CHAPTER 03

Subtitle
Oscillation:
Oscillation refers to any periodic back-and-forth motion or fluctuation about a central
position or equilibrium point.
Motion due to oscillation:
1) Periodic Motion
2) Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

 Periodic Motion:
Oscillations repeat after regular intervals of time (e.g., the swinging of a pendulum).

 Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM):

A special type of oscillation where the restoring force is proportional to displacement
(e.g., a mass-spring system).
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
Where F is the restoring force, k is the spring constant, and x is the displacement.
 Equation of Motion for simple Harmonic Motion:
The equation of motion for simple
harmonic motion (SHM) describes
the displacement of an oscillating
particle as a function of time. SHM
occurs when the restoring force is
proportional to the displacement and
acts in the opposite direction.
Using Hooke's law, the restoring
force F is proportional to
displacement:
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
And from newton second Law;
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
Compare both equation, to get
𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥
𝑑2𝑥
And 𝑎 = ; 𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2 𝑥 + 𝑥=0 1
𝑚 2 = −𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚
𝑑𝑡 By solving second order differential equation we get,
2
𝑑 𝑥 𝑘 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 2
=− 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚
Here, 𝜔 is angular frequency, t is time and 𝜙 is phase difference. This expression
describes the displacement of an oscillating particle as a function of time.
Velocity as a function of time:
Differentiating displacement expression with respect to time,
𝑑𝑥
𝑉= = −𝜔𝑥𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 3
𝑑𝑡
Acceleration as a function of time:
Differentiating velocity expression with respect to time,
𝑑 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑉
𝑎= 2= = −𝜔2 𝑥𝑚 co 𝑠 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 4
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Angular Frequency:
From equation (1);
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑘
+ 𝑥=0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚
Put function of x and a,
𝑘
−𝜔2 𝑥𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 + 𝑥𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙 = 0
𝑚
2
𝑘
−𝜔 + =0
𝑚
𝜔 = 𝑘/𝑚
Time Period:
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙
Taking phase difference of zero and maximum amplitude as one.
𝑥 = cos(𝜔𝑡)
To get maximum amplitude after every oscillation cosine function must be one so angle
must be 2𝜋 for every oscillation. So,
𝜔𝑡 = 2𝜋
Rearranging;
2𝜋 𝑚
𝑇= = 2𝜋
𝜔 𝑘
Frequency:
It is defined as number of oscillation in one second, and it is inverses of time period.
1
𝜗=
𝑇
1 𝜔
𝜗= =
2𝜋/𝜔 2𝜋
1 𝑘
𝜗=
2𝜋 𝑚
Wave:
It is a disturbance that travel and transferring energy from
one point to another. There are two type of wave.
1. Mechanical Wave
2. Electromagnetic Wave

 Mechanical Wave:
Wave that required medium, known as mechanical wave.
Type of mechanical wave
a) Transverse Wave (particle oscillate perpendicular)
b) Longitudinal Wave (particle oscillate parallel)

