Coulomb’s law in vector form

 
Consider two point charges q1 and q2 in xyz space. Let r1 and r2 be the respective position vectors
of q1 and q2

using triangle law of vector addition

  
r12  r2  r1
Now force on q1 from q2
    
F12 
1 q1q 2 ^ ^ r2  r1 ^ r r
r 21 r12  and r 21  1 2
4 o r 2 r r

^ ^
r12   r 21
Force on q2 from q1
 1 q1q 2 ^
F21  r12
4o r 2
 
Here | r12 | | r21 |  r
 
Hence F12  F21
Here electrostatic forces on q1 and q2 form action - reaction pairs and hence obey Newton’s third
law

Now let us consider F21
Case1: Let q1 and q2 are like charges
Then q1q1 > 0
 ^
 F21 = (a positive quantity) x r12
 
so direction of F21 is same as that of r12 as shown

so when q1 and q2 are like charges, direction of force on q2 is directed away from q1. So like charges
repel
case 2: Let q1 and q2 are unlike charges
 q1q2 < 0
 ^
F21 = (a negative quantity) x r 21
 
so direction of F21 is opposite to that of r21

So when q1 and q2 are unlike charges, direction of force on q2 is directed towards q1. so unlike
charges attract
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO DIPOLE [DERIVATIONS]
(i) At a point on the axis of the dipole
  
Consider a dipole of charge q and dipole length 2  . Then moment of the dipole p  q  2  .
Consider a point A on the axis of the dipole at a distance r from the centre of the dipole

1 q
E1 
Field at A due to (+q) charge; 4 0  r   2 (away from +q)
 1 q
E2 
Field at A due to (–q) charge; 4 0  r    2 (towards –q)

Here E1  E 2

So net field at point A

q  1 1 
E  E1  E 2    2
4 0   r     r    
2

 
q  4r 

4 0   r 2   2 2 
 
1  q  2  2r
  q  2  p 
4 0  r 2   2 2

1 2 Pr
E
4 0  r 2   2 2

For a short dipole,   r . So  2 can be neglected

1 2P
E
4 0 r 3

Direction of electric field at an axial point is same as the direction of dipole moment.
(ii) At a point on the equatorial line of the dipole
Equatorial line is a perpendicular bisector drawn to the dipole. Consider a point A on the equatorial
line at a distance r from the centre of the dipole.
 1 q
Field at A due to (+q) charge; E1  (away from +q)
4 0 r   2
2

1 q
Field at A due to (–q) charge; E 2  (towards –q)
4 0 r   2
2

Resolving E1 and E2 into components, we can see that E1 sin  and E 2 sin  are equal but
opposite and hence cancels. but E1 cos  and E 2 cos  are added.

So net electric field at point A

1 q
E  E1 cos   E 2 cos   2  cos 
4 0 r   2
2

2q  1 2q
= 4 0  r    r  
  q  2  P 
 
4 0 r 2   2 3 2
2 2 2 2

1 P
E
 
4 0 r 2   2 3 2

For a short dipole   r , and hence  2 is neglected

1 P
E
4 0 r 3

At an equatorial point, direction of electric field opposite to the direction of dipole moment.
Time Period of Oscillations of a dipole
Let a dipole of moment P is placed in a uniform electric field E, Parallel to the field (stable
equilibrium position). Now dipole is slightly displaced from stable equilibrium position through
a small angle  and released. Now torque acting on the dipole at the displaced position.

  PE sin 
Since  is very small, sin   

  PE . This acts as a restoring torque under which dipole execute oscillations
R   PE But R  I

I   PE
 PE 
   
 I 

Comparing this with standard equation for angular SHM    

2

So dipole execute SHM with angular frequency

PE

I
Where I is the moment of inertia of the dipole about the centre of mass of dipole.
 Time period of oscillation of SHM

2 I
T  2n
 PE
 Electric field due to charged bodies with continuous charge distribution
(Derivations)

1. Electric field due to line of charge

i) At a point along its length
Consider a thin straight conductor of length L over which a charge q is uniformly distributed. Consider
a point P on its axis, along its length as shown
Consider a small element of length dx at a distance x from p. Then charge on the element
Q
dq  dx
L
This element can be treated as a point charge . So field at P due to the element

1 dq Q  dx 
dE     (away from element)
4 0 x 2
4 0 L  x 2 
Field due to all such elements are in the same direction at point P. Then total field at P
rL rL
Q dx Q  1 
E   dE     
40 L r
x 2
40 L  x r

Q  1 1 Q  r   r  L  
     
4 0 L  r  L r  4 0 L  r  r  L  

1 Q
E
4 0 r  r  L 
ii) Electric field due to a line of charge at a transverse position

dq  d

1 d
dE 
40 r   2
2

 d r
dEx  dE cos   
4 0 r  
2 2
r  2
2

r d

 
40 r 2   2 3 2

 d 
d Ey  dEsin  
40 r   2
2
r 2  2
  d

 
40 r 2   2 3 2

Put   r tan  ; d  r sec2 d

r  2    r 2  r 2 tan 2  
3 3
2 2 2
 r 3 sec3 

r r sec2  d 
d Ex   cos  d
40 r sec  40 r
3 3

r tan  r sec2 d 

d Ey   sin  d
40 r sec 
3 3
40 r


 2

 sin  2 1


4 0 r 1
Ex  cos  d 
4 0 r


Ex   sin 1  sin 2 
40 r


 2

  cos  2 1

Ey  
4 0 r 1
sin  d 
4 0 r


Ey   cos 1  cos 2 
40 r

Total field at P; E  Ex ˆi  Eyjˆ

E  Ex 2  Ey 2
Case I
If point P is infront of the mid point of rod

then 1  2    Say  . Then

  
Ex   sin   sin    sin ; Ey   cos   cos    0
40 r 20 r 40 r


So E  Ex only  sin 
20 r
Case 2
If the rod is of infinite length and P is near the central region of the rod, then

1  2  
2

Ex 

40 r 2 
sin   sin  
2

20 r

    
Ey   cos  cos   0
40 r  2 2
Total field at P

E = Ex only E 
20 r
Case 3
If the rod is of infinite length and P is near one end of the rod, then

 
Ex   sin 0  sin  / 2  
40 r 4 0 r

   
Ey   cos   cos  
4 0 r  2  4 0 r


 E  Ex 2  Ey 2  2
40 r


E .
2 20 r

Since Ex  Ey; tan   1,   450

2. Electric field due to circular ring
Consider a circular ring of radius R and a charge Q is uniformly distributed over its circumference. P
is a point on its axis at a distance x from centre O.
Consider a charge element dq on the circumference of ring, field at P due to the element

1 dq
dE 
40 R  x 2
2

Let us resolve dE into two components dE cos  and dE sin  as shown. Consider an another ele-
ment dq, which is diametrically opposite to the first element. Field at P due to this element also has
the same value dE. If we resolve this dE also into components, we can find that dE sin  componentss
cancel and dE cos  components are added. So total field at P

1 dq x
E   dE cos   
40 R  x 2
2
R  x2
2

1 x
4 0 R 2  x 2 3 2 
 dq
 
1 Qx
E
 
4 0 R 2  x 2 3 2 along the axis of the ring

At the centre of the ring; x =0

E  0
If P is at a large distance from O, x >> R and R 2 can be neglected.

1 Q
E
4 0 x 2

Now let us find the position on the axis where the field due to charge on ring is maximum. For this

 2 
 R  x 2  2  x  R 2  x 2  2 2x 
3
3 1

dE Q   2 
0
4 0 R  x 
3
dx 2 2

R 2  x 2  3x 2  0  2x 2  R 2

R
x
2
 So maximum field value

E max 
1 
 R/ 2 
4 0  2

3
2
 R 
R   
2

  2  

1  2Q 
E max   
4 0  3 3 R 2 
Variation of field with distance on both sides of the ring will be

3. Field due to circular arc

Consider a circular arc of radius R, subtending an angle  at the centre O. Let it is charged with
uniform linear charge density  .
 Charge on the element, dq d Rd 

1 dq 1 Rd  1 d
field at O due to the element dE  4 R 2  4 R 2 ;  4 R
0 0 0

If we consider an another symmetrical element on the other half, it also produces same dE at point O.
Resolving, dE sin  components are cancelled while dE cos  are added. So total field at point O.

