Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

MODULE 01

STRUCTURAL FORMS AND SYSTEMS FOR BUILDINGS AND BRIDGES

1.1 Structure
Structure is defined as a system of interconnected members assembled in a stable configuration
and used to support a load or combination of loads.

1.2 Classification of structures

As an engineer, you must be able to classify structures according to their form and function and
you must also be able to recognize various types of elements composing a structure.

1.2.1 According to use

Structures can be classified according to their uses
1) Civil Structures: Building, Bridges, Towers etc. are used by civilians or general public.
2) Military Structures: Ships, Aircraft Frames, Tanks etc. used by the military.

1.2.2 According to structural system

Structural system composed of structural members joined together by structural connections. Each
structural system may be composed of one or more of the four basic types of structures.
The four basic types of structures are:

1) Trusses
2) Cables and Arches
3) Frames
4) Surface Structures

1.2.2.1 Trusses
A truss is a configuration, which is designed to sustain inclined, vertical, horizontal loads accruing
at or between its points of support.

Characteristic of a truss:
a) The general configuration of a truss is triangle.
b) The members are connected of their end by frictionless pin.
c) The loads are applied only at joints and not at the intermediate points of a member.

They are mainly three types:

a) Simple truss: It is possible to create a simple truss by joining three bars together to form a
triangle (Figure 1(a)). We can increase the size of the truss by adding two more members
with an additional joint. By repeating this process, we can develop simple trusses with
different shapes as shown below. The triangular building block assures internal stability of
the truss structure as it is increased in size.

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

b) Compound truss: A compound truss is made up of simple trusses joined together to form a
larger truss. The Figure 1(b) shows a compound truss consisting of two simple trusses
joined by a common joint and a bar. It is also possible to have multiple simple trusses
joined together to create a larger compound truss. The connection of simple trusses then
becomes a design issue determined based on the size of the resulting compound truss.
Compound trusses are commonly used to support loads over long spans as in bridges.
c) Complex truss: A complex truss uses a general layout of members different from that used
in simple and compound trusses. It often incorporates overlapping members (Figure 1(c)).

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1 Different type of truss
Other Types of Truss:
a) Planar truss: Planar trusses are composed of members that lie in the same plane. They are
frequently used.

b) Space truss: A space frame truss is a three-dimensional framework of members pinned at

their ends.

c) Warren truss: Truss members form a series of equilateral triangles, alternating up and
down.

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

d) Pratt truss: The design uses vertical members for compression and horizontal members to
respond to tension.

e) King post truss: One of the simplest truss styles to implement, the king post consists of
two angled supports leaning into a common vertical support.

f) Queen posts truss: Sometimes referred to as a Palladian truss, the Queen Post Truss
consists of two principal rafters, a tie beam, two vertical posts (queen posts) and a straining
beam.

Assumption in Truss:
a) It is assumed that the joints of a truss are made with frictionless pin of hinges.
b) Truss members are usually subjected to axial forces only
c) Loads that cause the entire truss to bend are converted into axial tensile and compressive
forces in the members.

Selection: Select a truss for the design when the span of the structure is large and there is no
restriction

1.2.2.2 Cables and Arches

Cables and arch type structures are used to span long distances

Cable structure: A cable structure is a type of structure that utilizes tensioned cables to support
or transmit the major loads of the structure.

Types of cable structures:

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

a) Cable-Stayed Bridges: A bridge which consists of a superstructure of steel or reinforced

concrete members that is supported at one or more points by cables extending from one or more
towers. The cables transfer their tensile load to the towers as shown in the Figure below. This load
is then transferred to the main column on which the tower is constructed.

b) Suspension Bridges: Suspension bridges are one of the most beautiful civil engineering
structures in the world. It is a beautiful combination of ropes, steel and concrete. In a suspension
bridge there is a suspender cable which runs the entire length of the bridge and is supported by two
or more towers. From this suspender cable, vertical or radiating rods or suspension cables are
suspended which hold up the deck of the bridge.

Arch structure: An arch is a pure compression form. It can span a large area by resolving forces
into compressive stresses and, in turn eliminating tensile stresses.
The most common true arch configurations are the

a) Fixed arch,
b) Two-hinged arch, and
c) Three-hinged arch.

