MATH1020 General Mathematics

Chapter 4: Trigonometry

4.1 Radian

Besides degree, radian is another commonly used unit for measuring angles. It is important
in calculus and many other areas of mathematics.

Consider a unit circle (circle with radius 1) and a sector with central angle θ. If the arclength
of the sector is x, the angle θ is defined to be x rad, where rad stands for radian.

Since the circumference of a unit circle is 2π,

360◦ = full circle = 2π rad;

180◦ = half circle = π rad;
π
90◦ = right angle = rad.
2
Generally, the conversion between degree and radian units is given by

π
×
180
Degree −
↽−
−−⇀
−− Radian
× 180
π

πx 180y ◦
x◦ = rad y rad =
180 π

4-1
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-2

Very often, if the unit of an angle is omitted, it is assumed to be radian. For example, we
π
write θ = without any unit for a right angle θ.
2
Using radian, the formulas for the arclength and area of a sector are simple. For a sector
with central angle θ and radius r,

Arclength s =rθ
θ 1
Area A =πr2 × = r2 θ
2π 2

4.2 Definitions of Trigonometric Functions

First Definition

π
Let 0 < θ < . Consider the following right-angled triangle.
2

Here hyp., opp. and adj. stands for the hypotenuse, opposite side and adjacent side of the
angle θ respectively. The sine, cosine and tangent functions can be defined by

opp. adj. opp.

sin θ = cos θ = tan θ =
hyp. hyp. adj.
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-3

π π π
From the two triangles below, we obtain the values of sine, cosine and tangent at , , .
6 4 3

θ in degree 30◦ 45◦ 60◦

π π π
θ in radian
6 4 3

√
1 1 3
sin θ √
2 2 2

√
3 1 1
cos θ √
2 2 2

1 √
tan θ √ 1 3
3
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-4

Extension of the Domains of Trigonometric Functions

The domains of sine and cosine can be extended to all real numbers.

Definition 1. Consider the unit circle centered at the origin O. Let A be the point
on it such that the angle from the positive x-axis to OA, measured anti-clockwisely,
is equal to θ.

Define
A = (cos θ, sin θ).

Example 1. Consider the following angles:

√
4π 1 4π 3
cos =− and sin =−
3 2 3 2
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-5

 π 1  π 1
cos − =√ and sin − = −√
4 2 4 2

5π 5π
cos =0 and sin =1
2 2

Four other trigonometric functions are defined as ratios with sine and cosine.

Definition 2. For a real number θ, define

sin θ cos θ 1 1
tan θ = cot θ = sec θ = csc θ =
cos θ sin θ cos θ sin θ

1. For domains, note that

sin θ = 0 if θ = 0, ±π, ±2π, ...

π 3π 5π
cos θ = 0 if θ = ± , ± , ± , ...
2 2 2
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-6

Therefore,

Dcot θ = Dcsc θ = R \ {kπ : k ∈ Z}

Dtan θ = Dsec θ = R \ {(k + 21 )π : k ∈ Z}

1 kπ
2. cot θ = when θ ̸= ,k ∈ Z
tan θ 2

CAST Diagram

The “CAST” diagram, as shown below, can be used for remembering the signs of sine, cosine
and tangent functions in each quadrant.

S A

T C

Here “A” means all the three functions are positive in the quadrant I. “S”, “T” and “C” means
only sine, tangent and cosine function is positive in quadrant II,III and IV respectively.
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-7

4.3 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

The figure on the right below shows the graphs of cos x and sin x for x ≥ 0. Note that they
are equal to the x and y coordinates of the point (cos x, sin x) on the unit circle.

We can graph functions of the form a cos(bx + c) + d or a sin(bx + c) + d by transformation.

Example 2. Graph y = 3 cos(2x + 1) + 4.

