MATH1020 General Mathematics

Chapter 1: Vectors

1.1 What is a Vector?

Vectors were first introduced in geometry and physics. They are used to represent quantities
with both magnitude and direction, for example, displacement and force. The concept of
vector has been generalized and widely used in mathematics, computer science and other
areas of engineering.

A vector can be represented geometrically by a directed line segment, or arrow diagram,

that shows both the magnitude and direction. Consider the directed line segment with
initial point A (also known as the tail) and end point B (also known as the terminal point
−−→
or head) shown. This vector is denoted by AB.

The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the quantity, and the arrowhead shows
its direction. We can also use arrow or bold letter to denote a vector, for example, ~a, or a.
−−→
The magnitude or length of these vectors could be represented by |AB|, |~a|, or |a|.

Algebraically, a vector ~v = (2, −1) in R2 = R × R (2D) means a vector that goes to the right
by 2 units and goes up by -1 unit, i.e., down by 1 unit.

We can talk about vector in other dimensions too. For example,

1-1
Chapter 1: Vectors 1-2

1.2 Basic Vector Operations

The following operations can be defined for a scalar k and 2D vectors ~a = (a1 , a2 ) and
~b = (b1 , b2 ). These operations can be similarly defined for vectors of other dimensions.

Vector Addition ~a + ~b = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 )

Vector Subtraction ~a − ~b = (a1 − b1 , a2 − b2 )
Scalar Multiplication k~a = (ka1 , ka2 )

Remark. These operations can be defined similarly in other dimensions.

Example 1. Find each of the following for ~v = (1, 1), w

~ = (−1, 2).

1. Addition
~v + w
~ = (1, 1) + (−1, 2)
= (1 + (−1), 1 + 2)
= (0, 3)

2. Subtraction
~v − w
~ = (1, 1) − (−1, 2)
= (1 − (−1), 1 − 2)
= (2, −1)

3. Scalar multiplication

2~v = 2(1, 1) = (2(1), 2(1)) = (2, 2)

1 1 1 1
− ~v = − (1, 1) = (− , − )
2 2 2 2

These operations can be represented graphically:

Chapter 1: Vectors 1-3

In particular, if A, B, C are points, then

−−→ −−→ −→
• AB + BC = AC
−−→ −−→
• BA = −AB

Similar to numbers, there is also a zero vector in each dimension.

(
(0, 0) in R2 ;
zero vector = ~0 =
(0, 0, 0) in R3 .

These operations on vectors have many properties similar to those on numbers.

Proposition 1. Let ~u, ~v , w

~ be vectors, α, β ∈ R.

1. 0~v = ~0

2. 1~v = ~v

3. (~u + ~v ) + w
~ = ~u + (~v + w)
~ (Associative rule)

4. ~v + w
~ =w
~ + ~v (Commutative rule)

5. ~v + ~0 = ~v

6. (α + β)~v = α~v + β~v (Distributive rule)

7. α(~v + w)
~ = α~v + αw
~ (Distributive rule)

8. (αβ)~v = α(β~v )

A position vector is a vector with initial point at the origin. Such a vector is uniquely
Chapter 1: Vectors 1-4

described by the coordinates of its terminal point. If P (x, y) is the terminal point, then the
−−→
position vector OP = (x, y).

More generally, consider the vector with initial point A(x1 , y1 ) and terminal point B(x2 , y2 ).
To move from the initial point to the terminal point, the vector goes to the right by x2 − x1
and up by y2 − y1 . Hence,

−−→
AB = (x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 ).

Remark. It is not uncommon for people to use the notations hx, y, zi for vectors and (x, y, z)
for points. We will not follow this and write (x, y, z) for both vectors and points.

Example 2. A = (1, 0), B = (3, 3), C = (2, 4), D = (0, 1). Show that ABCD is a parallelo-
gram.

Solution.
−−→
AB = (3, 3) − (1, 0) = (2, 3)
−−→ −−→
DC = (2, 4) − (0, 1) = (2, 3) = AB

Hence, ABCD is a parallelogram. 