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

a) Fixed arch: The fixed arch is most often used in reinforced concrete bridge and tunnel
construction, where the spans are short. Because it is subject to additional internal stress caused
by thermal expansion and contraction, this type of arch is considered to be statically indeterminate.

b) Two-hinged arch: The two-hinged arch is most often used to bridge long spans. This type of
arch has pinned connections at the base. Unlike the fixed arch, the pinned base is able to rotate,
allowing the structure to move freely and compensate for the thermal expansion and contraction
caused by changes in outdoor temperature. However, this can result in additional stresses, so the
two-hinged arch is also statically indeterminate, although not to the degree of the fixed arch.

c) Three-hinged arch: The three-hinged arch is not only hinged at its base, like the two-hinged
arch, but at the mid-span as well. The additional connection at the mid-span allows the three-
hinged arch to move in two opposite directions and compensate for any expansion and contraction.
This type of arch is thus not subject to additional stress caused by thermal change. The three-
hinged arch is therefore said to be statically determinate. It is most often used for medium-span
structures, such as large building roofs.

Another advantage of the three-hinged arch is that the pinned bases are more easily developed than
fixed ones, allowing for shallow, bearing-type foundations in medium-span structures. In the three-
hinged arch, "thermal expansion and contraction of the arch will cause vertical movements at the
peak pin joint but will have no appreciable effect on the bases," further simplifying the foundation
design.

1.2.2.3 Frames
Frame structures are the structures having the combination of beam, column and slab to resist the
lateral and gravity loads. These structures are usually used to overcome the large moments
developing due to the applied loading.

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

Types of frame structures

a) Rigid Structural Frame: The word rigid means ability to resist the deformation. Rigid frame
structures can be defined as the structures in which beams & columns are made monolithically and
act collectively to resist the moments which are generating due to applied load. Rigid frame
structures provide more stability. This type of frame structures resists the shear, moment and
torsion more effectively than any other type of frame structures. That's why this frame system is
used in world's most astonishing building Burj Al-Arab
Rigid structure are subdivided into:

 Pin ended
 Fixed ended

Pin ended Rigid Frame Structure: A pinned ended rigid frame system usually has pins as their
support conditions. This frame system is considered to be non-rigid if its support conditions are
removed.

Fix Ended Rigid Frame Structure: In this type of rigid frame systems end conditions are usually
fixed.

b) Braced Structural Frames: In this frame system, bracing are usually provided between beams
and columns to increase their resistance against the lateral forces and side ways forces due to
applied load. Bracing is usually done by placing the diagonal members between the beams and
columns. This frame system provides more efficient resistance against the earthquake and wind
forces. This frame system is more effective than rigid frame system.

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

c) Gabeled Structural Frame: Gabled frame structures usually have the peak at their top. These
frames systems are in use where there are possibilities of heavy rain and snow.

d) Portal Structural Frame: Portal structural frames usually look like a door. This frame system
is very much in use for construction of industrial and commercial buildings.

1.2.2.4 Surface structures

 Membrane, plate, or shell type structures with much less thickness as compared to its other
dimensions.
 The structure is subjected to in-plane (tension or compression forces mainly).
 Surface structures may be made of rigid material such as reinforced concrete.
 The structures may be shaped as folded plates, cylinders, etc.
 They are referred to as thin plates or shells.

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

1.3 Structural design

Purposes: Engineers must design the structure for:

 Safety
 Serviceability
 Aesthetics
 Economy
 Environmental conditions
Design Process: creative and technical

 Requires a fundamental knowledge of material properties and mechanics

 Requires knowledge of various types of structural forms and configurations
 Calculation of loads and load effects acting on the structure
 Knowledge of structural analysis to calculated design forces
 Requires knowledge of designing structural members and connections
 Ability to evaluate designs and consider other options
 In this course we will study the basic analysis and design process

1.4 Building
A building is an enclosed structure with a roof and walls standing more or less permanently in one
place, such as a house or factory. Buildings come in a variety of sizes, shapes, and functions, and
have been adapted throughout history for a wide number of factors, from building materials
available, to weather conditions, land prices, ground conditions, specific uses, prestige, and
aesthetic reasons.