Solution. The graph y = 3 cos(2x + 1) + 4 can be obtained by the following series of trans-
formations from y = cos x:
move to left by 1 unit
cos x −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ cos(x + 1)
constrict horizontally by half
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ cos(2x + 1)
enlarge vertically 3 times
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ 3 cos(2x + 1)
move up by 4 units
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ 3 cos(2x + 1) + 4
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-8

More generally, let a, b, c, d be real numbers with a, b > 0. The figure below is the graph
h  c i
y = a cos(bx + c) + d = a cos b x + +d
b

Some features from the graph:

2π
Center line: y = d Period:
b
c
Amplitude: a Phase shift: −
b

Graphs of the form y = a sin(bx + c) + d can be obtained similarly from that of y = sin x.
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-9

Below are the graphs of the six basic trigonometric functions.

y = sin x y = cos x

Domain: (−∞, ∞) Domain: (−∞, ∞)

Range: [−1, 1] Range: [−1, 1]
Period: 2π Period: 2π

y = tan x y = cot x
π
Domain: {x ∈ R : x ̸= 2 + nπ, n ∈ Z} Domain: {x ∈ R : x ̸= nπ, n ∈ Z}
Range: (−∞, ∞) Range: (−∞, ∞)
Period: π Period: π

y = sec x y = csc x

Domain: {x ∈ R : x ̸= π2 + nπ, n ∈ Z} Domain: {x ∈ R : x ̸= nπ, n ∈ Z}

Range: (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞) Range: (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞)
Period: 2π Period: 2π
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-10

4.4 Trigonometric Identities

In this section, we introduce some standard trigonometric identities.

Pythagorean Identities
sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ
1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ

Proof. By definition, (cos θ, sin θ) is on the unit circle. Hence sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1.

For the second one,

2 2
sin2 θ + cos2 θ
 
sin θ 1
L.H.S. = tan2 θ + 1 = +1= = = sec2 θ = R.H.S.
cos θ cos2 θ cos θ

The third one is proved similarly.

1
Example 3. Let θ be in quadrant II and sin θ = . Find cos θ and cot θ.
3

Solution.  2
2 2 1 8
sin θ + cos θ = 1 =⇒ + cos2 θ = 1 =⇒ cos2 θ = .
3 9
Since θ is in quadrant II, cos θ < 0 from the CAST diagram. Therefore
√ √ √
8 2 2 cos θ −232 √
cos θ = − =− cot θ = = 1 = −2 2.
3 3 sin θ 3

■
sec θ − 1 tan θ
Example 4. Show that =
tan θ sec θ + 1
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-11

Solution.
sec θ − 1 sec θ + 1 sec2 θ − 1 tan2 θ tan θ
L.H.S. = · = = = = R.H.S.
tan θ sec θ + 1 tan θ(sec θ + 1) tan θ(sec θ + 1) sec θ + 1

Recall that a function f (x) is said to be even if f (−x) = f (x) and odd if f (−x) = −f (x) for
all x in its domain.

Even/Odd Formulae
sin(−θ) = − sin θ cos(−θ) = cos θ tan(−θ) = − tan θ
csc(−θ) = − csc θ sec(−θ) = sec θ cot(−θ) = − cot θ

Cofunction Formulae
π  π  π 
sin − θ = cos θ cos − θ = sin θ tan − θ = cot θ
2 2 2
π  π  π 
csc − θ = sec θ sec − θ = csc θ cot − θ = tan θ
2 2 2

Periodicity
If n is an integer,

sin(θ + 2nπ) = sin θ cos(θ + 2nπ) = cos θ tan(θ + nπ) = tan θ

csc(θ + 2nπ) = csc θ sec(θ + 2nπ) = sec θ cot(θ + nπ) = cot θ
sin(θ + π) = − sin θ cos(θ + π) = − cos θ

These formulae can be obtained by relating the x and y coordinates of points on the unit
circle with different central angles. For example, let a = cos θ and b = sin θ. Then
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-12

From the figure,

(cos(−θ), sin(−θ)) = (a, −b) = (cos θ, − sin θ)

