Calculus of Several Variables

Week 4

Dr. O.A. George

Dr. P.S. Olayiwola
Dr. John Ogbemhe

Department of Systems Engineering

University of Lagos

November 25, 2024

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 1 / 38
 Today’s Agenda

1 Cauchy-Riemann Equations

2 Analytical functions

3 Mapping by elementary functions

4 Quiz?

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 2 / 38
 Cauchy-riemann Equations: Definition

Cauchy-Riemann Equations state that a complex function is differentiable

if it satisfies the equations on a domain in the complex plane.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 3 / 38
 Cauchy-riemann Equations: Definition

Cauchy-Riemann Equations state that a complex function is differentiable

if it satisfies the equations on a domain in the complex plane. There are
two equations known as the Cauchy-Riemann Equations.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 3 / 38
 Cauchy-riemann Equations: Definition

Cauchy-Riemann Equations state that a complex function is differentiable

if it satisfies the equations on a domain in the complex plane. There are
two equations known as the Cauchy-Riemann Equations. If both equations
are true, then the complex function is complex differentiable.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 3 / 38
 Cauchy-riemann Equations: Definition

Cauchy-Riemann Equations state that a complex function is differentiable

if it satisfies the equations on a domain in the complex plane. There are
two equations known as the Cauchy-Riemann Equations. If both equations
are true, then the complex function is complex differentiable. Key
Reasons:
Broadens mathematical and analytical capabilities.
Critical for modeling and analyzing engineering systems.
Essential for research and innovation in technology.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 3 / 38
 Cauchy-Riemann Equations: Expressions

Given that z = x + iy and w = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y )

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 4 / 38
 Cauchy-Riemann Equations: Expressions

Given that z = x + iy and w = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y )

We first determine whether a function w = f (z) is analytic at a point.
This is provided by the Cauchy-Riemann equations.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 4 / 38
 Cauchy-Riemann Equations: Expressions

Given that z = x + iy and w = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y )

We first determine whether a function w = f (z) is analytic at a point.
This is provided by the Cauchy-Riemann equations.
These state that w = f (z) is differentiable at a point z = z0 if, and only if
 ∂u = ∂v
∂x ∂y

∂u
∂y
=− ∂v
∂x

The main application of Cauchy-Riemann Equations is to show a complex

function is not analytic.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 4 / 38
 Cauchy Proof
The functions u(x, y ) and v (x, y ) are called conjugate functions.
When these equations hold then it can be shown that the complex
∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f
derivative may be determined by using either ∂z = ∂x or ∂z = −i ∂y

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 5 / 38
 Cauchy Proof
The functions u(x, y ) and v (x, y ) are called conjugate functions.
When these equations hold then it can be shown that the complex
∂f ∂f ∂f ∂f
derivative may be determined by using either ∂z = ∂x or ∂z = −i ∂y

Proof.
Prove that a (i) necessary and (ii) sufficient condition that
w = f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ) be analytic in R is that the
Cauchy-Riemann’s equations;
∂u ∂v ∂u
∂x = ∂y and ∂y = − ∂v
∂x
are satisfied in R where the partial derivatives are continuous in R.
(i) Necessity:
For f (z) to be analytic:
′ (z+∆z)−f (z)
f (z) = lim∆z→0 ∆z must exist
′ u(x+∆x,y +∆y )−u(x,y )+iv (x+∆x,y +∆y )−iv (x,y )
f (z) = lim∆x→0 ∆x+i∆y
∆y →0
Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe
Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 5 / 38
 Cauchy Proof
The limit must be unique and independent of the path of approach.
Case 1: (on imaginary axis)
   
′ (u(x,y +∆y )−u(x,y ) (iv (x,y +∆y )−iv (x,y )
f (z) = lim∆y →0 i∆y + i∆y
   
′ 1 u(x,y +∆y )−u(x,y ) 1 iv (x,y +∆y )−iv (x,y )
f (z) = i lim∆y →0 i∆y + i lim∆y →0 i∆y
′ 1 ∂u i ∂v
f (z) = i ∂y + i ∂y (provided the partial derivatives exist).
′ 1 ∂u ∂v
Therefore, f (z) = i ∂y + ∂y .