−−→ −−→
Remark. AB and DC are considered equal as they have the same magnitude and direction
even though with different initial points.
Chapter 1: Vectors 1-5

1.3 Length and Dot Product

We can define the followings for vectors in 2D:

For vectors ~a = (a1 , a2 ), ~b = (b1 , b2 ) in R2 ,

p
Length ||~a|| = a21 + a22
Dot Product ~a · ~b = a1 b1 + a2 b2

We will show that dot product can be used to compute angles and projection. These con-
cepts can be generalized to other dimensions. For example, in R3 , we have

For vectors ~a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ), ~b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ) in R3 ,

p
Length ||~a|| = a21 + a22 + a23
Dot Product ~a · ~b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3

√
In R, ||~a|| = a2 = |a| is the absolute value!

We will first focus on length.

Proposition 2. (Properties of ||~v ||)

1. ||~v || ≥ 0

2. ||~v || = 0 ⇔ ~v = ~0
√
3. ||~v || = ~v · ~v

4. ||α~v || = |α|||~v ||, α is a scalar.

5. ||~v + w||
~ ≤ ||~v || + ||w||
~ (Triangle Inequality!)
Chapter 1: Vectors 1-6

A unit vector is a vector with length 1. It is common to denote a unit vector by the hat
notation v̂, instead of an arrow, to emphasize its unit length.

Example 3. Let ~v = (1, 2, −2).

1. Find ||~v ||.

2. Find the unit vector û in the opposite direction of ~v .

Solution.

1. p
||~v || = 12 + 22 + (−2)2 = 3

2. Unit vector in the same direction of ~v :

 
~v 1 1 2 2
= ~v = , ,−
||~v || 3 3 3 3

Unit vector in the opposite direction of ~v :

 
~v 1 1 2 2
û = − = − ~v = − ,− ,
||~v || 3 3 3 3

In R2 , the unit vector in the direction of the positive x-axis and positive y-axis is denoted
by î = (1, 0) and ĵ = (0, 1), respectively. They are called standard unit vectors.
Chapter 1: Vectors 1-7

Similarly, in R3 , the standard unit vectors are î = (1, 0, 0), ĵ = (0, 1, 0) and k̂ = (0, 0, 1).

Remark. Standard unit vectors form a “building unit” of other vectors. For example:

(1, −2, 3) = (1, 0, 0) − (0, 2, 0) + (0, 0, 3) = î − 2ĵ + 3k̂

Next, we will focus on dot product.

Proposition 3. Let ~u, ~v , w

~ be vectors, α, β ∈ R.
1. ~u · ~v = ~v · ~u

2. (α~u + β~v ) · w
~ = α~u · w
~ + β~v · w
~

3. ~0 · ~v = 0

4. ~v · ~v = ||~v ||2

5. ~v · w
~ = ||~v ||||w||
~ cos θ. where θ is the angle between ~v and w.
~
Chapter 1: Vectors 1-8

Proof. We will prove property 5. The proof is essentially the proof of cosine law.

Consider the following triangle.

Note
~ 2 = (||~v || sin θ)2 + (||w||
||~v − w|| ~ − ||~v || cos θ)2
= ||~v ||2 sin2 θ + ||w||
~ 2 − 2||w||
~ ||~v || cos θ + ||~v ||2 cos2 θ
2
= ||~v || + ||w|| 2
~ − 2||w||~ ||~v || cos θ (1)

Also,
~ 2 = (~v − w)
||~v − w|| ~ · (~v − w)
~
= ~v · ~v − w
~ · ~v − ~v · w
~ +w~ ·w
~
= ||~v ||2 + ||w||
~ 2 − 2~v · w~ (2)
Compare (1) and (2), we have

~v · w
~ = ||~v || ||w||
~ cos θ.