 π  π 
cos − θ , sin −θ = (b, a) = (sin θ, cos θ)
2 2

(cos(θ + π), sin(θ + π)) = (−a, −b) = (− cos θ, − sin θ)

sin(θ + π) − sin θ
tan(θ + π) = = = tan θ
cos(θ + π) − cos θ

Sum and Difference of Formulas

sin(α ± β) = sin α cos β ± cos α sin β

cos(α ± β) = cos α cos β ∓ sin α sin β
tan α ± tan β
tan(α ± β) =
1 ∓ tan α tan β

Proof. We first prove cos(α − β) = cos α cos β + sin α sin β. Consider the points A =
(cos α, sin α) and B = (cos β, sin β) on the unit circle.

By dot product formula,

−→ −−→ −→ −−→
OA · OB = ∥OA∥ · ∥OB∥ cos(α − β)
(cos α, sin α) · (cos β, sin β) = (1)(1) cos(α − β)
cos α cos β + sin α sin β = cos(α − β)
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-13

The other 5 formulae can be deduced as follows.

cos(α + β) = cos(α − (−β))

= cos α cos(−β) + sin α sin(−β)
= cos α cos β − sin α sin β

π 
sin(α + β) = cos −α−β
π2  π 
= cos − α cos β + sin − α sin β
2 2
= sin α cos β + cos α sin β

sin(α − β) = sin(α + (−β))

= sin α cos(−β) + cos α sin(−β)
= sin α cos β − cos α sin β

sin(α + β)
tan(α + β) =
cos(α + β)
sin α cos β + cos α sin β
=
cos α cos β − sin α sin β
sin α sin β
cos α + cos β
= sin α sin β
1 − cos α · cos β
tan α + tan β
=
1 − tan α tan β

tan(α − β) = tan(α + (−β))

tan α + tan(−β)
=
1 − tan α tan(−β)
tan α − tan β
=
1 + tan α tan β

By taking α = β = θ in the sum and difference formulae above, we obtain the following
important double angle formulas.
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-14

Double Angle Formulas

sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ

cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ
= 2 cos2 θ − 1
= 1 − 2 sin2 θ
2 tan θ
tan 2θ =
1 − tan2 θ

θ
By changing subject in the double angle formulas of cos 2θ and replacing θ by , we obtain
2
these half angle formulas.

Half Angle Formulas

r
2 1 θ 1 − cos θ
sin θ = (1 − cos 2θ) or sin = ±
2 2 r 2
2 1 θ 1 + cos θ
cos θ = (1 + cos 2θ) or cos = ±
2 2 2

Next, we convert between product and sum/difference of sine and cosine.

Product to Sum Formulas

1
sin α sin β = [cos(α − β) − cos(α + β)]
2
1
cos α cos β = [cos(α − β) + cos(α + β)]
2
1
sin α cos β = [sin(α + β) + sin(α − β)]
2
1
cos α sin β = [sin(α + β) − sin(α − β)]
2

Proof. For product to sum formulas, it is easy to prove from the right hand side. For exam-
ple,
1 1
[sin(α + β) + sin(α − β)] = (sin α cos β + cos α sin β + sin α cos β − cos α sin β)
2 2
= sin α cos β
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-15

Sum to Product Formulas

   
α+β α−β
sin α + sin β = 2 sin cos
2 2
   
α+β α−β
sin α − sin β = 2 cos sin
2 2
   
α+β α−β
cos α + cos β = 2 cos cos
2 2
   
α+β α−β
cos α − cos β = −2 sin sin
2 2

Proof. The sum to product formulas can be proved using the product sum formulas. For
example,
         
α+β α−β 1 α+β α−β α+β α−β
2 cos cos =2 cos + + cos −
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
= cos α + cos β

Example 5. Find the exact value of the followings:

π π 7π
(a) tan 75◦ ; (b) cos (c) sin sin .
12 24 24

Solution. 1.
tan 75◦ = tan(30◦ + 45◦ )
tan 30◦ + tan 45◦
=
1 − tan 30◦ tan 45◦
√1 + 1
3
=
1 − ( √13 )(1)
√
1+ 3
=√
3−1
2.
π π π 
cos = cos −
12 3 4
π π π π
= cos cos + sin sin
3 4√ 3 4
1 1 3 1
= ·√ + ·√
2 2 2 2
√
1+ 3
= √
2 2
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-16

3.
    