 2
E   dE cos  
40 R / 2
cos  d



4 0 R
 sin  / 2 
/ 2   

4 0 R  2
 
sin  sin   
2



 
E sin  
2 0 R 2
4. Field due to charged circular disc

Consider a disc of radius R and centre O. Let  be its surface charge density. Consider a point P on
its axis at a distance x from centre O as shown. To find field at P, imagine a ring element of radius r
and thickness dr as shown. Area of element  2r dr
Charge on the element, dq    2rdr field at P due to the element;

1 x dq x r dr
dE   2
 
4 0 r 2  x 2 2 4 0
r2  x2  2
3 3

x r dr
  along the axis 
 
2 0 r 2  x 2 3 2

field at p due to all the elements are in the same direction. So total field at P; E   dE

x r dr
E 
 
2 0 r 2  x 2 3 2

 x y dy  dy
 
20 y 3

20  y 2
 R
 x  1   x  1  x 1 1 
    2     
2 0  y  2 0  r  x 0 2 0
2
x R x 
2 2

  x 
E 1  
2 0  R2  x2 
If we consider a disc of very large radius, it will look like a plane sheet and R>>X. Then

E
20
5. Field due to charged hollow hemisphere

Consider a hollow hemisphere of radius R and surface charge density  . Let O be the centre,
consider a ring element of radius r and thickness dr.
Area of element ; dA  2rdr
Charge on element, dq    2 r dr  2 r dr
Field at O due to element;

1 dq x 1 2 r dr x
dE  
   
4 0 r 2  x 2 2 4 0 r 2  x 2 3 2
3

 2 R sin  R cos  Rd  R 3 sin 2d 

   sin 2 d
 
40 R 2 sin 2   R 2 cos 2  2 ; 4
3

0 R 3
4 0

Total field at O;

2

E   dE   4 sin 2 d
0 0


   cos 2  2 
     cos   cos  
4 0  2 0 8 0


   2 
80


E
40
GAUSS’S LAW (PROOF)
Consider a point charge Q placed at a point. P is a point at a distance r from Q.

Now imagine a sphere of radius r with P on its surface and Q at the centre. Let us take an

elementary area ds surrounding point P. Then direction of ds is radial to the sphere
[Perpendicular to the surface]. The electric field produced by Q at point P is

1 Q
E
4 0 r 2

  
Direction of E is also radial to the sphere as shown. So the angle between E and ds is zero.

  1 Q
   Eds cos 0  
S
E.ds
S S
4 0 r 2
ds

1 Q 1 Q
2 
= ds   4r 2
4 0 r S 4 0 r 2

1
= Q , hence the proof
0
Applications of Gauss’s law to find electric field
Coulomb’s can be used to find the electric field produced by point charges only. But Gauss’s
law can be suitably employed to find the electric field produced by all type of charged bodies.
Usually Gauss’s law is applied in two steps.
Step 1 : Imagine a proper Gaussian surface over which we can apply Gauss’s theorem. Such
a surface is called a gaussian surface. There are certain conditions for selecting a Gaussian
surface.
i) It must be a closed surface
ii) The point at which field is to be calculated must appear as the surface point of this surface.
iii) Gaussian surface should not pass through discrete charges like point charges. But it can
pass through points on continues charge distribution.
iv) It is better to select Gaussian surfaces which are symmetrical with respect to the given
charge distribution. That is a surface where the field values are same at every point on the
surface. So usually the centre of the surface must coincide with the centre of the charge
distribution. That is why we prefer spherical Gaussian surface.
Electric field due to infinite line of charge (derivation)

Let a charge Q is uniformly distributed over the entire length L of a thin wire. Then its linear
Q
charge density  
L
Consider a point P at a distance r from the line of charge, near the middle region of the wire. To
find the field at P, let us consider a gaussian surface in the form of a cylinder of radius r and
length L enclosing the charged wire as shown. Applying Gauss’s law over this cylinder.

  1
S  0 Qnet
E.ds

The cylinder has three surfaces, two base surfaces S1, S2 and a curved surface S3. From the
figure, we can realise that, electric field lines originating from the line of charge come out
through the curved surface of cylinder. So electric field is normal to the curved surface. So
   
direction of E is parallel to S3 only and perpendicular to S1 and S2 .
     
E  S1 , E  S2 , E || S3

  1
S  0 Qnet
E.ds

      1


S1
E.ds  
S2
E.ds    0 Qnet
S3
E.ds

1
0  0  E  ds  Q
S3
0
 1
E  2rL  Q
0
1
E  2rL  L
0
 1
E E
2 0 r r

Electric field due to infinite thin conducting sheet (derivation)

Consider an infinite thin conducting sheet of area A over which a charge Q is uniformly distributed.
Then its surface charge density

Q

A
P is a point at a distance r from the sheet. To find the field at P, imagine a Gaussian surface in
t h e s h a p e o f a p a r a l l e l e p i p e d a s s h o w n . I t h a s s i x s u r f a c e s S1 ,S2 ,......S6 . Surfaces 1 and S2
have the same area as that of sheet (A). Using Gauss’s law;

  1
 E.ds.  
S 0
q net

            1

 E.ds   E.ds   E.ds   E.ds   E.ds   E.ds  
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 0
Q ...........(1)

From the figure, it is clear that, lines starting from the sheet come out only through surfaces S1
and S2. So field will be perpendicular to these two surface planes.
           
E  S3 , E  S4 , E  S5 , E  S6 , E || S1 , E || S2
So equation (1) becomes

1
E  ds  E  ds  0  0  0  0  Q
S1 S2
0

1 
EA  EA  A  2E 
0 0


E E  ro This equation is valid for infinite thin nonconducting sheet also
2 0

So field due to the sheet is independent of the distance

If the infinite plane sheet has uniform thickness [thick sheet with two walls], both walls produce

fields
2 0 at P..

So,

  
field at P; E   
2 0 2 0 0
Electric field due to conducting sphere (derivation)
If a charge Q is given to a solid conducting sphere of radius R, it will be distributed only over its
outer surface uniformly. So we can only define surface charge density    and not volume

charge density    in this case.

 Q

4R 2
For any spherical charge, Gaussian surface is also a concentric sphere
P1 (Outside point)
For P1, Gaussian surface is a concentric sphere of radius r with P1 on the surface as shown.
 
Consider an elementary area ds on the spherical surface. The direction of ds is radial to the
  
surface. Electric field E is also radial to the surface. So angle between E and ds is 0o. Using
Gaussian’s law;

  1 1 Q
S ds. 0 q net
E, E out 
4 0 r 2
1
E  ds  Q
0
1 1
E  4r 2  Q E out 
0 r2

P2 (Surface point)
For P2, gaussian surface is the conducting sphere itself.
Using Gauss’s law :

  1
  0 q net
E.ds E surface 
1 Q
4 0 R 2
1
E  ds  Q Q  4R 2 
0

E  4R 2 
1
Q E surface 
0 0

Field is maximum at the surface.