Suppose ~v , w ~ 6= ~0 are non-zero vectors. Then ||~v ||, ||w||

~ > 0. It follows from the formula
~v · w
~ = ||~v || ||w||
~ cos θ that


~v · w

 ~ >0 ⇔ 0◦ ≤ θ < 90◦ acute angle
~v · w~
cos θ = ⇒ ~v · w
~ =0 ⇔ θ = 90◦ right angle
||~v || ||w||
~ 
~v · w ⇔ 90◦ <θ≤ 180◦ obtuse angle

~ <0

An important case is that:

~v ⊥ w
~ ⇔ ~v · w
~ =0
Chapter 1: Vectors 1-9

Example 4. Direct computation gives that

î · î = 1
î · ĵ = 0 ĵ · ĵ = 1
î · k̂ = 0 ĵ · k̂ = 0 k̂ · k̂ = 1

The results agree with the fact that î, ĵ and k̂ are pairwisely perpendicular unit vectors.
Example 5. Find the angle θ between ~v = î + ĵ + 3k̂ and w
~ = 2î − ĵ − 2k̂.

Solution.
~v · w
~ = (î + ĵ + 3k̂) · (2î − ĵ − 2k̂)
= (1)(2) + (1)(−1) + (3)(−2)
= −5
√ √ √
||~v || = ~v · ~v = 12 + 12 + 32 = 11
√ p
||w||
~ = w ~ = 22 + (−1)2 + (−2)2 = 3
~ ·w

~v · w~ −5
∴ cos θ = =√
||~v || ||w||
~ 11 · 3
 
−5
⇒ θ = arccos 3√ 11
≈ 120.17◦


Example 6. Let ~v , w ~ · (~v − w)

~ have the same length. Show that (~v + w) ~ = 0.

Solution.
~ · (~v − w)
(~v + w) ~ = ~v · ~v − ~v · w ~ · ~v − w
~ +w ~ ·w
~
= kvk2 − ~v · w ~ − kwk2
~ + ~v · w
= kvk2 − kvk2
=0


Remark. The assumption ||~v || = ||w||

~ means that the parallelogram spanned by ~v and w
~ is a
rhombus. The computation above shows that the diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular.
Chapter 1: Vectors 1-10

Example 7. Consider a circle centered at O. AB is diameter. Show that ∠ACB = 90◦ .

Solution.
−→ −→ −−→
AC = AO + OC
−−→ −−→ −−→ −→ −−→
BC = BO + OC = −AO + OC
−→ −−→ −→ −−→ −→ −−→
AC · BC = (AO + OC) · (−AO + OC)
−→ −→ −→ −−→ −−→ −→ −−→ −−→
= −AO · AO + AO · OC − OC · AO + OC · OC
−→ −−→ −→ −−→
= −||AO||2 + ||OC||2 (||AO|| = ||OC|| are radius)
=0

−→ −−→
∴ AC ⊥ BC ⇒ ∠ACB = 90◦

1.4 Projection Vector

Given vectors ~v , w ~ 6= 0. Consider the diagram:

~ with w

Decompose ~v as ~v = v~1 + v~2 such that

• v~1 //w
~

• v~2 ⊥ w
~
Chapter 1: Vectors 1-11

The vector v~1 is called the projection of ~v onto w

~ and is denoted by projw~ ~v . To find a
formula for it, note that

1.
v~1 //w
~ ⇒ v~1 = k w
~ for some k ∈ R

2.
v~2 ⊥ w
~ ⇒ v~2 · w
~ =0
⇒ (~v − v~1 ) · w
~ =0
⇒ ~v · w~ = v~1 · w ~ ·w
~ = (k w) ~ · w)
~ = k(w ~
~v · w
~
⇒ k=
w ~ ·w~

Therefore,

Proposition 4. The projection of ~v onto a non-zero w

~ is given by
 ~v · w
~ ~v · w
~
projw~ ~v = w~= w
~
w~ ·w~ ~ 2
||w||

Remark. We cannot cancel the common factor w

~ in a quotient of dot products.