π 7π 1 π 7π π 7π
sin sin = cos − − cos +
24 24 2 24 24 24 24
1 h  π  π i
= cos − − cos
2 4 3
1h π πi
= cos − cos
2 4  3
1 1 1
= √ −
2 2 2
√
2−1
=
4

Example 6. Prove that sin 3θ = 3 sin θ − 4 sin3 θ

Solution.

L.H.S. = sin 3θ
= sin(θ + 2θ)
= sin θ cos 2θ + cos θ sin 2θ
= sin θ(1 − 2 sin2 θ) + cos θ(2 sin θ cos θ)
= sin θ − 2 sin3 θ + 2 sin θ(1 − sin2 θ)
= 3 sin θ − 4 sin3 θ
= R.H.S.

■
1 − tan2 θ
Example 7. Prove that cos 2θ =
1 + tan2 θ

Solution.
1 − tan2 θ
R.H.S. =
1 + tan2 θ
sin2 θ
1 − cos2θ
=
sin2 θ
1+ cos2 θ
cos2 θ − sin2 θ
=
cos2 θ + sin2 θ
= cos 2θ
= L.H.S.

■
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-17

f (x + h) − f (x)
Example 8. Let f (x) = cos x. Simplify the difference quotient .
h

Solution.
f (x + h) − f (x) cos(x + h) − cos x
=
h h
x+h+x
−2 sin( 2 ) sin( x+h−x 2 )
=
h
−2 sin(x + h2 ) sin h2
=
h
■

Remarks: By taking limit h → 0, we obtain that

−2 sin(x + h2 ) sin h2 sin h

 
d h
cos x = lim = lim − sin x + · h 2 = − sin x.
dx h→0 h h→0 2 2

4.5 Inverse Functions

We would like to define inverse functions for trigonometric functions, for example, the
inverse sine function sin−1 x. To do so, we consider the graph of sin x.

 
1
−1 π 5π 13π 7π
A problem arises here: What should be sin ? ? ? or − ? Which one
2 6 6 6 6
should be the correct value? While finding the inverse of sin x, we observe that sin x is not
one-to-one. To get around this, we should restrict the function sin x to a smaller domain.

One-to-one Function

Definition 3. A function f (x) is called one-to-one if f (x1 ) ̸= f (x2 ) for x1 ̸= x2 .

Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-18

Example 9. Let f (x) = x2 . Note that f (2) = 4 = f (−2). In other words, f sends both 2
and −2 to 4.

Therefore, f is not one-to-one.

The definition of one-to-one functions above can be rephrased as follows:

f (x) is one-to-one if f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) =⇒ x1 = x2 .

Example 10. Let g(x) = 2x + 3. If g(x1 ) = g(x2 ), then

2x1 + 3 = 2x2 + 3
=⇒ 2x1 = 2x2
=⇒ x1 = x2
Therefore, g is one-to-one.

Horizontal Line Test

It is also possible to determine whether a function is one-to-one from its graph.

Horizontal Line Test If every horizontal line has at most one intersection with
the graph of f (x), then f is one-to-one.

The graph y = x2 has two intersections with the horizontal line y = 4. It fails the horizontal
line test and so x2 is not one-to-one.
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-19

The graph y = 2x + 3 has one intersection with every horizontal line. Hence, it passes the
horizontal line test and so 2x + 3 is one-to-one.

An important property for one-to-one functions is the existence of inverses.

If f is one-to-one, then its inverse f −1 can be defined.