P3 (Inside point)
Consider an inside point at a distance a from the centre. For this point (P3), gaussian surface
is a concentric sphere of radius a. But this gaussian surface does not enclose any charge as
charge is distributed only over the surface. using Gauss’s law

  1
  0 q net  q net  0 
E.ds

E in  0

This result is true for all conducting bodies. For a solid conducting body of any size or shape,
the net electric field at any inside point is always zero.
O (centre point)
Electric field at the centre is also zero

Electric field due to nonconducting sphere with uniform density (derivation)

A nonconducting body has only a few number of free electrons. So if a charge is given to any
point of a nonconducting body, that charge becomes bound to that point. So we can charge a
nonconducting body according to the requirement. Let a charge Q is uniformly distributed over
the entire volume of a nonconducting sphere of radius R. Then volume charge density

Q

4 3
 R 
3 
Outside point (P1)
Here gaussian surface is a concentric sphere of radius r as shown

  1
S  0 q net
E.ds

1 1 Q
E  4r 2  Q  E out 
0 4 0 r 2

Surface point (P2)

1 Q
r=R E surface 
4 0 R 2

Inside Point (P3)

Here gaussian surface is a concentric sphere of radius a enclosing a charge,

 4 3  Qa
3
Q
q net   a   3
4 33  R
 R 
 3 
Using Gauss’s law

  1
S  0 q net
E.ds
4
Q R 3
1 Qa 3 3
E  4a 2  a
0 R 3 E in 
3 0
1 Qa
E in  E in  a
4 0 R 3

Centre point (O)

a=0 So E = 0
Electric field due to nonconducting sphere with varying density

Eg. The volume charge density of a solid nonconducting sphere of radius R varies with distance
r from the centre as   0 r . Find expressions for field at an inside and outside point. Consider
a volume element of radius r and thickness dr as shown.

Volume of element; dV  4r 2 dr

Density of element;   0 r

Charge on element; dq =  dv

dq  0 r  4r 2 dr  40 r 3dr

Inside Point (P1)
Consider an inside point P1 at a distance r1 from centre. Here gaussian surface is a sphere of
radius r1 as shown.
Using Gauss’s law;

40 1 3
r
  1
0 0
E  4r  2
r dr
  0 q net
E.ds 1

r1
1   r4 
E  4r   dq
2 Er  0  
2

0  4 0
1
0
1

1 0 r12
E  4r   40 r 3dr
2
E
0 4 0
1

Outside point  P2 

For the outside point P2, at a distance r2 from centre, gaussian surface is a concentric sphere
of radius r2
 40 3
R

0 0
  1 E  4r22  r dr
 E.ds  0 q net
R
1 0  r 4 
E  4r22   dq Er   
2

0  4 0
2
0
1 0 R 4
0 
E  4r22  40 r 3dr E
4 0 r22

At the surface, r = R

0 R 2
E
4 0
At the centre, E = 0
Production of uniform electric field using nonconducting sphere of uniform volume
charge density
We can produce a uniform electric field with the help of a nonconducting sphere of uniform
density using the following methods
Method 1 : If a cavity is taken inside a nonconducting sphere of uniform density, everywhere
inside that cavity field will be uniform

u sin g triangle law

  
OP  OO ' O ' P
  
OP  O ' P  OO '

consider a nonconducting sphere of uniform volume charge density  . Consider a point P

inside the cavity.
The field at P can be calculated using three steps
Step 1 : Find the field at P due to the complete sphere

  
E total 
3 0
 
OP

Step 2 : Find the field at P due to the removed part

  
E removed 
3 0

O'P 
Step 3 : Field at P due to the remaining part

     
E remaining  E total  E removed 
3 0
OP  O ' P 
 
= 
3 0

OO ' 
So field is uniform everywhere inside the cavity with value;


  distance between centres of the sphere and cavity
3 0

and direction of E is along the line joining the centres of the sphere and cavity..
Method 2 : Consider two nonconducting spheres with equal and opposite volume charge
densities (+  and –  ) with an overlapping region, field will be uniform.

u sin g triangle law

  
O1P  PO 2  O1O 2

Consider a point P in the overlapping region as shown. Field at P due to the positively charged
sphere.

  
E1  O1P (away from O )
3 0 1

Field at P due to the negatively charged sphere

  
E2 
3 0
 
O 2 (directed towards O )
2

 
=
3 0

PO 2 
Total field at point P;

     
E  E1  E 2 
3 0

O1  PO 2 
  
E
3 0

O1O 2 
So field is uniform everywhere in that overlapping region with value


E   distance between centres of the two spheres
3 0

and direction of E is along the line joining the centres of the two spheres.
EXAMPLES OF ELECTROSTATIC SHIELDING
1. Consider a neutral conducting sphere. A charge Q is placed near to it, as shown.

Then free electrons in the conducting sphere are attracted towards Q and accumulate at the
near surface. So an induced charge (–Q) appear at the near surface and (+Q) at the far
surface of the sphere as shown.
The key point to be noted is, at every inside point of this conducting sphere, the NET ELECTRIC
FIELD due to outside charges must be zero.
Due to the induced charges –Q and +Q, an electric field will be developed within the sphere
from +Q to –Q. Duty of these induced charges is to nullify the field produced by outside charge
Q at any point inside the sphere. So field produced by induced charges at any inside point of
the sphere will be equal and opposite to the field produced by outside charge Q at that point.
Consider a point P inside the conducting sphere at a distance r from charge Q. Then field
1 Q
produced by Q at point P E Q 
4 0 r 2 [away from Q] (note it is nonzero)
Since net field at P must be zero,
field produced by induced charges (–Q and +Q together) at point P must be

1 Q
E in 
4 0 r 2 (towards Q) (note it is also nonzero)
This concept is valid for every inside point of the conducting sphere in this case
2. Consider a neutral conducting spherical shell as shown

A point charge Q is placed at the centre of the shell. Then induced charges –Q and +Q are
produced at the inner and outer surfaces of the shell respectively as shown. Field lines starting
from Q terminate at the induced charge –Q at the inner surface. But an equal number of lines
start from the induced charge +Q at the outer surface and go outwards. It means that, Q at
centre is indirectly producing an electric field in the surrounding region of the sphere.
Since Q is at the centre, the distribution of induced charge (–Q) at the inner surface of the shell
is uniform. Also distribution of induced charge (+Q) at the outer surface of the shell is also
uniform. So the distribution of electric field lines are also uniform.
Since Q is at the centre of the sphere, the net electric force acting on it due to the induced
charge (–Q) at the inner surface of the sphere is zero. This is because forces on Q due to
diametrically opposite elements of inner surface cancels. Also force on Q due to induced charge
(+Q) on the outer surface is also zero due to shielding. So net force on Q at centre is zero in
this case.
Here it has to be noted that, at every point in that conducting region, net electric field is again
zero.
3. Let the charge Q placed at the centre of the shell in the above case is slightly shifted towards
one side in the above example 2 as shown
 So the free electrons moving towards the inner surface will more accumulate at the near region
of Q as shown. So the distribution of (–Q) at the inner surface will becomes nonuniform. But
the information regarding the shifting of Q at the inside region of the shell will not transfer to the
outer surface due to the shielding provided by the conducting region. So distribution of (+Q) at
the outer surface of the shell will continue to be uniform. The distribution of field lines in the
inside region of shell will also become nonuniform.
It is visible that, if we consider a conducting cavity, it divides the entire universe into two electrically
independent regions, first region inside and second outside the cavity. The movement of charges
inside the conductor will not affect the charge distribution at the outer surface and field values
at the outside region. Similarly, the movement of charges outside the conductor will not affect
the charge distribution at the inner surface and field values at the inside region. This is the
basic idea of shielding.
4. Consider a solid conducting body with some cavities inside as shown. A charge Q is given to
the conductor which is distributed over its surface. A charge q is placed outside the conductor.
Point charges q1 and q2 are placed inside the cavity 1 and cavity 2 respectively. A charge (–q1)
is induced at the inner surface of cavity 1 due to q1 and (+q1) at the outer surface. also a charge
(–q2) is induced at the inner surface of cavity 2 due to q2 and (+q2) at the outer surface of
conductor.
Consider a point P in the conducting region as shown. The key point is, net electric field at P
must be zero
Concept 1 : The duty of induced charge (–q1) at the inner surface of cavity 1 is to nullify the field
produced by q1 at any point (including P) in the conducting region. So field at P due to (–q1) will
be equal and opposite to the field produced by q1 at P. Field at P due to q1;

1 q1
Eq1 
4 0 r12 (away from q1)

 Field at P due to induced charge (–q1)

1 q1
E  q1 
4 0 r12 (towards q1)
This idea is equally valid for all the points in the conducting region. Here it is to be noted that,
–q1 has to do its duty by its own.
Concept 2 : Similarly, the duty of induced charge (–q 2) at the inner surface of cavity 2 is to
nullify the field produced by q2 at any point in the conducting region. So field at P due to (–q2)
will be equal and opposite to the field produced by q2 at P.

