motor generators and rectifiers’ sets are used as arc welding machines. These
machines supply high electric currents at low voltage and an electrode is used to produce the necessary
arc. The electrode serves as the filler rod and the arc melts the surface so that, the metals to be joined are
actually fixed together.
Sizes of welding machines are rated according to their approximate amperage capacity at 60% duty
cycle, such as 150,200,250,300,400,500 and 600 amperes. This amperage is the rated current output at the
working terminal.
Transformers
The transformers type of welding machine produces A.C current and is considered to be theleast
expensive. It takes power directly from power supply line and transforms it to the voltage required for
welding. Transformers are available in single phase and three phases in the market.
Motor generators
These are D.C generators sets, in which electric motor and alternator are mounted on the same
shaft to produce D.C power as pert the requirement for welding. These are designed to produce D.C
current in either straight or reversed polarity. The polarity selected for welding depends upon the kind of
electrode used and the material to be welded.
Rectifiers
These are essentially transformers, containing an electrical device which changes A.C into D.C by virtue
of which the operator can use both types of power (A.C or D.C, but only one at a time).In addition to the
welding machine, certain accessories are needed for carrying out the welding work.
Welding cables
Two welding cables are required, one from machine to the electrode holder and the other,
from the machine to the ground clamp. Flexible cables are usually preferred because of the case of
usingand coiling the cables. Cables are specified by their current carrying capacity, say 300 A, 400 A, etc.
Electrodes
Filler rods are used in arc welding are called electrodes. These are made of metallic wire called
core wire, having approximately the same composition as the metal to be welded. These are coated
uniformly with a protective coating called flux. While fluxing an electrode; about 20mm of length is left
at one end for holding it with the electrode holder. It helps in transmitting full current from electrode
holder to the front end of the electrode coating. Flux acts as an insulator of electricity. In general,
electrodes are classified into five main groups; mild steel, carbon steel, special alloy steel, cast iron and
non‐ferrous. The greatest range of arc welding is done with electrodes in the mild steel group. Various
constituents like titanium oxide, potassium oxide, cellulose, iron or manganese, Ferro silicates, carbonates,
gums, clays, asbestos, etc., are used as coatings on electrodes. While welding, the coating or flux vaporizes
and provides a gaseous shield to prevent atmospheric attack. The size of electrode is
measured and designated by the diameter of the core wire in SWG andlength, apart from the brand and
code names; indicating the purpose for which there are most suitable
Electrodes may be classified on the basis of thickness of the coated flux. As
1. Dust coated or light coated
2. Semi or medium coated and
3. Heavily coated or shielded
Electrodes are also classified on the basis of materials, as
1. Metallic and
2. Non‐metallic or carbon
Metallic arc electrodes are further sub‐divided into
1. Ferrous metal arc electrode (mild steel, low/medium/high carbon steel, cast iron, stainless steel, etc )
2. Non‐ferrous metal arc electrodes (copper, brass, bronze, aluminum, etc).
In case of non‐metallic arc electrodes, mainly carbon and graphite are used to make the electrodes.
Fig :3 Electrode holder Fig :4 Ground Clamp
Fig :5Wire brush Fig :6Chipping hammer
Fig :7Hand gloves Fig :8Face shield
Fig: 9Weld positions
WELDING TOOLS
Electrode holder
The electrode holder is connected to the end of the welding cable and holds the electrode. Itshould be
light, strong and easy to handle and should not become hot while in operation. Figure shows one type of
electrode holder. The jaws of the holder are insulated, offering protection from electric shock.
Ground clamp
It is connected to the end of the ground cable and is clamped to the work or welding table to complete the
electric circuit. It should be strong and durable and give a low resistance connection.
Wire brush and chipping hammer
A wire brush is used for cleaning and preparing the work for welding. A chipping hammer is used for
removing slag formation on welds. One end of the head is sharpened like a cold chisel and the other, to a
blunt, round point. It is generally made of tool steel. Molten metal dispersed around the welding heads, in
the form of small drops, is known as spatter. When a flux coated electrode is used in welding process, then
a layer of flux material is formed over the welding bead which contains the impurities of weld material.