Example 8. Find the projection of ~v = (3, 2) onto w

~ = (5, −5). Then write ~v as the sum of
two orthogonal vectors, one of which is the projection of ~v onto w.
~

Solution. 1. Find the projection of ~v onto w.

~
 
~v · w
~
projw~ ~v = w
~
~2
|w|
(3, 2) · (5, −5)
= (5, −5)
||(5, −5)||2
5
= (5, −5)
50
 
1 1
= ,−
2 2
Chapter 1: Vectors 1-12

2. Find v~2 .
v~2 = ~v − v~1
= ~v − projw~ ~v
1 1
= (3, 2) − ,−
2 2
5 5
= ,
2 2

Example 9. Find the point B on the line L : y = x which is closest to A = (3, 7).

Solution. Let w
~ = (1, 1), w//L.
~
−−→ −→
OB = projw~ OA
− →
OA · w ~
= w
~
w~ ·w ~
(3, 7) · (1, 1)
= (1, 1)
(1, 1) · (1, 1)
= (5, 5)

∴ B = (5, 5)


1.5 Cross Product

Besides dot product, there is another type of product, called cross product, for 3D vectors.
It can be defined using determinant, which is a useful tool for matrices.
Chapter 1: Vectors 1-13

Definition 1. For a 2 × 2 matrix, its determinant is

a b
= ad − bc
c d

For a 3 × 3 matrix, its determinant is

a1 a2 a3
b2 b3 b b b b
b1 b2 b3 = a1 − a2 1 3 + a3 1 2
c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
c1 c2 c3

Example 10.
1 2
= (1)(4) − (2)(3) = −2
3 4
1 2 3
5 6 4 6 4 5
4 5 6 = (1) − (2) + (3)
8 9 7 9 7 8
7 8 9
= (1)[(5)(9) − (6)(8)] − (2)[(4)(9) − (6)(7)] + (3)[(4)(8) − (5)(7)]
= −3 + 12 − 9
=0

Definition 2 (Cross product, defined only in 3D). Let ~a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) and ~b = (b1 , b2 , b3 ).
Define their cross product by

î ĵ k̂
~
~a × b = a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
a2 a3 a a a a
= î − 1 3 ĵ + 1 2 k̂
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
= (a2 b3 − a3 b2 , a3 b1 − a1 b3 , a1 b2 − a2 b1 )

Example 11.
î ĵ k̂
î × ĵ = 1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 0
= î − ĵ + k̂
1 0 0 0 0 1
= 0î − 0ĵ + 1k̂ = k̂

Similarly, we can compute the cross products of other standard unit vectors:
Chapter 1: Vectors 1-14

î × î = ~0 î × ĵ = k̂ î × k̂ = −ĵ
ĵ × î = −k̂ ĵ × ĵ = ~0 ĵ × k̂ = î
k̂ × î = ĵ k̂ × ĵ = −î k̂ × k̂ = ~0

The diagram below helps you to remember the cross products of standard unit vectors.

Example 12. Let ~a = 2î + 3ĵ + 5k̂, ~b = î + 2ĵ + 3k̂.

Solution.
î ĵ k̂
~a × ~b = 2 3 5
1 2 3
3 5 2 5 2 3
= î − ̂ + k̂
2 3 1 3 1 2
= −î − ĵ + k̂


Exercise 1.5.1. Find ~b × ~a and ~b × ~b.

Cross product has the following properties.

Proposition 5. Let ~a, ~b, ~c be vectors in R3 , α, β ∈ R. Then

1. ~a × ~a = ~0

2. ~a × ~b = −~b × ~a

3. (α~a + β~b) × ~c = α~a × ~c + β~b × ~c

4. Let θ be the angle between ~a, ~b.

||~a × ~b|| = ||~a|| ||~b|| sin θ = Area of the parallelogram spanned by ~a and ~b.

5. (~a × ~b) · ~a = (~a × ~b) · ~b = 0.