1 q2
Field at P due to q2; Eq 2 
4 0 r22 (away from q2)

 Field at P due to induced charge (–q2)

1 q2
E  q2 
4 0 r22 (towards q2)
This ideal is equally valid for all points in the conducting region. Here it is to be noted that, –q2
has to perform its duty by its own.
Concept 3 : Now let us consider the field produced by the outside charge q at P. But again net
field at P must be zero. So the field produced by q at P must be nullified. This is done by all the
charges appearing at the outer surface together. So the field produced by all the charges at the
outer surface of the conductor at point P must be equal and opposite to the field produced by
outside charge at P. So field at P due to charge q.

1 q
Eq 
4 0 r 2 (away from q)

 Field produced by outside charges together  Q  q1  q 2  q  q  at point P

1 q
E Q  q1  q 2  q  q 
4 0 r 2 (towards q)
It has to be noted that, any field produced by outside charges at any point in the conducting
region (including P) is nullified by the equal and opposite field produced by all the charges at
the surface together. Here individual contributions of the charges at the surface at point P
cannot be determined.
Electrostatic pressure

Consider a conducting sphere, given with uniform surface charge density  . Let an elementary
area ds is removed from the surface to form a void there. Our aim is to find the electric field at
the position of void due to the remaining part. For this let us place the removed part ds back
into the void. Now the complete sphere consists at two parts. The removed part and remaining
part. Let E1 and E2 be the fields produced by the removed part and remaining part at the
position of void, respectively. So our aim is to find E2.
Now consider two points 1 and 2 very near to the void, just outside and just inside to the
spherical surface. So field produced by removed part and remaining part will be E1 and E2 at
both these points and their directions at points 1 and 2 are as given in the figure. [E1 is directed
away from removed part and E2 is directed away from the centre of the remaining part].
At point 1 At point 2 Sub (2) in (1)


E net  E1  E 2 E net  E1  E 2 2E 2 
0
Since point 1 is just Since point 2 is inside the sphere
outside the sphere
  
E net  Enet = 0 E2 
0 2 0


E1  E 2   E1  E 2  0
0 .....(1)

E1  E 2 ....(2)
So if we consider a small element on the surface of a charged conductor, the field over it due

to charge on the remaining part will be E 
2 0 , along the radius.

Charge on the element; dq  ds

So this element will experience an electric force


F  dq  E  ds 
2 0

2
F ds acting radially outwards
2 0

This force acts normally on the conducting surface and hence can be treated as an electrostatic
thrust

F thrust
   electrostatic pressure(Pe )
ds area

2
Pe 
2 0


If E is the electric field at the surface, E    0 E
0

1
 Pe  0 E 2
2
So if a conducting body is given with a positive or negative charge, it experience a radially
outward force or pressure. So it has a tendency to expand.
Eg. If a soap bubble is given with a charge of surface density  , it expands. So its excess
pressure reduces.
 4T 2
excess pressure; P  P0  
R 2 0
here T is the surface tension
BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE

ELECTROSTATICS
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL (V)


Just like electric field intensity ( E ), electric potential is a scalar physical quantity which is used to
characterise an electric field. It referes to an ability to do work to move a charge in an electric field. It
has many roles in electricity.
(i) The concept of potential helps us to find the work to be done to move a charge in an electric field.
(ii) The direction of charge flow between two connected bodies is determined by their potential values.
Positive charge always flow from higher to lower and negative charge from lower to higher potential
and this charge flow will continue untill both the bodies attain a common potential (Electrostatic
Equilibrium).
(iii) If two connected bodies are in electrostatic equilibrium, their potentials will be equal.
(iv) Electric potential can be used to accelerate or decelerate charges.
Electric Potential at a Point
Consider a point (P) in an electric field. To find the potential at this point, place a test charge q at infinity
and then an external agent has to bring this charge from infinity to that point P, slowly. If W is the work
W
done for this, then potential at that point; then V  q If q = IC, then V = W..

Hence electric potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the work done to bring a unit positive
charge from infinity to that point without an acceleration.
Unit : Volt (SI) or esu of potential (cgs)
1esu = 300V

 V  ML2T 3 A 1
Electric Potential difference between the points
Consider two points in an electric field A and B. Let a charge q is moved from point A to point B without
an acceleration. If W is the work done for this process, then potential difference between these points;

1
BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE

A B

W
dV 
q dV = Vfinal - Vinitial [here dV = VB - VA]

If q = IC, dV = W. Hence potential difference between two points can be defined as the work done to
move a unit positive charge between the two points without an acceleration.
Work done to move a charged particle in an E field

A B

V1 V2

Consider two points in an electric field A and B where potentials are V1 and V2. Let a charged particle of
charge q is moved from point A to point B very slowly without an acceleration. Then work done by the
external agent for this motion;
W = charge to be moved × p.d. between the two points here
Vinitial = V1
Vfinal = V2

W  q  Vfinal  Vinitial 

Since this work is done in a conservative electric field, this is stored as change in potential energy.

U  q  Vfinal  Vinitial 

Using the idea, work done by conservative field = - change in PE

 Work done by electric field = -  PE

WE.field  q  Vfinal  Vinitial 

2
BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE

Work-energy theorem applied in an E field while a charge is moved

A B

V1 V2

Let a charged particle of charge q and mass m is moved by an external agent from point A to point B in
an electric field. Then both external agent and electric field performs work on charge. So total work
done on charge
W = W ext + W E-field
Using work - energy theorem; W = change in KE

Wext  WE.field  KE

but WE.field  PE

Wext  PE  KE  Wext  PE  KE

but PE  q  Vfinal  Vinitial 

Wext  q  Vfinal  Vinitial   KE

When charged particle is moved from one point to another, we can consider two situations.
(i) If charge is moved without an acceleration speed does not change. KE  0

Wext  q  Vfinal  Vinitial 

(ii) If charge is moved with an acceleration speed changes and KE  0 . Then

Wext  q  Vfinal  Vinitial   KE

Relation between electric field (E) and electric potentials (V)

Consider a source charge Q producing an electric field in the surrounding. P is a point at a distance r
from Q.
Let a charged particle

Q P dr q
r
at

q is moved by an external agent from infinity to point P without an acceleration. Consider a small
 
element dr in the path where the electric field is E . Small work done to move the particle across the
element
3
BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE

  
dW  F.dr F  qE

   

dW  q E.dr 
dW
q

 E.dr

dW
But q  dV , the p.d. across the element

 
dV  E.dr
between two points of position vectors r1 and r2

r2  

dV    E.dr
r1

Let initial point is at infinity where potential is zero. Let potential is V at point, P

i.e., r1  ,V1  0;r2  r, V2  V

r  

V2  V1   E.dr


r  

V   E.dr


So potential difference between two points is the negative line integral of electric field. Practically, let

E  Ex ˆi  Ey ˆj  Ez kˆ

dr  dx ˆi  dy ˆj  dz kˆ
 
E.dr  Exdx  Eydy  Ezdz
 ˆ r  x ˆi  y ˆj  z kˆ
Let r1  x1ˆi  y1ˆj  z1k; 2 2 2 2

 V2  V1     Ex dx   Ey dy   Ez dz 
x2 y2 z2

 x1 y1 z1 

Now electric field can be written as

 dV
E
dr

Hence electric field is the negative gradient of potential.