For example, if a function f is defined as below,

then f is one-to-one, f −1 can be defined by f −1 (p) = a, f −1 (r) = b and f −1 (s) = c. Note

that f −1 (q) is not defined because q is not in the range of f . In general,

For an one-to-one function f ,

Df −1 = Rf and Rf −1 = Df
(f −1 ◦ f )(x) = x for x ∈ Df
(f ◦ f −1 )(x) = x for x ∈ Df −1

x
Example 11. Let f (x) = .
2
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-20

Its graph passes the horizontal line test. It implies that f is one-to-one and so f −1 can be
defined. Note that f divides a number by 2. Its inverse f −1 does the reverse process of
multiplying a number by 2 and so f −1 (x) = 2x.

f (× 21 ) x
x−
↽−
−−−−
−−
−−−−
−−−−
−⇀
−
f −1 (×2) 2

Also, note that Df −1 = Rf = (−∞, ∞) and Rf −1 = Df = (−∞, ∞).

Example 12. Since (−1)4 = 14 , the function x4 is not one-to-one on R. To define its inverse,
we restrict it to a smaller domain so that it becomes one-to-one. Consider g : [0, ∞) −→ R
defined by g(x) = x4 .

The graph of g passes the horizontal line test. Hence, g is one-to-one and has an inverse. Its
√
inverse is g −1 (x) = 4 x with domain Dg−1 = Rg = [0, ∞) and range Rg−1 = Dg = [0, ∞).
Below are the graphs of g(x) and g −1 (x).
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-21

Note that the graph of g and g −1 are reflections of each other across the line y = x. In
general,

Let f (x) be a one-to-one function. The graphs of f (x) and f −1 (x) are reflections of
each other across the line y = x.

It is true because for a point (a, b) on the xy-plane,

(a, b) is on the graph y = f (x) ⇔ b = f (a)

⇔ a = f −1 (b)
⇔ (b, a) is on the graph y = f −1 (x).

Note that (a, b) and (b, a) are reflections of each other across the line y = x.

Finding the Inverse of a One-to-one Function

Here are a few steps to find the inverse of a function:

1. Let y = f (x).

2. Express x in terms of y.

3. If x = g(y), then f −1 (x) = g(x).

3x + 1
Example 13. Let f (x) = . Find f −1 (x), its domain and range.
x+2
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-22

3x + 1
Solution. First, let y = f (x) = , then
x+2
y(x + 2) = 3x + 1
xy − 3x = 1 − 2y
1 − 2y
x= = g(y)
y−3
1 − 2x
Therefore, f −1 (x) = g(x) = . Its domain and range are
x−3
Df −1 = R \ {3} and Rf −1 = Df = R \ {−2}.

Remark. 1. We can deduce from f −1 (x) that the range of f (x) is Rf = Df −1 = R \ {3}.

2. We can check our formula of f −1 (x) by computing the composition:

 
−1 −1 3x + 1
f (f (x)) = f
x+2
 
1 − 2 3x+1
x+2
= 3x+1
x+2 − 3
x + 2 − 2(3x + 1)
=
3x + 1 − 3(x + 2)
−5x
=
−5
= x.

Hence, our computation is correct.

4.6 Inverses of Trigonometric Functions

Back to the previous example about defining sin−1 .

The problem is that sin x is not one-to-one on R, so to find its inverse, we need to restrict
the function to a smaller domain.
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-23

h π πi
As seen from the figure above, if we restrict the domain of sin x to − , , then the
2 2
restricted function h π πi
sin : − , −→ R
2 2
is one-to-one. Also, its range is [−1, 1], same as the original
h function sin : R −→ R.
π πi
We define arcsine to be the inverse of the function sin on − , .
2 2

h π πi
arcsin : [−1, 1] −→ − ,
2 2

h π πi
In other words, if x ∈ [−1, 1], then arcsin x is equal to the unique y ∈ − , such that
2 2
sin y = x. For example,
π 1 π h π πi 1 π
sin = √ and ∈ − , =⇒ arcsin √ = .
4 2 4 2 2 2 4
 π  
1 π h π πi 1 π
sin − = − and − ∈ − , =⇒ arcsin − =− .
6 2 6 2 2 2 6
As an
h inverse function, the graph y = arcsin x is obtained by reflecting the graph y = sin x
π πi
on − , across the line y = x.
2 2
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-24

Next, we consider the cosine function.