Chapter 1: Vectors 1-15

From property 4 above,

~a × ~b = ~0 ⇔ ||~a × ~b|| = 0
⇔ ||~a|| or ||~b|| or sin θ = 0
⇔ ~a = ~0 or ~b = ~0 or θ = 0 or θ = π.

Hence,

Two non-zero vectors have zero cross product if and only if

they are pointing the same or opposite directions.

On the other hand, suppose ~a × ~b is non-zero. Then ~a and ~b are both non-zero. From
property 5 above,

~a × ~b is perpendicular to both ~a and ~b.

Also, it can be showed that ~a, ~b, ~a × ~b satisfy the right hand rule.
Chapter 1: Vectors 1-16

Example 13. Let A = (1, 2, 1), B = (1, −1, 0), C = (2, 3, 2) be points on a plane P . Find a
vector which is perpendicular to P .

−−→ −→
Solution. The line segments AB and AC both lie on P . Hence, the cross product AB × AC
is perpendicular to P .

−−→
AB = (1, −1, 0) − (1, 2, 1) = (0, −3, −1)
−→
AC = (2, 3, 2) − (1, 2, 1) = (1, 1, 1)
î ĵ k̂
−−→ −→
AB × AC = 0 −3 −1
1 1 1
−3 −1 0 −1 0 −3
= î − ĵ + k̂
1 1 1 1 1 1
= [(−3)(1) − (−1)(1)] î − [(0)(1) − (−1)(1)] ĵ + [(0)(1) − (−3)(1)] k̂
= −2î − ĵ + 3k̂

Therefore, (−2, −1, 3) ⊥ P . 

Another product closely related to cross product is also defined for vectors in 3D.

Definition 3 (Triple Product). The triple product of ~a, ~b, ~c ∈ R3 is defined to be

a1 a2 a3
~
~a · (b × ~c) = b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3

Remark. For ~a, ~b, ~c ∈ R3 ,

~a · (~b × ~c) = ~b · (~c × ~a) = ~c · (~a × ~b) = −~a · (~c × ~b) = −~b · (~a × ~c) = −~c · (~b × ~a)
Chapter 1: Vectors 1-17

Given 3D vectors ~a, ~b and ~c, they can form a parallelepiped.

Its volume can be computed using triple product.

|~a · (~b × ~c)| = Volume of parallelepiped spanned by ~a, ~b, ~c.

Example 14. Let A, B, C, D, E be points in R3 with A = (2, 2, 1), B = (1, 1, 1), C =

(1, 2, 0), E = (2, 4, −5). Suppose ABCD is a parallelogram. Find

1. the coordinates of D;
2. the area of the parallelogram ABCD;
3. a unit vector which is perpendicular to ABCD;
4. the equation of the plane containing A, B, C;
−−→ −−→ −−→
5. the volume of the parallelepiped with adjacent sides BA, BC and BE.

Solution.

1. Since ABCD is a parallelogram, we have

−−→ −−→
CD = BA = (2, 2, 1) − (1, 1, 1) = (1, 1, 0)
So,
−−→ −−→ −−→
OD = OC + CD = (1, 2, 0) + (1, 1, 0) = (2, 3, 0)

2.
−−→
BC = (1, 2, 0) − (1, 1, 1) = (0, 1, −1)
î ĵ k̂
−−→ −−→
⇒ BA × BC = 1 1 0 = −î + ĵ + k̂
0 1 −1
−−→ −−→ p √
⇒ Area of ABCD = ||BA × BC|| = (−1)2 + 12 + 12 = 3
Chapter 1: Vectors 1-18

−−→ −−→
3. Since BA × BC is perpendicular to the parallelogram ABCD, the required vector can
be taken to be −−→ −−→
BA × BC 1
−−→ −−→ = √ (−i + j + k)
||BA × BC|| 3