 Electromagnetic Wave:
Wave that doesn’t require medium to travel, known as EM
wave.
Superposition of Wave:
The overlapping and combination of two or more waves are known as the superposition
of waves.
𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + ⋯
Interference of Wave:
The interference of waves is a phenomenon that occurs when two or more waves
overlap or combine to form new wave pattern. There are two type of interference.
1) Constructive Interference:
▪ Occurs when the waves are in phase (their crests and troughs align).
▪ The amplitudes of the waves add up, resulting in a wave with greater amplitude.
Example: If 𝑥1 = 𝑥𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) and 𝑥2 = 𝑥𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 .
𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 2𝑥𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡
2) Destructive Interference:
▪ Occurs when the waves are out of phase by 𝜋 radians, so the crest of one wave aligns
with the trough of another.
▪ The amplitudes partially or completely cancel each other, resulting in a reduced or
zero amplitude.
Example: If 𝑥1 = 𝑥𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡) and 𝑥2 = −𝑥𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡 .
𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = 0
Condition of Interference:
1. Coherence (constant phase difference and the same frequency):
• Monochromacy:
The waves to have the same wavelength (single color or frequency), which ensures a
stable and well-defined interference pattern.
• Phase difference:
Phase difference in interference is the difference in the phase angles of two waves at a
given point. It determines whether the interference is constructive (in-phase) or
destructive (out-of-phase).
2. Path Difference:
Path difference in interference refers to the difference in the distances traveled by two
waves from their respective sources to a common point.
General Wave Equation:
𝜕2𝑦 1 𝜕2𝑦
=
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜗 2 𝜕𝑡 2
Expression for interference Condition:
Consider two wave 𝑦1 and 𝑦2 having phase constant 𝜙1 and 𝜙2 respectively, the
equation of the wave are;
𝑦1 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑦𝑚 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝑤𝑡 − 𝜙1 1
𝑦2 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑦𝑚 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝑤𝑡 − 𝜙2 (2)
2𝜋
Where, 𝑘 =
𝜆
Now, the resultant wave can be found by having the principle of super position, take the
sum of equation (1) and (2)
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑦1 𝑥, 𝑡 + 𝑦2 𝑥, 𝑡
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑦𝑚 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝑤𝑡 − 𝜙1 + sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝑤𝑡 − 𝜙2
𝐴+𝐵 𝐴−𝐵
∴ sin 𝐴 + sin 𝐵 = 2 sin cos
2 2
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡
𝑘𝑥 − 𝑤𝑡 − 𝜙1 + 𝑘𝑥 − 𝑤𝑡 − 𝜙2 𝑘𝑥 − 𝑤𝑡 − 𝜙1 − 𝑘𝑥 + 𝑤𝑡 + 𝜙2
= 𝑦𝑚 2 sin cos
2 2
 2𝑘𝑥 − 2𝑤𝑡 − 𝜙1 − 𝜙2 −𝜙1 + 𝜙2
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑦𝑚 2 sin cos
2 2
2𝑘𝑥 − 2𝑤𝑡 − {𝜙1 +𝜙2 } 𝜙2 − 𝜙1
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑦𝑚 2 sin cos −
2 2
𝜙1 +𝜙2
Where, 𝜙2 − 𝜙1 = Δ𝜙 and 𝜙𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2
2𝑘𝑥 − 2𝑤𝑡 − 2𝜙𝑎𝑣𝑔 Δ𝜙
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝑦𝑚 2 sin cos
2 2
Δ𝜙
𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 2𝑦𝑚 sin(𝑘𝑥 − 𝑤𝑡 − 𝜙𝑎𝑣𝑔 ) cos
2
So, the resultant wave having same frequency.
For Destructive:
Δ𝜙 Δ𝜙 𝜋 3𝜋 5𝜋 1
In case, if cos 2 = 0, where 2 = 2 , 2 , 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 + 2 𝜋, the resultant intensity will be zero.
For Constructive:
Δ𝜙 Δ𝜙
In case, if cos 2 = 1, where 2 = 0, 𝜋, 2𝜋, 3𝜋, 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝜋, the resultant intensity will be maximum.
 Numerical:
Q1: A 3.94 kg block extends a spring 15.7 cm from its unstreched position. The block is
removed and 0.52 𝑘𝑔 object is hang vertically from the same spring. Find the time
period of the oscillation.
Given:
M = 3.94 kg
X = 15.7 cm = 0.157 m
m = 0.52 kg
Required:
T=??
Solution:
𝑚
𝑇 = 2𝜋
𝑘
Q2: An oscillator consists of a block of mass 51.2 gm set into oscillation with amplitude
34.7 cm it is observed to repeat its motion after every point 0.48 seconds. Find a)
Frequency b) Angular frequency c) Force constant d) max force exerted on the block.
Given:
M = 51.2 gm = 0.512 kg
𝑥𝑚 = 34.7 cm = 0.347 m
T = 0.48 seconds
Required:
f=??, 𝜔 =?, k=?, 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 =?
Solution:
1
𝑓=
𝑇
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
𝑘
𝜔=
𝑚
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