In three dimensions, gradient is a vector differential operator given by   ˆi   ˆj   kˆ 

x y z

E  V or

4
BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE

 V ˆ V ˆ V 
E   ˆi j k
 x y z 

 
Negative sign in the relation between E and V shows that, the direction of electric field is same as the
direction in which potential is reducing.
Consider a uniform electric field E between two parallel plates, separated by a distance d. Then
potential difference between the plates

V  Ed

+ + +
E
d

- - -

Conservative nature of electrostatic field

Electrostatic field, since conservative, posses the following properties.
(i) Work done to move a charge between two points in an electrostatic field depend on initial and final
positions only and is independent of path through which it is moved.

W1

A B
W2
W3

Let a charge q is moved from point A to B through three different paths as shown. Then work done
W1 = W2 = W3
(ii) Work done to move a charge once around closed loop in an electrostatic field is zero.

E W = q dV = 0

(iii) Potential difference over a closed loop in an electrostatic field is zero.

 
dV = 0 but dV    E.dr
 
  E.dr  0

So the line integral of electrostatic field over a closed loop is zero, which indicates the conservative
nature of electrostatic field.

5
BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE

Potential due to a point charge

Consider a point P at a distance r from point charge Q.
Q P
r

1 Q
Potential at P; V  4 r
0

Since potential is a scalar, sign of charge must be substituted in all the equations in which potential are
calculated. Consider a system of charges,

q1
r1
-q2 r2
P
r3
q3

1 q1 1  q 2  1 q3
Potential at P; V  4 r  4  r   4 r
0 1 0  2  0 3

Potential due to a dipole

Consider a dipole of charge q, dipole length 2 and moment P
(i) Axial point

-q O +q A

1 P
Potential at A V  4 r 2   2 for a short dipole  2  r 2
0

1 P
V
40 r 2

(ii) Equatorial Point

A
r

-q O +q Potential at A; V  0

6
BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE

(iii) Any general point

A
r


-q +q
O

1 P cos  1 P cos 
Potential at A V  4 r 2   2 cos 2  for a short dipole V  4 r2 or
0 0


1 P.r
V
4 0 r 3

Potential due to a conducting sphere

Consider a conducting sphere of charge Q and radius R. Charge is uniformly distributed over its outer
Q
surface. So its surface charge density  
4R 2

+
+
P3 +
a r
P1
+
O R
+ P2
+ +

P1 (outside point) P2 (surface point)

1 Q 1 Q
Vout  Vsurface 
40 r Q  4R 
2
40 R or

R 2 R
V 
or out  r Vsurface 
0
0

P3 (inside point) O (centre)

1 Q 1 Q
Vin  Vcentre 
4 0 R 40 R

or or

R R
Vin  Vcentre 
0 0

7
BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE

So for a conducting sphere;

Vcentre  Vin  Vsurface

This is because, electric field inside a conducting sphere is zero. So to bring IC positive charge from
infinite to inside point, work is need to be done up to surface only

V=constant
V  1/ r

inside outside
r=0 r=R r

Potential due to a non conducting sphere of uniform density

Consider a non conducting solid sphere of radius R in which a charge Q is uniformly distributed over
its volume. Then its volume charge density is;

r P1
+ +
+
+

Q + +R P2
4 O
R 3 + a +
3
+ + P3

P1 (outside point) P2 (surface point)

1 Q 4 1 Q
Vout  Q  R 3 Vsurface 
40 r 3 40 R 2

or or

R 3 R 2
Vout  Vsurface 
3 0 r 30

P3 (inside point) O (centre)

3 1 Q
3 
3R 2  a 2 
1 Q
Vin  Vcentre   
4 0 2R 2  40 R 

or

 3R2  a2  3
Vin  Vcentre  Vsurface
20R 3
2

8
BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE

V
Parabola

Rectangular
hyperbola

inside outside
r=0 r=R r
(centre) (surface)

Potential due to Concentric thin conducting spheres

Q3
Q2
P
r Q1
R1

R2

R3

When we calculate, potential due to concentric thin conducting spheres, there is no need to consider
the charges produced by induction. We will get same answers even if we take or donot take induction.
Consider a point P at a distance r from common centre. To find potential at P, find potential due to each
sphere at P and take their sum. When we calculate potential due to a sphere, take that sphere only
and identify the position of the point P for that sphere, outside, surface, inside or centre. Use the
corresponding equation. Remember that, if the point lies inside for the sphere, potential value at the
surface of sphere must be taken.
VP = V due to inner sphere + V due to middle sphere + V due to outer sphere.

1 Q1 1 Q2 1 Q3
  
40 r 40 R 2 4 0 R 3

To find the potential of a particular sphere, take a point on its surface and find potential of that point,
using the method discussed above. For example let us find potential of middle sphere. For that mark a
point on the surface of middle sphere and find potential there.

1 Q1 1 Q2 1 Q3
Vmiddlesphere   
40 R 2 4 0 R 2 4 0 R 3

Potential due to thick conducting shell

Consider a thick conducting shell of inner radius r and outer radius R. Let a point charge Q is placed at
its centre. If conducting shell is thick, we must write the induced charges on the surfaces before
9
BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE

writing potentials. Here -Q and +Q are induced charges. To find potential at a point, find potential due
to each charge at that point and take their sum. For example, consider a point P at a distance b from
centre. Then potential at P;

+Q
R

-Q
b
Q
P
r

V = potential due to Q + Potential due to induced charge -Q + Potential due to induced charge +Q

1 Q 1  Q  1  Q  1 Q
       4 R
4 0 b 40  b  40  R  0

Charge sharing between two connected bodies

When two bodies are connected together, a charge flow happens between them. The direction of
charge flow between two bodies is decided by their potential values. Positive charge always flow from
body with higher potential to the body with lower potential. But negative charge flow from body with
lower potential to the body with higher potential.
Charge flow will stop when both attain common potential. So when two bodies are connected together,
a charge flow will happen between them untill both attain a common potential. So if two bodies are
found to be connected together, their final potentials can be equated.
eg: Consider three concentric conducting thin spherical shells. Of radius R, 2R and 3R given with
respective charges Q, -2Q and 5Q. Now the inner and outer spheres are connected using a wire. Find
the final charges appearing on all spheres.

3R 3R

2R 5Q 6Q - x
-2Q 2R
Q -2Q
x
R R

Charges given Final charges after

distribution

When inner and outer spheres are inter connected, a charge flow happen between them and soon the
potentials of inner and outer spheres become equal. Let x be the final charge on inner sphere (unknown).
10
BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE

Then using conservation of charge between inner and outer spheres, final charge on outer sphere is
6Q-x. No changes will happen on the middle sphere.
Total potential on inner sphere (final) = Total potential on outer sphere (final)

1  x 2Q 6Q  x  1  x 2Q 6Q  x 
     
40  R 2R 3R  40  3R 3R
 3R 

Q
On solving; x 
2
final charge are;
Q
(i) inner sphere = x 
2
(ii) middle sphere = -2Q
11Q
(iii) outer sphere = 6Q  x 
2
Charge flown through wire = Q/2, from inner to outer sphere.
Earthing
In electricity, earth is always postulated to be at zero potential. So if a body is connected to earth, a
charge flow will happen between that body and earth untill potential of that body becomes zero. So final
potential of a earthed body is always zero.
It is a misconcept that, if a charged body is earthed its entire charge flows to earth. Actually, when a
body is earthed, it is not the charge, but it is the potential which becomes zero. Its final charge may or
may not become zero. If an isolated charged body is earthed, the entire charge on the body will flow to
earth. But non isolated body is earthed, final charge on it will not become zero. When a non isolated
body is earthed, only the unwanted charges on it will loss to earth. If we consider parallel conducting
plates, charges appearing at the two extreme surfaces of the arrangement are unwanted. If we consider
concentric conducting spherical shells, charges appearing at the outer surface of the outer most shell
are unwanted. If such a body is earthed, that unwanted charge will flow to earth.
eg: Consider a solid conducting sphere of radius r, surrounded by a hollow conducting sphere of
radius R. The outer sphere is given a charge Q and inner sphere is earthed. Find the final charge on
inner sphere.
Ans:

Q Q
R
O x

R r
r

Initial charges final charges after

earthing

11
BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE

x  charge gained by inner sphere due to earthing.