4. Suppose X = (x, y, z) is on the plane.

−−→ −−→ −−→ −−→ −−→
BA × BC ⊥ the plane ⇒ BA × BC ⊥ BX
−−→ −−→ −−→
⇒ (BA × BC) · BX = 0

(−1, 1, 1) · [(x, y, z) − (1, 1, 1)] = 0

(−1, 1, 1) · (x − 1, y − 1, z − 1) = 0
⇒ −x + y + z = 1

5.
−−→
BE = (2, 4, −5) − (1, 1, 1) = (1, 3, −6)
−−→ −−→ −−→
Triple Product = BE · (BA × BC)
= (1, 3, −6) · (−1, 1, 1)
= −4

⇒ Volume of the parallelepiped = | − 4| = 4


Chapter 1: Vectors 1-19

1.6 Vector-valued Function (Parametric Equation)

Most functions you saw are real-valued:

For example,
f (x) = x2 + 2
is a real-valued function. When x = 0, f (0) = 2. The output 2 is a real number.

One can also consider functions which are vector-valued. For example,

~r(t) = (t2 , 2t − 1) = t2 î + (2t − 1)ĵ

is a vector-valued function with outputs in R2 . When t = 2, ~r(2) = (4, 3) = 4î + 3ĵ. The
output is a vector.

Remark.

1. In the above example, we can write

~r(t) = x(t)î + y(t)ĵ,

where x(t) = t2 and y(t) = 2t − 1 are called the component functions of ~r(t). Here t
is called the parameter.

2. To understand ~r, sometimes it is useful to regard t as time,

~r(t) = displacement of an object at time t

and graph it on the xy-plane or xyz-space.

Example 15.
p
~r(t) = (et , t, 1 + t2 )
p
= et î + tĵ + 1 + t2 k̂

is a 3D vector-valued function with component functions

p
x(t) = et y(t) = t z(t) = 1 + t2

Example 16. To plot the function

~r(t) = t2 î + (2t − 1)ĵ

on the xy-plane, one approach is to plug in different values of t to find a few points on ~r(t).
Chapter 1: Vectors 1-20

t -2 -1 0 1 2
x(t) 4 1 0 1 4
y(t) -5 -3 -1 1 3

However, it does not give an accurate plot unless many points are used.

Another approach to plot the graph is to find a relation between x and y by eliminating t:
x = x(t) = t2
y+1
y = y(t) = 2t − 1 ⇒ t =
2
 y + 1 2 1
2
⇒ x= = (y + 1) (Parabola!)
2 4

Example 17. Graph ~r(t) = (2 cos t◦ )î + (2 sin t◦ )ĵ for 0 ≤ t ≤ 180.

Solution.
x = 2 cos t◦ y = 2 sin t◦

∴ x2 + y 2 = (2 cos t◦ )2 + (2 sin t◦ )2
= 4(cos2 t◦ + sin2 t◦ )
=4

∴ ~r(t) lies on the circle x2 + y 2 = 4

Also, as t increases from 0 to 180, x(t) decreases from 2 to -2, y(t) increases from 0 to 2
and then decreases from 2 to 0. Therefore, the graph is


Chapter 1: Vectors 1-21

Example 18. Let ~r(t) = (cos 360t◦ )î + (sin 360t◦ )ĵ + tk̂. Plot the 3D graph of ~r(t) for
0 ≤ t ≤ 1.

Solution. Note that as t increases from 0 to 1,

• (cos 360t◦ )î+(sin 360t◦ )ĵ rotates around the origin along the unit circle on the xy−plane.

• z(t) = t increases from 0 to 1.

Hence ~r(t) rotates around the z-axis while going up from z = 0 to z = 1. Its graph is a
“helix”.
Chapter 1: Vectors 1-22

Example 19. Plot ~r(t) = (2 + t)î + (4 − 2t)ĵ − k̂.

Solution.
~r(t) = (2î + 4ĵ − k̂) + t(î − 2ĵ)
⇒ ~r(t) is the straight line parallel to î − 2ĵ and passes through (2, 4, −1).