Similar to sine, the cosine function is not one-to-one on R, but if we restrict the domain to
[0, π], then the restricted function

cos : [0, π] −→ R

is one-to-one with range [−1, 1]. We define arccosine to be the inverse of this restriction.

arccos : [−1, 1] −→ [0, π]

For example,
√ √ !
5π 3 5π 3 5π
cos =− and ∈ [0, π] =⇒ arccos − = .
6 2 6 2 6

The graph y = arccos x is obtained by reflecting the graph y = cos x on [0, π] across the line
y = x.
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-25

Finally, we consider the tangent function.

 π π
If we restrict the domain to − , , then
2 2
 π π
tan : − , −→ R
2 2
is one-to-one with range R. We define arctangent to be its inverse.

 π π
arctan : (−∞, ∞) −→ − ,
2 2

 π π
The graph y = arctan x is obtained by reflecting the graph y = tan x on − , across
2 2
the line y = x.
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-26

Summary

The domains and ranges of the three inverse trigonometric functions discussed are summa-
rized below.

h π πi
arcsin : [−1, 1] −→ − ,
2 2
arccos : [−1, 1] −→ [0, π]
 π π
arctan : (−∞, ∞) −→ − ,
2 2

For each of these functions, the range is specifically chosen such that the sine, cosine or
tangent function is one-to-one. This range is called the principal values of the inverse
trigonometric function.
Remark. We denote the three inverse trigonometric functions above as arcsin, arccos and
arctan. It is also common to use the following standard notation of inverse functions for
them.
arcsin = sin−1 arccos = cos−1 arctan = tan−1

We will do some examples. Recall that x = cos θ and y = sin θ are the coordinates of the
point representing θ on the unit circle.

 
1
Example 14. Find the value of θ = arcsin √ .
2

 
1 h π πi
Solution. θ = arcsin √and the range of arcsin is − , . Therefore,
2 2 2
1 h π πi
sin θ = √ and θ ∈ − ,
2 2 2
π π
The unique θ satisfying these is . Hence, θ = . ■
4 4
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-27

1
Remark. It is also possible to find θ above graphically. If sin θ = √ , then the point repre-
2
1
senting θ on the unit circle has y-coordinate √ .
2

1 h π πi
The line y = √ has two intersections with the unit circle. Since θ ∈ − , , it can be
2 2 2
π
concluded that θ = .
4
 
1
Example 15. Find the value of θ = arccos − .
2
1 1
Solution. Since cos θ = − , the point representing θ on the unit circle has x-coordinate − .
2 2
Also, θ ∈ Rarccos = [0, π].

π 2π
From the figure above, θ = π − = . ■
3 3
√
Example 16. Find the value of θ = arcsin 2.
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-28

√ √
Solution. Since 2 ∈ / [−1, 1] = Darcsin , arcsin 2 is undefined.
√ Graphically, it is because the
unit circle and the line y = 2 have no intersection. sin θ ̸= 2 for any θ.

■
  
2
Example 17. Find the value of sin 2 arccos − .
3
 
2
Solution. Let θ = arccos − . Then
3
  
2
sin 2 arccos − = sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ.
3
 2
2 2 2 2 5
Clearly, cos θ = − . Also, sin θ = 1 − cos θ = 1 − − = . Since θ ∈ Rarccos = [0, π],
3 3 9
sin θ ≥ 0 as seen from the CAST diagram.

S A

T C

√
5
Hence, sin θ = and
3
   √ !  √
2 5 2 4 5
sin 2 arccos − = 2 sin θ cos θ = 2 − =− .
3 3 3 9

■
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-29

4.7 Trigonometric Equations

In this section, we solve equations involving trigonometric functions.

1
Example 18. Solve cos θ = − for
2
1. 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π;

2. θ ∈ R.