Since inner sphere is earthed, its final potential is zero ( V = 0)
V due to inner sphere + V due to outer sphere = 0

1 x 1 Q x Q
 0  
40 r 40 R r R

r
x   Q
R
Equipotential Surfaces
It is a surface over which potential is the same at every point on the surface. Consider a spherical
surface with a point charge at the centre. Then every point on its surface has same potential value. So
it is an equipotential surface.
Properties
1. Potential difference between two points is zero.
2. Work done to move a charge between two points is zero
3. Electric field is always perpendicular to every point on the surface of a equipotential surface
4. Tangential component of electric field is zero
5. Field lines are always perpendicular to such a surface
6. Two equipotential surfaces never intersect
7. In a uniform electric field, equipotential surfaces are parallel planes with equal separations and equal
potential differences.
8. In a strong electric field, separation between neighbouring equipotential surfaces are very small. But
in a weak field, they are far separated.
The most important point, we need to consider about an equipotential surface is that, all conducting
surfaces are equipotential. If we consider a conducting body of any shape and size, every point on its
surface is at the same potential. So all conducting surfaces obey all the properties of equipotential

surfaces. So E is always perpendicular to a conducting surface. Field lines are also always
perpendicular to conducting surface.

R
The value of this common potential at every point on a conducting surface is given by V 
0

R  radius of curvature at that point

  surface charge density of the region surrounding that point
Since V = constant, for a conducting surface

R 1
 Constant or R = Constant or 
0 R

So at points where radius of curvature is less (sharp points),  will be high and charges accumulate
more. That is why it is said that, charges accumulate more at the sharp edges of a conducting surface.
This fact is utilized in the working of instruments like lightning arrester and Van De Graaff generator.
12
BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE

Action of Points
No insulator is perfect. If we apply a large electric field to a practical insulator, it gets ionised and
becomes conducting. This phenomenon is called dielectric breakdown. The value of electric field at
which this happens is called dielectric strength of that medium. For air it is 3 × 10 6V/m.
Consider a conducting rod with a sharp edge. When it is charged, charges accumulate at its sharp
edge. Due to this accumulation, a large electric field is produced in its surrounding. So the surrounding
medium may gets ionised and becomes conducting. Then all the charges accumulated at the sharp
edge leaks out. This is called action of points.
Electric Potential Energy
It is the potential energy developed due to the interaction between charged bodies. Since electrostatic
field is conservative, if a work is done by an external agent to move a charged particle slowly in an
electric field, that work does not loss but is stored as electrostatic potential energy. If we release this
energy, this potential energy converts to kinetic energy and make the charges to move.
Case 1: Potential energy of a single charged particle placed at a point
Let a charged particle of charge q is placed at a point. Then its potential energy is defined as the work
done to bring that particle from infinity to that point without an acceleration. It is given by U = q V.
So

Potential energy of achargedparticleplacedat apoint = that charge×Potential of thepoint wherechargeisplaced

Case 2: Potential energy of a system of two point charges

Consider two point charges q 1 and q2 separated by a distance r. Potential energy of this system is
defined as the work done to bring these charges from infinite separation to r separation.

r 1 q1q 2
U=
q1 q2 40 r

For like charges; U is positive and hence force is repulsive. But for unlike charges, U is negative and
force is attractive.
Case 3: Potential energy of a system of more than two point charges
It is also defined as the work done to assemble the system from infinity. It can be calculated using
pairing method in 3 steps.
Step 1: Split the given charges into all possible pairs

1 q1q 2
Step 2: Find PE of each pair using 4 r
0

Step 3: To find the PE of total system, take the sum of PE of all pairs. To find the PE of a single charge, take
the sum of potential energy of pairs containing that charge only.
eg: Let three point charges are placed at the 3 corners of a triangle as shown.

q3

z y

q1 x q2
13
BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE

Step 1: Pairs are (q1, q2), (q1, q3), (q2, q3)

1 q1q 2
Step 2: PE of each pair are U1 
40 x

1 q 2 q3 1 q1q 3
U2  U3 
40 y 40 z

Step 3: U total  U1  U 2  U 3

PE of q1  U1  U 3

PE of q 2  U1  U 2

PE of q 3  U 2  U 3

PE of q1 + PE of q2 + PE of q3 = 2  U1  U 2  U3 

1
 Total PE of system  [sum of PE of individual charges]
2
Note 1: To find the work done to assemble the system, find PE of system
Note 2: To find the work done to break the system to infinity, find the negative of PE of system.
Note 3: To find the work done to bring a single charge to a system from infinity, find the PE of that charge in
the system.
Note 4: To find the work done to escape a charge from a system to infinity, find PE of that charge in the
system and take its negative.
Self Energy
Self energy of a particular charge distribution is the energy required to assemble the charges from
infinity to that particular configuration, without accelerating the charges. Self energy is always positive.
For a point charge, self energy is zero.
(i) Self energy of a charged conducting sphere
Consider a conducting sphere of radius R with a charge Q distributed over its outer surface. Then its

1 Q2
self energy is given by U 
40 2R

(ii) Self energy of a uniformly charged solid nonconducting sphere

Let a charge Q is uniformly distributed over the entire volume of a nonconducting sphere of radius R.
Then its self energy

1 3Q 2
U
40 5R

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BBrilliant STUDY CENTRE

Total PE of a charged system

For any charged system,
Total PE = Self energy of each charged body + Interaction PE between bodies
eg: Consider a solid conducting sphere of radius r and given with charge Q 1. It is surrounded by a
hollow conducting sphere of radius R and is given with charge Q 2.

R
Q2
Q1

PE of system = Self energy of inner sphere + Self energy outer sphere + Interaction energy between
the spheres.

1 Q12 1 Q22 1 Q1Q 2

PE of system   
4 o 2r 4o 2R 4o R
(To find the interaction PE between spheres, find potential of outer sphere due to inner sphere
 1 Q1 
V  
 4o R  and multiply it with charge Q2 on outer sphere. (This can be done in the reverse way
also)
Accelerating Potential
Let a charged particle q and mass m is placed at rest. Let a potential V is applied to it. Then work done
by potential on it is W = qV. Due to this, the particle starts moving with entire work done converting into
KE of the particle.
KE gained by particle = qV
If u is the speed of the particle, then

1 2 2qV
mu  qV u
2 m
Let 1 V potential difference is applied to an electron. Then KE gained by it

KE  qV  1.6  1019 1  1.6 1019 J

It is called 1 eV of energy.

1 eV  1.6 1019 J

15
 POTENTIAL DUE TO DIFFERENT TYPE OF
CHARGED BODIES [DERIVATION]
1. Potential Due to a Point Charge

Consider a point charge Q fixed at a point. P is a point in its electric field at a distance R from Q. To find
the potential at P, a (+I C) charge is brought from infinity to P without an acceleration. Consider a length
 
element dr in the path where the electric field is E given by

1 Q
E
4 0 r 2

Then by definition, potential at P is given by :

R  R
1 Q Q  1 
R
Q 1 1
V   E .dr    dr     
 
40 r 2
40  r  40  R  


1 Q
V
40 R Since potential is a scalar, the sign of charge must be substituted in equations.

If we consider a system of point charges

Potential at P

1 Q1 1 ( Q2 ) 1 Q3
V  
40 r1 40 r2 40 r3
1
2. Potential due to a dipole
Consider an electric dipole of charge q length 2  and moment P  q  2 . Let us find the potential at a
point distant r from the centre of the dipole O, on the
i. Axial line of the dipole

1 q
Consider an axial point A of the dipole as shown. Potential at point A due to (+q) charge ; V1  .
40 r  

Potential at point A due to (–q) charge, V2  1 ( q) .