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

1.4.1 Basic functional requirements of a building

The design and performance of a good building should satisfy the following basic functional
requirements should be important for the design and performance of a good building:
1) The structure system of the building should be strong and sound.
2) It should have sufficient stiffness so that its deterioration does not reduce the efficiency of
the structure to its intended purpose.
3) From the performance point of view, the building should be well planned to make comfort
and convenient to the occupants of the building.
To achieve the above three important fundamental requirements, a building should satisfy the
following requirements in its design and construction:
 Comfort and convenience
 Durability
 Heat or thermal insulation
 Moisture or damp prevention
 Security against burglary
 Sound insulation
 Strength and stability
 Dimensional stability
 Economy
 Fire protection
 Light and ventilation
1.4.2 Major parts of reinforced concrete buildings - framed structures
Concrete frame structures are the most common type of modern building. It usually consists of a
frame or a skeleton of concrete. Horizontal members are beams and vertical ones are the columns.
Concrete Buildings structures also contain slabs which are used as base, as well as roof/ceiling.
Among these, the column is the most important as it carries the primary load of the building.

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

Reinforce concrete frame structure is actually a connected frame of members which are firmly
connected to each other. These connections are called moment connections. There are also other
types of connections which include the hinged connections that are mostly used in steel structures,
but the concrete frame structures have moment connections in almost all of the cases.
The concrete framed structure should resist various loads that act on the building during its life.
These loads include Dead loads, live loads (imposed loads), wind loads, dynamic loads and
earthquake loads.
1.4.1 Slabs
These are the plate element and carry the loads primarily by flexure. They usually carry the vertical
loads. Under the action of horizontal loads, due to a large moment of inertia, they can carry quite
large wind and earthquake forces, and then transfer them to the beam.

1.4.2 Beams
These carry the loads from slabs and also the direct loads as masonry walls and their self-weights.
The beams may be supported on the other beams or may be supported by columns forming an
integral part of the frame. These are primarily the flexural members.

1.4.3 Columns
These are the vertical members carrying loads from the beams and from upper columns. The loads
carried may be axial or eccentric. Columns are the most important when compared with beams
and slabs. This is because, if one beam fails, it will be a local failure of one floor but if one column
fails, it can lead to the collapse of the whole structure.

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

1.4.4 Foundation
These are the load transmitting members. The loads from the columns and walls are transmitted to
the solid ground through the foundations.

Other important components of concrete frame structures:

1.5.5 Shear walls
These are important structural elements in high-rise buildings. Shear walls are actually very large
columns because of which they appear like walls rather than columns. These take care of the
horizontal loads like wind and earthquake loads. Shear walls also carry the vertical loads. It’s an
important point to understand that they only work for horizontal loads in one direction, which is
the axis of long dimension of wall.

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

1.4.6 Elevator shafts

These are the vertical concrete boxes in which the elevators are provided to move up and down.
The elevator is actually contained in its own concrete box. These shafts act as very good structural
elements which help in resisting horizontal loads and also carry vertical loads.

1.4.3 Some popular structural forms for building structure

Tall buildings becoming more popular in the word with the development and it has also become a
fashion to construct a tall building.
Due to the limited land area in congested environments, the most convenient option is to build a
tall building to accommodate all the services. Tall buildings are constructed as mixed
developments, residences, office work, etc.

As discussed above, there are key factors to be attended when designing tall buildings. Further,
depending on the nature of the structure suitable structural systems shall be selected by the
structural engineer to proceed with the design.

Further, these structural forms discussed below can be identified as lateral load resisting systems.
Here, we will discuss 14 different structural forms as-

1) Braced frame structures

2) Rigid frame structures
3) Infilled frame structures
4) Shear wall structures
5) Coupled shear wall structures
6) Wall frame structures
7) Framed tube structures
8) Tube in Tube or Hull-core structures
9) Bundled tube structures
10) Braced tube structures
11) Outrigger-braced structures
12) Suspended structures
13) Space structures
14) Hybrid structures

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

1.4.4 Braced frame structures

Braced frame structures are mainly constructed in steel buildings. Steel buildings are
comparatively weak in lateral stability when compared with the same scale concrete building.

They deform when lateral loads from wind, earthquake, etc. are applied without resisting much
due to the lack of lateral stiffness. Therefore, frames are braced and convert the structure into a
braced frame structure to carry these lateral loads to the foundation.

Members are fixed between the frame to carry the lateral loads in the form of axial tension or
compression force. These members are designed after doing the analysis for the lateral loads.
There are different types of lateral bracing systems.