1
Solution. The unit circle centered at origin intersects the line x = − at two points, repre-
2
2π 4π
senting and .
3 3

1 2π 4π
Hence, for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π, the solution of cos θ = − is θ = or .
2 3 3
1
Since cos θ has period 2π, the general solutions of cos θ = − for θ ∈ R are
2
2π 4π
θ= + 2kπ or + 2kπ, where k ∈ Z.
3 3
■

Remark. 1. Simply applying arccos to the given equation gives only one of the solutions
 
1 2π
θ = arccos − = .
2 3

1
2. Below are the graphs y = cos x and y = − . The x-coordinates of the intersections
2
1
are the solutions of cos θ = − .
2
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-30

2
Example 19. Solve sin θ = for
3
1. 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π;

2. θ ∈ R.

2 2
Solution. From the figure, for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π, the solutions are θ = arcsin or π − arcsin .
3 3
2
Since sin θ has period 2π, the general solution of sin θ = for θ ∈ R are
3
2 2
θ = 2kπ + arcsin or (2k + 1)π − arcsin , where k ∈ Z.
3 3
■

In general, for −1 ≤ c ≤ 1 and θ ∈ R, we have the following general solutions.

For cos θ = c, the general solutions are

θ = 2kπ ± arccos c, where k ∈ Z.

Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-31

For sin θ = c, the general solutions are

θ = 2kπ + arcsin c or (2k + 1)π − arcsin c, where k ∈ Z.

Example 20. Solve the following equations.

1. sin 2x = cos x for x ∈ R.

Solution.

2 sin x cos x = cos x

cos x(2 sin x − 1) = 0
1
cos x = 0 or sin x =
2
π π 5π
x = 2kπ ± or 2kπ + or 2kπ +
2 6 6
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-32

2. cos2 2θ + 4 sin 2θ = 4 for 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.

Solution.

(1 − sin2 2θ) + 4 sin 2θ = 4

− sin2 2θ + 4 sin 2θ − 3 = 0
sin2 2θ − 4 sin 2θ + 3 = 0
(sin 2θ − 1)(sin 2θ − 3) = 0
sin 2θ = 1 or 3 (no solution)

If 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π, then 0 ≤ 2θ ≤ 4π.

Therefore,
π 5π
2θ = or
2 2
π 5π
θ= or
4 4
■
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-33

3. tan x + tan 2x = 0 for x ∈ R.

Solution.
2 tan x
tan x + =0
1 − tan2 x
tan x(1 − tan2 x) + 2 tan x = 0
tan x(3 − tan2 x) = 0
tan x = 0 or tan2 x = 3
√
tan x = 0 or ± 3
 π π
Since tan x has a period of π, we consider the interval − , of length π. The
√ 2 2
π
solutions of tan x = 0 or ± 3 over this interval are x = 0 or ± . Therefore, the
3
general solution is
π
x = kπ or kπ ± , where k ∈ Z.
3

Remark. In general, if c ∈ R, then

For tan θ = c, the general solutions are

θ = kπ + arctan c, where k ∈ Z.
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-34

π
4. sin x sin 2x = cos 3x cos 4x for 0 ≤ x ≤ .
2

Solution. By product-to-sum and sum-to-product formulas,

1 1
[cos(x − 2x) − cos(x + 2x)] = [cos(3x − 4x) + cos(3x + 4x)]
2 2
− cos 3x = cos 7x
cos 7x + cos 3x = 0
7x + 3x 7x − 3x
2 cos cos =0
2 2
cos 5x cos 2x = 0
cos 5x = 0 or cos 2x = 0

5π
Since 0 ≤ 5x ≤ and 0 ≤ 2x ≤ π,
2
π 3π 5π π
5x = , , or 2x =
2 2 2 2
π 3π π π
x= , , or x=
10 10 2 4
π π 3π π
Therefore, the solutions are x = , , or .
10 4 10 2

■
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-35

4.8 More Exercises about Trigonometry

√
Example 21. Let f (x) = sin x + 3 cos x.