40 r  

Total potential at point A

q  1 1  q  (r   )  (r   )  q 2
W  V1  V2          q  2  P 
40  r   r    40  r 
2 2
 40 (r   )
2 2

1 P
V For a short dipole
40 r   2
2
2   r 2
1 P
V
40 r 2

ii. Equilateral line of the dipole

1 q
Potential at A due to (+q) ; V1 
40 r  2
2

2
 Potential at A due to (–q) ; V2  1 ( q)
40 r 2  2
Total potential at A ; V = V1 + V2 = 0
iii. Any general point surrounding the dipole

1 ( q) 1 ( q)
Potential at A due to (–q) ; V1  
40 r1 40 (r   cos )

1 ( q) 1 ( q)
Potential at A due to (+q) ; V2  
40 r1 40 (r   cos )

q  1 1 
Total potential at A ; V  V1  V2    
4  0  r   cos  r   cos  

q (r   cos )  (r   cos ) 1 q  2 cos 

 
40 r   cos 
2 2 2
40 (r 2  2 cos2 )

1 P cos 
V For a short dipole;
40 r   2 cos2 
2
 2 cos2    r 2

1 P cos 
V
40 r2

3
  
1 (p. r)
In vector form V
40 r 3

3. Potential due to infinite line of charge

Consider an infinite line of charge of linear charge density  . Since line of charge is of infinite dimension,
we cannot define potential at a point because we cannot find a zero reference for potential. But of
course, we can define potential difference between two points.

Potential difference between points 1 and 2 ;

V2 r2  

V1
dV    E . dr
r1

r2
 
V2  V1    dr   (loge r)rr12
r1
2  0 r 2  0

 r 
V2  V1   loge  2 
20  r1 

4. Potential due to infinite thin conducting sheet of charge

Consider an infinite thin conducting sheet of uniform surface charge density  . Here also we cannot
define potential at a point as in the previous case. But we can define potential difference between two
points.

4
 Potential difference between points 1 and 2

V2 r2  
 r2  
V1
dV    E.dr   
r1 r1 2
0
dr  
20
(r)rr12


V2  V1   (r2  r1 )
20

5. Potential due to a charged ring

Let a charge Q is uniformly distributed over the circumference of a ring of radius R. P is a point at a
distance x on its axis from centre O. Then potential at P due to a charge element

1 dq
dq; dV 
40 R  x2
2

Total potential at axial point P

5
 1 dq 1 1
V    dq
40 R2  x 2 40 R2  x 2

1 Q
V
40 R  x2
2

1 Q
At the centre of ring ; x = 0 ; Then V  4 R
0

6. Potential at the centre of a charged circular arc

Let charge Q is uniformly distributed over a circular arc of radius R subtending an angle  at the
centre. Potential at O due to a small charged element dq.

1 dq
dV 
40 R

1 dq 1 1
Total potential at O ; V   4 R  4 R  dq
0 0

1 Q
V Here it can be noted that, V due to
40 R arc isindependent of 

7. Potential due to charged disc

6
Let a charge Q is uniformly distributed over the surface of a disc of radius R. Let  be the surface
charge density.
Consider a ring element of radius r and thickness dr
Area of element ; dA  2r dr

Charge on element ; dq   dA  2rdr

1 dq 1 2rdr  rdr
Potential at P due to the element ; dV   
40 r x
2 2 40 r  x
2 2 20 r  x2
2

 
R
rdr rdr
Total potential at P ; V    
20 r x
2 2 20 0 r  x2
2

Put y  r  x rdr  ydy

2 2 2

dy
2y  2r
dr

 ydy     2 R
  2
V    dy  2 y  r  x2   R  x2  x 
20 y 20 0 20   0 20  

  2
V R  x2  x 
20   Potential of the axial point

at the centre of the disc, x = 0

R
V
20

Similarly we can find potential on the rim of the disc as (Point O1)

7
 R
V
0

8. Potential due to spherical charges (in general)

To find the potential at a point, we have to find the work to bring a (+1C) from infinity to that point without
acceleration, against the electric fields in the region. To bring it to an outside point or surface, work has
to be done against the electric field present at the outside region of the sphere. But to do it to an inside
point or centre, work has to be done against the electric field at the outside and inside region, of the
sphere.
r  
V out    E .dr
 out

R  
V surface    E .dr
 out

R   a  
V In    E .dr    E In .dr
 out R

R   0  
V centre    E .dr    E In .dr
 out R

9. Potential due to conducting sphere / hollows sphere

Let a charge Q is uniformly distributed over the surface of a conducting sphere or hollow sphere. Then
8
 Q
its surface charge density   . Electric field at the inside and outside regions of the sphere
4R2
1 Q
Eout 
40 r 2

Ein = 0

Outside (P1 ) SurfacePoint (P2 )

r   R  
Vout    Eout .dr Vsurface    Eout .dr
 
r 1 Q R 1 Q
  dr   dr
 40 r 2  40 r 2
r R
Q  1 Q  1
  r    r 
40   40  
1 Q 1 Q
Vout  Vsurface 
40 r 40 R
Q  4R2 Q  4R2
R2 R
Vout  Vsurface 
0r 0

Inside Po int (P3 ) Centre (O)

R   Q   R   Q  

Vin    Eout .dr    Ein .dr Vcentre    Eout .dr    Ein .dr
 R  R

 Vsurface  O  Vsurface  O
 Vsurface  Vsurface

So for a conducting sphere / hollow sphere

1 Q R
Vin  Vcentre  Vsurface  
40 R 0

9
10. Potential due to nonconducting sphere of uniform density

Let a charge Q is uniformly distributed over the entire volume of a non conducting sphere of radius R.

Then volume charge density   Q . Electric field at the inside and outside regions are given by :
4
R 3
3

1 Q 1 Qr
Eout  , Ein 
40 r 2 40 R3

r   r 1 Q Q  1 
r

Vout    Eout . dr     dr  
  4 
0 r
2
40  r 

10
 1 Q
Vout 
40 r


R  R 1 Q Q  1
R

Vsurface    Eout .dr    dr   

  4 
0 r
2
40  r 

1 Q
Vsurface 
40 R

R   a   a
1 Qr
Vin    E .dr    E .dr  Vsurface    dr
 out  in
R
4  0 R 3

a
1 Q Q  r2  1 Q Q  a2  R2 
       
40 R 40R3  2 R 40 R 40R3  2 

1 Q
Vin  (3R 2  a2 )
40 2R3

1 Q 3  1 Q
Vcentre  (3R2  02 ) ; Vcentre   
40 2R 3
2  40 R 
(a  0)

3
 Vcentre  Vsurface
2

11
11. Potential due to conducting hemisphere
Consider a conducting hemisphere of radius R and uniform surface charge density  .

Consider a ring element of radius r and thickness dr as shown. Charge on the element ;
dq  2r dr   2 R2 sin  d
Point P2 (on the surface)
Potential at P2 due to the element (for element, P2 is an axial point)

1 dq 1 2R2 sin d

dV   x  OP2  R  OP1  R(1  cos )
40 r 2  x2 40 R2 sin2   R2 (1  cos )2

12
  R2 sin  d  R sin  d 
  ( 1  cos   2sin
2
)
20 R sin   1  cos   2 cos  20
2 2
2(1  cos ) 2

 
2 sin cos d
 R sin  d R sin  d R 2 2 R 
    cos d
20  40 sin  / 2 40 sin  / 2 20 2
2  sin2
2

 Potential at P2 ; V  R cos  d  R 
 /2
 20 2 20 
0
cos
2
d

 sin  / 2 0
 /2
R R   
   sin 4  sin  
20  1 0  
2
 

R
V
2 0

Point P1 (Centre)
To find potential at P1, imagine a similar hemisphere on the other side, to complete a sphere of radius
R
R, centre P1 and surface density  . Potential at P1 due to complete sphere is  . Since both halves
0

are symmetric with respect to centre P1, potential at P1 due to hemisphere, will be half that due to
complete sphere.