This layer is known as slag. Removing the spatter and slag formed on and around the welding beads on
the metal surface is known as chipping.
Welding table and cabin
It is made of steel plate and pipes. It is used for positioning the parts to be welded properly.
Welding cabin is made‐up by any suitable thermal resistance material, which can isolate the surrounding
by the heat and light emitted during the welding process. A suitable draught should also be provided for
exhausting the gas produced during welding.
Face shield
A face shield is used to protect the eyes and face from the rays of the arc and from spatter or
flying particles of hot metal. It is available either in hand or helmet type. The hand type is convenient to
use wherever the work can be done with one hand. The helmet type though not comfortable to wear,
leaves both hands free for the work.
Shields are made of light weight non‐reflecting fiber and fitted with dark glasses to filter out the
Harmful rays of the arc. In some designs, a cover glass is fitted in front of the dark lens to protect it from
spatter.
Hand gloves
These are used to protect the hands from electric shocks and hot spatters
TECHNIQUES OF WELDING
Preparation of work
Before welding, the work pieces must be thoroughly cleaned of rust, scale and other foreign
Material. The piece for metal generally welded without beveling the edges, however, thick work piece
should be beveled or out to ensure adequate penetration and fusion of all parts of the weld. But, in either
case, the parts to be welded must be separated slightly to allow better penetration of the weld. Before
commencing the welding process, the following must be considered.
a) Ensure that the welding cables are connected to proper power source.
b) Set the electrode, as per the thickness of the plate to be welded.
c) Set the welding current, as per the size of the electrode to be used.
WELDING POSITIONS
Depending upon the location of the welding joints, appropriate position of the electrode and
hand movement is selected. The figure shows different welding positions.
Flat position welding
In this position, the welding is performed from the upper side of the joint, and the face of the weld is
approximately horizontal. Flat welding is the preferred term; however, the same position is sometimes
called down hand.
Horizontal position welding
In this position, welding is performed on the upper side of an approximately horizontal surface
and against an approximately vertical surface.
Vertical position welding
In this position, the axis of the weld is approximately vertical as shown in figure.
Overhead position welding
In this welding position, the welding is performed from the underside of a joint
WELDING
(Butt Joint)
EXPERIMENT No: DATE:
Aim: preparation of butt joint as shown in figure using shielded metal arc welding process.
Material required: 2m.s flat pieces of given size.
Tools required:
1. welding transformer
2. connecting cables
3. electrode holder
4. ground clamp
5. electrodes
6. hipping hammer
7. Welding shield etc.
Procedure:
1. The given metallic pieces filled to the desired size.
2. On both pieces beveled in order to have V groove.
3. The metallic pieces are thoroughly cleaned from rust grease, oil, etc.
4. The metallic pieces are connected to terminals of Trans former.
5. Select electrode dia based on thickness of work piece and hold it on the electrode holder. Select suitable
range of current for selected dia.
6. Switch on the power supply and initiates the arc by either striking arc method or touch and drag method.
7. Take welding to be done before full welding.
8. In full welding process after completion one part before going to second part. Slag is removed from the
weld bed. With the metal wire brush or chipping hammer.
9. Then the above process will be repeated until to fill the groove with weld bed or weld metal.
V – butt joint
Precautions:
1. Use goggles, gloves in order to protect the human body.
2. Maintain the constant arc length.
3. Always turn of the machine when leaving the work.
4. Ensure proper insulation of the cables and check for openings.
5. Never look at the arc with the naked eye
6. Prevent welding cables from coming in contact with hot metal, water, oil or grease. Avoid
dragging the cables around sharp corners.
7. Apply air drops after welding is over for the day, to relieve the strain on the eyes.
Result: butt joint is prepared as shown in figure by using arc-welding process.