1. Express f (x) in the form A sin(x + c) with A ≥ 0;

2. Find the maximum/minimum value(s) of f (x) and the corresponding x;
3. Solve the equation f (x) = 1.

Solution. 1. Note that

A sin(x + c) = A(sin x cos c + cos x sin c)
= A cos c sin x + A sin c cos x
√
f (x) = 1 sin x + 3 cos x
By comparing coefficients, we want to find A and c such that
(
A cos c = 1
√ (*)
A sin c = 3
√
(A cos c)2 + (A sin c)2 = 12 + ( 3)2 .
A2 = 4
A=2
Put A = 2 back to the equations (∗), we have
√
1 3
cos c = and sin c =
2 2
π  π
We can take c = . Therefore, f (x) = 2 sin x + .
3 3
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-36

 π
2. It can be deduced from f (x) = 2 sin x + that the maximum value of f (x) is 2,
3
and it occurs when
 π
sin x + =1
3
π π
x + = 2kπ + , where k ∈ Z
3 2
π
x = 2kπ +
6
Similarly, the minimum value of f (x) is −2 when
 π
sin x + = −1
3
π π
x + = 2kπ − , where k ∈ Z
3 2
5π
x = 2kπ −
6
3.
f (x) = 1
 π
2 sin x + =1
3
 π 1
sin x + =
3 2
π π 5π
x + = 2kπ + or 2kπ +
3 6 6
π π
x = 2kπ − or 2kπ + , where k ∈ Z
6 2

Example 22. Similarly, the functions g(x) = cos x − sin x and h(x) = 3 cos x + 4 sin x can
be expressed in the form A cos(x + c), with A > 0, below.
√
 
 π 4
g(x) = 2 cos x + and h(x) = 5 cos x − arctan
4 3
The details are left as exercises.

4.9 t-substitution

x
Let t = tan . Then
2

2t 1 − t2 2t
sin x = cos x = tan x =
1 + t2 1 + t2 1 − t2
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-37

The proofs of these formulas are straightforward. For example, by the double angle formula
x
x 2 tan
2 = 2t

tan x = tan 2 · = x
2 1 − tan2 1 − t2
2
The following figure may help you to remember the formulas.

These formulas can be used to convert rational functions in sin x and cos x to rational func-
tions in t. It is useful for integration in calculus.
sin x + cos x
Example 23. Express as a rational function of t.
1 + sin x

Solution.
2t 1 − t2
sin x + cos x 2
+
= 1+t 1 + t2
1 + sin x 2t
1+
1 + t2
2t + 1 − t2
=
1 + t2 + 2t
−t2 + 2t + 1
=
(1 + t)2
■

4.10 Trigonometric Substitution for Integration

π
Example 24. Assume 0 ≤ θ ≤ . Express the following in terms of θ with the given
2
substitution and simplify.

√
1. x 25 − x2 , where x = 5 sin θ
Chapter 4: Trigonometry 4-38

Solution.
p p
x 25 − x2 = 5 sin θ 25 − (5 sin θ)2
q
= 5 sin θ 25(1 − sin2 θ)
√
= 5 sin θ · 25 cos2 θ
π
= 5 sin θ · 5 cos θ (Since 0 ≤ θ ≤ , cos θ ≥ 0)
2
25
= 25 sin θ cos θ or sin 2θ
2
■

x tan θ
2. √ , where x + 1 = .
4x2 + 8x + 5 2

Solution.
x x
√ =p
4x2 + 8x + 5 4(x2 + 2x + 1) + 1
x
=p
4(x + 1)2 + 1
tan θ
−1
=√ 2
tan2 θ + 1
tan θ − 2
= √
2 sec2 θ
tan θ − 2 π
= (Since 0 ≤ θ ≤ , sec θ ≥ 0)
2 sec θ 2
1
= cos θ(tan θ − 2)
2
1
= sin θ − cos θ
2
■