R
V
20

Some key points regarding the electrostatic behaviour of conducting bodies

1. If we consider a conducting solid body of any size or shape, the net electric field at any point inside the
body will be zero.
2. If we consider a conducting body given with a charge, the electric field at any point on its surface is
given by


E , here  is the surface charge density of the region surrounding that point
0

3. If we consider any cavity inside a conducting body, the net electric field at point inside the cavity due to
charges outside and outer surface of the conductor will be zero due to electrostatic shielding.

13
4. All conducting surfaces are equipotential. If we consider a conducting charged body, the potential at a
R
point on the surface will be V  , where R is the radius curvature of the point and  is the surface
0
charge density surrounding that point.
5. For a conducting surface R  constant. So charges accumulate more at the sharp edges of the
conducting surface.
6. Electric field and field lines are always perpendicular to the surface of a conducting body.
7. If we consider a conducting body, the electric potential due to all the charges appearing at the outer
surface and outside regions of the body together is same at every point (centre, inside and surface) of
that conducting body.

Q  q  total charge on outer surface

q1 and q2  outside charges
Potential due to all these charges together at all the points of this conductor (including 1, 2 and 3) are
same. This is because, net electric field inside the conductor is zero due to these charges.
8. If we place a point charge inside a conductor at any point, the potential due to it at every point on the
surface of that conductor will be same. This idea is valid for outside points also.

14
 eg : Now let us displace Q towards one side

Q at the centre Shifting of Q will not affect the electric field

of conducting sphere. values outside. So potential due to Q at the
Potential at the surface
KQ surface will be V  KQ and outside point
V R
R
KQ
Potential at outside point V
r
KQ
V
r

9. Consider a conducting sphere with a cavity inside. Let a point charge q is placed inside the cavity as
shown. A charge –q is induced at the inner surface of cavity. A charge +q is also induced at the outer
surface of the sphere.

Consider a point P inside the conducting sphere in the conducting region as shown. Potential at P due
Kq
to original charge q ; Vq 
r

15
 Potential at P due to induced charge (–q) V  q  K( q)
r
Total potential at P due to q and –q together

q ( q)
V  Vq  V q  K K 0
r r
This is true for every inside point of the conductor.
10. Consider a conducting sphere with a charge q outside as shown

–q and +q are the induced charges due to q. For the centre O of the sphere, distribution of –q and +q
are symmetrical. So potential due to –q and +q at the centre O will be of equal value and opposite sign.
So total potential at centre O of the conducting sphere due to the induced charges (–q) and (+q)
together is zero. But if we consider any other point like P, induced charges will produce a net potential.
But using key point 7, the total potential due to all the charges (q1, –q and +q) together at points
O and P will be same. So total potential at any point on the sphere due to outside charge q will be equal
to potential due to q at the centre of the sphere.
Potential of the conducting sphere (at every point) due to outside

1 Q
Charge q = potential at the centre of the sphere due to charge q = 4 r
0

Self Energy (Derivations)

Self energy is the electrostatic potential energy possessed by a charged body due to its own charged
configuration. it can be defined as the work done to assemble that charged body by bringing all its
constituent charges from infinity without an acceleration.
1. Self energy of a point charge = 0
2. Self energy as a conducting sphere
Consider a conducting sphere of charge Q and radius R. Consider an intermediate state during its
assembly at which ‘r’ radius of the sphere (r < R) is completed and is given with charge q (q < Q)
Potential at the surface of the sphere

16
 q
V K
r
Let an additional layer of thickness dr and charge dq is embedded over it. Work done for it

K
dW  dqV  q dq
r
So total work done to assemble the sphere of charge Q and radius R
Q
Q K K  q2  KQ2
W   dw   qdq    
0 R R  2 0 2R

So self energy of a conducting sphere

KQ2
V
2R

3. Self energy of a non conducting sphere of uniform density

Consider an intermediate status during construction of a non conducting sphere of charge Q, radius R
Q 3Q
with uniform volume charge density    , at which a charge q is given to a sphere of
4
R 3 4 R 3

3
radius r (r < R, q < Q). Then

4 3 4 3Q Q
q r   r 3  3 r3
3 3 4R R
3

1 q 1 Q 2
Potential at the surface of this sphere, V   r
40 r 40 R3

Now an additional layer of thickness dr and charge dq is embedded over it. Then

3Q 3Q
dq  4 r 2 dr   4 r 2 dr   3 r 2 dr
4 R 3
R

3Q 2 1 Q 2
Then work done for this process ; dw  dqV  r dr  r
R 3
40 R3

17
 3Q2 4
K  r dr
R6
So total work done to assemble the sphere

R
3KQ2  r 5 
R
3KQ2 3KQ2 R5 3 KQ2
W   dw  0 r4
dr     
R6 R 6  5 0 R6 5 5 R

So self energy of a nonconducting sphere of uniform density

3 KQ 2
U
5 R

Field energy density of electric field

Consider a charged conducting body with surface charge density  . The outward electrostatic pressure
on the surface of the conducting body

2 1
Pe   0E2
20 2

Due to this outward pressure, let the conductor expands through a small volume dV. Then work done
by electric forces
dW = Pe dV
Since electrostatic field is conservative, this work done is stored as electrostatic field energy
dV = PedV

dU
  Pe
dV

dU
Then term can be treated as the field energy per unit volume and is known as energy density ( e )
dV

e  Pe

2 1
e    0E 2
20 2

In an electric field region, in a given volume of space, the total self energy stored can be calculated by
integrating the field energy density Ue in an elemental volume dV in space as

1
dU  0 E2 dV
2

1
U  0E 2 dV
2

The limits of integration is taken as per the dimensions of the regions in which we will calculate the field
18
 energy. The above equations for self energy can be derived using this idea also.
e g 1 : Self energy of a conducting sphere
Consider a volume element

dV  4r 2dr

1 Q
Field over the region ; E  4 r 2
0

Inside the conducting sphere, field is zero. So field is present only in the outside region, that is form
surface to infinity. So energy will be stored from surface to infinity. So the limit of integration is from R
to  .

 1    1 Q
U  0E2 dV  0   2 
4r 2 dr
R 2 2 R
 4  0 r 

2
 1  0  r 2 dr 1 Q2  dr
  4
 40 
Q2
2 R r4

40 2 
R r2


KQ2  1  KQ2  1 1 
    
2  r R 2   R 

KQ2
U  Same result
2R

eg 2 : Self energy of a non conducting sphere of uniform density

dV  4r 2dr

1 Qr
field inside ; Ein  4 R3
0

19
 1 Q
field outside ; Eout  4 r 2
0

So part of self energy is stored within the sphere (U1 ) (0 to R) and remaining part outside (U2 ) the
sphere (R to  )

2
R 1  R  1  Q 2r 2
U1   0 Ein2 dV  0    4r 2 dr
0 2 2 0
 4  0  R 6

1 Q 2r 2 R KQ2  R5  KQ2

40 R6 0
r 4 dr   
2R6  5  10R

R 1 KQ2
U2   0 Eout
2
dV 
0 2 2R
So total self energy

3 KQ2
U  Same result
5 R

eg 3 : Interaction potential energy between two charged bodies can be given as

1
U  0 E1 E2 dV
2
E1 and E2 are the fields produced by the two bodies.

20