1) Single diagonals
2) Cross bracings
3) K-bracings
4) V-bracings

1.4.4.1 Single diagonals

Bracings are fixed along the diagonal of the frame. When these frames are fixed, they are arranged
in a way that they carry the axial tensile forces. Members can carry higher tensile forces than the
compression forces. Therefore, diagonals are fixed in both the direction to carry the lateral forces
applied in either direction.
Then, we can design the backings for tensile forces. Further, failure in the compression is minimal.

The bracing in the side of applying the load takes the latera load as a tensile force.

1.4.4.2 Cross bracing

Bracings fixed diagonally by crossing each other are done. The following figure indicates the
arrangement of the cross bracings.

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

Cross bracings are fixed in the mainframes in different ways. Instead of having a single bracing as
shown in the above figure, bracings may be fixed between internal frames also.

1.4.4.3 K-bracings
The following figure indicates the arrangement of a K-bracing.

The addition of the bracing to the frame structure reduces lateral deflection.
1.4.4.4 Rigid frame structure
See Section 1.2.2.3

1.4.4.5 Infilled frame structures

Masonry infills walls can be used to improve the lateral load resisting capacity of a building.
Masonry wall constructed inside the concrete frame makes these types of structures.
Further, the continuation of the infill walls vertically is important to consider for lateral stability.
It is not a must to have all the walls to be filled with masonry walls. However, at least one panel
could be filled.

In general, these walls are not considered for the lateral stability in medium-rise buildings when
they check for earthquake loads.

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

The quality of the bricks used for these walls is very important to make good solid constructions.
Cracks in the wall can be considered as the loss of stiffness of the wall. Having major cracks in
the wall does not enable us to consider that wall for lateral stability.
One of the most critical issues is that they tend to remove with time. When plans are changing or
the client is changing, they need different internal-external arrangements. Thus, they remove the
infill walls. It significantly affects the lateral stability of the structure if it is maintained by the
infilled walls.
Therefore, consideration of the lateral stability by the frame could be more useful and safe in these
kinds of structural forms.

1.4.4.6 Shear wall structures

Concrete walls constructed vertically fixed at the base with a rigidity to transfer the vertical loads
and horizontal loads applied on them can be identified as a shear wall.

Based on the height and floor area of the building, the sufficient number of shear walls having an
adequate cross-section area to be built to provide the required stiffness for withstanding the lateral
loads.

Shear walls are constructed as lift walls, staircase core walls, partition walls, etc. where it can be
continued from base to roof.

Since the concrete walls are stiffer than the rigid concrete beam and column structure, shear wall
structures could be constructed up to about 34 stories.

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

The following could be considered importantly related to the structures constructed with shear
walls.

 Using the shear walls in construction is more suitable for buildings having repetitive floors.
As discussed above, we need to continue the shear walls vertically. Therefore, repetition
adds many advantages to the structural design as well as the cost of construction.
 Structures up to 35 stores could be designed for lateral loads by considering the shear walls
only. Interaction of the shear wall and frame structure could be considered minimal. In this
method, we design shear walls to carry all the lateral loads without transferring to the
frame.
 Further, columns can be designed for the vertical loads from the structure and bending
moment from the beams based on the different load cases and alternative loads.
 When the layouts are planned, shear walls shall be located in a way that sufficient vertical
loads are applied to them. Lateral loads on the walls make tensile stresses if they are not
balanced by the compressive stresses applied due to the vertical loads. Further, if the wall
is in compression, we could have an economical design.
 In high rise buildings, some times, reduction of wall thicknesses and lengths,
discontinuation of walls, etc are done. These actions make a considerable impact on
structural behavior. Changes of this nature shall be done with much care and with careful
analysis of the structure.
 When the shear walls are not located symmetrically in either direction, the structure will
be twisted with the application of lateral loads. These actions shall be considered in the

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

design and computer analysis software shall be used to model the structure to find the
behavior.

1.4.4.7 Coupled shear wall structures

In most of the high rise buildings, the shear walls are constructed around the lift walls. Generally,
they are aligned in either direction. Further, there are lobbies between the lift cores.

These lift cores can be connected by concrete beams making the interaction between the wall in
the two cores. When two shear walls connected by moment resisting frame is called the coupled
shear wall. This connection enhances the lateral load resisting capacity of the structure than the
walls are acting separately.

1.4.4.8 Framed tube structures

The lateral load resisting capacity of the inner concrete walls is limited with the increase of the
height of the building when compared to the area of the building.

The length of the shear walls in the direction of lateral loads are applied is the measure of lateral
stiffness in that direction. But there are limitations. We cannot continue shear walls throughout the
floor.

In such scenarios, consideration of the framed tube action would be useful from other structural
forms.

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

Out frame structure can be used to resist the lateral loads. Depth of the beams and height of the
columns are required to increase to take this action.

However, there are limitations of increasing the element sizers at facade as we have to reduce the
size of the windows. If we can create a frame around the building as would above figure, it is
possible to resist higher load as it acting as a tube structure.
Columns at a spacing of 2-4m with deep beams along the perimeter create a tube structure.

Both the concrete and steel structures can be constructed as tube structures. Further, 40-60 story
buildings can be design and constructed with this method.

Though the rectangular shape is more efficient other shapes such as circular and octagonal could
also be constructed.

1.4.4.9 Tube in tube or Hull-Core structures

These types of structural forms have good efficiency in lateral load resisting.

Core walls that could be constructed for facilitating lift and staircases could be considered as
internal tubes.
This system is one step forward from the frame tube structure that we discussed previously.

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

In this structural system, the core walls act with the perimeter tube to enhance the lateral load-
carrying capacity.
1.4.4.10 Bundled tube structures
This structural form is used in the tallest structures.
This system is a combination of several tubes.

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

This structural system is used in the tallest building that required a greater stiffener at the lower
levels. Further, this system has a very high lateral load resisting capacity.
1.4.4.11 Braced tube structures
These types of structural forms can be built as steel or concrete structures.
The braced framed fixed around the tube provides very high lateral load resistivity. Further, fixing
of bracings of this nature does not affect the internal floor arrangements.
However, it could affect the arrangement of the facade and windows.

The bracings are connected with all the columns makes the distribution of the lateral forces
uniformed. Further, due to the connection of the bracings and vertical columns, axial loads on the
columns will be distributed to each other.
The columns having higher axial load will transfer the load to the columns having lesser loads.
1.5.0.12 Outrigger braced structures
The structural efficiency of the tall buildings heavily depends on the lateral stiffness and resistance
capacity. Out of the available structural systems, outrigger systems are more commonly used
especially buildings having repetitive floors.
A deep beam or wall having a height of the floor to floor or steel trusses constructed between two
floors can be considered as an outrigger. It connects the core and the perimeter.

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

The purpose of the outrigger is to couple the internal structures and the perimeter structural system
in order to resist the lateral loads. The following factors could affect the performance of the
outrigger system as one of the useful structural forms.
 Locations are constructed throughout the height of the building. If we design correctly, the
trial and error method could be used to select the best position for the outrigger. Locations
that minimize the lateral deflections could be selected by the computer analysis model.
 Number of levels of outriggers are provided
 Their location in the plan
 Presence of belt trusses to engage the adjacent perimeter columns versus stand along with
mega columns
 Depth of the outrigger truss
The following figure indicates the reductions that could be achieved by introducing an outrigger
system to a high rise building. The connection of the core shear walls enhances the bending
moment of the core.

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

Instead of connecting the perimeter with the core which makes many issues with the building
functions, there can be constructed at the perimeter as belt trusses. It allows users to use the floor
efficiently. Commonly, outrigger floors are used as service floors.
Providing more number of outriggers reduce the efficiency of additional outriggers. Generally,
there could be around 5 maximum outriggers in a building. Further, having two outriggers is more
efficient than having one.
1.4.4.12 Suspended structures
The key element of these types of structures is the core. The core could be constructed from
concrete walls or from the truss elements.
All the floors cantilevered from the core are hanging from the members starting at the roof level.
There will be sufficient space ant the ground floor level.

1.5.1.13 Space structures

Three-dimensional space structure carries the vertical and horizontal loads applied to the structure.
The primary load resisting system is the three-dimensional space structural system.
Structural analysis and design of these structures are comparatively very difficult due to the
complex nature of the structure.

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

A computer analysis model could be used to understand structural behavior such as load paths, etc.

1.4.4.13 Hybrid structures

Hybrid structures are the structures of several combinations of structural systems discussed above.
Due to the different combinations, hybrid structures become more complicated structural forms.
In addition, its combination of these structures enables to create very special structural systems.
Further, they could be more attentive in shape.

Structural analysis and design are more complicated due to the integration of different systems
within one structure. Further, these combinations shall be selected and decided based on the
applicability of the nature of the structure.

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

Due to the complexity of the structural system, a detailed study is required when analyzing and
design of these structures. Further, computer-based analysis using suitable software shall be done
for knowing the overall behavior of the structure.

1.5 Bridge
A Bridge is a structure for carrying road traffic or other moving loads over a deep valley or
obstruction such as a river, channel, road, or railway.
1.5.1 Components of bridge
The main components of a bridge are the foundation, substructure, and the superstructure. Each of
these core areas have other parts within them. Piles and pile caps are constructed as the foundation
of the bridge. The sub-structure includes piers and abutments, while the superstructure includes
the girders, bearings and deck.

Figure 2 Main Parts of a Bridge

1.5.1.1 The Foundation

i. Piles:
Piles are usually laid to give support to a bridge and make up the initial foundation. The piles
help the weight and stresses applied by the bridge to be transmitted evenly through the ground
making it stable and strong.
The material and design of a pile depend on several factors such as soil type, ground
instability and load bearing capacity constraint. For bridges on rivers, scouring is also
considered before the bridge is designed.
ii. Caps

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

Caps provide additional load transferring capacity to the piles. They are also known as pile
caps as they are placed right on top of the pile foundation. Caps are often made of very heavy
concrete to give maximum strength to the upper part of the bridge.
1.5.1.2 Substructure
i. Abutments
Bridges have vertical supports at their approaching ends, functioning as retention walls for
the ground. These are built from reinforced concrete and are capable of withstanding high
levels of horizontal force.
ii. Piers
When there are multiples spans in a bridge, then piers are mounted at the end of each to give
sustenance from forces and vibrational effects, acting as supporting points for the bridge.
iii. Pier caps
Pier caps are also known as the headstock. This functions as a space for girders to transfer
loads on bearings (that divide the load among all the piers), from the superstructure
components on the top.
1.5.1.3 Superstructure
i. Girders
Girders joins all the pile caps together by extending over them. Girders are also referred to
as beams, and give support to the deck. This can be a single span, or even multiple spans
joining all the bents, dependent on the length of the bridge. Girders usually have a truss
design to improve stress and load resistibility. Hence, pressure is quickly passed towards the
foundation. Girders are mostly made from metal or concrete.
ii. Bearings
Bearings are structural members capable of transferring loads from the deck to the
substructure. These displace stresses and load to the piers through the girders to allow
movement between parts of a bridge. The movement can be linear as well as torsional.
Bearings provide allowance between these parts.
iii. Trusses
Trusses are made by joining triangular components to divide loads and bending moments
through the bridge. Some types are simple trusses, suspension, and also cantilever trusses.
The truss network provides a surface for transportation which can be built as a deck truss,
pony truss, or through truss. Each truss differs in how the traffic will move on the bridge.
iv. Decks
Decks get the direct traffic load. Some basic decks can be made of concrete and also from
metal. These include travel or walking paths, drainage systems, curbs, expansion
components, sidewalks and approach slabs.
v. Barriers
Mainly as a safety and protection feature, bridges have barriers on the sides of their decks.
These can be specially designed fixtures, ropes, rails, fences, or concrete walls for better
aesthetics.

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

vi. Arches
A bridge with arches has a lot of strength. Arches can help control the safety and load bearing
ability of the bridge. The quantity of arches and materials used for construction is very
important. A space connecting the bridge pillars and deck beam is called the spandrel. There
can be open or closed spandrels depending on the arch design.

1.6 Types of bridge

The most common types of bridges based on type of superstructure are described below:
1) Beam Bridge
2) Truss Bridge
3) Cantilever Bridge
4) Suspension Bridge
5) Cable-stayed Bridge
6) Arch Bridge
1.6.1 Beam bridge
Beam bridges are horizontal beams supported at each end by substructure units and can be either
simply supported when the beams only connect across a single span, or continuous when the beams
are connected across two or more spans. Girder bridges, box girder bridge and plate girder bridge
are the different types of beam bridge. They are typically made of steel, concrete or wood. Girder
bridges and plate girder bridges, usually made from steel, are types of beam bridges. Box girder
bridges, made from steel, concrete, or both, are also beam bridges.

Figure 3 Beam bridge

1.6.2 Truss Bridge

A truss bridge is a bridge whose load-bearing superstructure is composed of a truss. This truss is
a structure of connected elements forming triangular units. The connected elements (typically
straight) may be stressed from tension, compression. Truss bridges are one of the oldest types of
modern bridges. A truss bridge is economical to construct owing to its efficient use of materials.

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

Figure 4 Truss bridge

1.6.3 Cantilever bridge
Cantilever bridges are built using cantilevers which may be simple beams or trusses supported on
only one end. Most cantilever bridges use a pair of continuous spans that extend from opposite
sides of the supporting piers to meet at the center of the obstacle the bridge crosses.

Figure 5 Cantilever bridge

1.6.4 Suspension bridge
A suspension bridge is a type of bridge in which the deck is hung below suspension cables on
vertical suspenders. The suspension cables must be anchored at each end of the bridge, since any
load applied to the bridge is transformed into a tension in these main cables. The main cables
continue beyond the pillars to deck-level supports, and further continue to connections with
anchors in the ground. These types of bridges can be made with a long span. Less material may be
required than other bridge types, even at spans they can achieve, leading to a reduced construction
cost. They may be better able to withstand earthquake movements than heavier and more rigid
bridges.

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

Figure 6 Suspension Bridge

1.6.5 Cable-stayed bridge
A cable-stayed bridge has one or more towers (or pylons), from which cables support the bridge
deck. A distinctive feature are the cables or stays, which run directly from the tower to the deck,
normally forming a fan-like pattern or a series of parallel lines. This is in contrast to the modern
suspension bridge, where the cables supporting the deck are suspended vertically from the main
cable, anchored at both ends of the bridge and running between the towers. The cable-stayed bridge
is optimal for spans longer than cantilever bridges and shorter than suspension bridges. This is the
range within which cantilever bridges would rapidly grow heavier, and suspension bridge cabling
would be costlier.

Fig. 1.6: Cable-stayed bridge

1.6.6 Arch bridge
The arch bridge consists of a curve-shaped structure supported by abutment at each end. Generally,
the roadway of the bridge lies on the arch structure. The arch squeezes together and this squeezing
force is carried along the curve to support at each end. The abutments then push back on the arch
and prevent the arch ends from spreading apart. The span of arch bridges is normally up to 800
feet and made of stone, steel, or concrete. Types of arch bridges are 1) Hinge-less arch bridge, 2)
Two hinged arch bridges, 3) Three hinged arch bridge and 4) Tied arch bridge.

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

Fig. 1.9: Arch Bridge

1.7 Transmission tower

A transmission tower (also known as a power transmission tower, power tower, or electricity
pylon) is a tall structure (usually a steel lattice tower) used to support an overhead power line. In
electrical grids, they are used to carry high voltage transmission lines that transport bulk electric
power from generating stations to electrical substations; utility poles are used to support lower-
voltage sub-transmission and distribution lines that transport power from substations to electric
customers.
Transmission towers have to carry the heavy transmission conductors at a sufficient safe height
from the ground. In addition to that, all towers have to sustain all kinds of natural calamities. So
transmission tower design is an important engineering job where civil, mechanical, and electrical
engineering concepts are equally applicable.
1.7.1 Transmission tower parts
A power transmission tower is a key part of a power transmission system. A power transmission
tower consists of the following parts:
1) The peak of the transmission tower
2) The cross arm of the transmission tower
3) The boom of transmission tower
4) Cage of transmission tower
5) Transmission Tower Body
6) Leg of transmission tower
7) Stub/Anchor Bolt and Baseplate assembly of the transmission tower.
1.7.1.1 Peak of transmission tower
The portion above the top cross arm is called peak of transmission tower. Generally, earth shield
wire connected to the tip of this peak.

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

1.7.1.2 Cross arm of transmission tower

Cross arms of transmission tower hold the transmission conductor. The dimension of cross arm
depends on the level of transmission voltage, configuration and minimum forming angle for stress
distribution.

1.7.1.3 Cage of transmission tower

The portion between tower body and peak is known as cage of transmission tower. This portion of
the tower holds the cross arms.

1.7.1.4 Transmission tower body

The portion from the bottom cross arms up to the ground level is called the transmission tower
body. This portion of the tower plays a vital role in maintaining the required ground clearance of
the bottom conductor of the transmission line.

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST
 Structural Forms and Systems for Buildings and Bridges

Dr. Md. Motiur Rahman, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, PUST