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 6 / 38
 Cauchy Proof
The limit must be unique and independent of the path of approach.
Case 1: (on imaginary axis)
   
′ (u(x,y +∆y )−u(x,y ) (iv (x,y +∆y )−iv (x,y )
f (z) = lim∆y →0 i∆y + i∆y
   
′ 1 u(x,y +∆y )−u(x,y ) 1 iv (x,y +∆y )−iv (x,y )
f (z) = i lim∆y →0 i∆y + i lim∆y →0 i∆y
′ 1 ∂u i ∂v
f (z) = i ∂y + i ∂y (provided the partial derivatives exist).
′ 1 ∂u ∂v
Therefore, f (z) = i ∂y + ∂y .
Case 2: Real axis
   
′ u(x+∆x,y )−u(x,y ) iv (x+∆x,y )−iv (x,y )
f (z) = lim∆x→0 +
∆x ∆x
   
′ u(x+∆x,y )−u(x,y ) v (x+∆x,y )−v (x,y )
f (z) = lim∆x→0 ∆x + i lim∆x→0 ∆x
′ ∂u
f (z) = ∂x + i ∂v
∂x .
Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe
Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 6 / 38
 Cauchy Proof

′ 1 ∂u ∂v ∂u
f (z) = i ∂y + ∂y = ∂x + i ∂v
∂x
′ ∂u ∂v ∂u
f (z) = −i ∂y + ∂y = ∂x + i ∂v
∂x

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 7 / 38
 Cauchy Proof

′ 1 ∂u ∂v ∂u
f (z) = i ∂y + ∂y = ∂x + i ∂v
∂x
′ ∂u ∂v ∂u
f (z) = −i ∂y + ∂y = ∂x + i ∂v
∂x

The limit must be unique, therefore

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 7 / 38
 Cauchy Proof

′ 1 ∂u ∂v ∂u
f (z) = i ∂y + ∂y = ∂x + i ∂v
∂x
′ ∂u ∂v ∂u
f (z) = −i ∂y + ∂y = ∂x + i ∂v
∂x

The limit must be unique, therefore

Comparing the real and imaginary parts
∂v ∂u
Real: ∂y = ∂x

∂u ∂v
Imaginary: − ∂y = ∂x

These are the Cauchy-Riemann’s equations.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 7 / 38
 Interactive Activity 1: Cauchy-Riemann

Problem:
Prove that f (z) = 3x + y + i(3y − x) is an entire functions.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 8 / 38
 Interactive Activity 1: Cauchy-Riemann

Problem:
Prove that f (z) = 3x + y + i(3y − x) is an entire functions.
Solution:
Given f (z) = 3x + y + i(3y − x) ≡ u(x, y ) + iv (x, y )

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 8 / 38
 Interactive Activity 1: Cauchy-Riemann

Problem:
Prove that f (z) = 3x + y + i(3y − x) is an entire functions.
Solution:
Given f (z) = 3x + y + i(3y − x) ≡ u(x, y ) + iv (x, y )
u(x, y ) = 3x + y , v (x, y ) = 3y − x
∂u ∂u ∂v
∂x = 3, ∂y = 1, ∂x = −1 and ∂v ∂y = 3

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 8 / 38
 Interactive Activity 1: Cauchy-Riemann

Problem:
Prove that f (z) = 3x + y + i(3y − x) is an entire functions.
Solution:
Given f (z) = 3x + y + i(3y − x) ≡ u(x, y ) + iv (x, y )
u(x, y ) = 3x + y , v (x, y ) = 3y − x
∂u ∂u ∂v
∂x = 3, ∂y = 1, ∂x = −1 and ∂v ∂y = 3
∂v ∂u ∂u ∂v
∂y = ∂x = 3 [Satisfied], ∂y = − ∂x = 1 [Satisfied]

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 8 / 38
 Interactive Activity 1: Cauchy-Riemann

Problem:
Prove that f (z) = 3x + y + i(3y − x) is an entire functions.
Solution:
Given f (z) = 3x + y + i(3y − x) ≡ u(x, y ) + iv (x, y )
u(x, y ) = 3x + y , v (x, y ) = 3y − x
∂u ∂u ∂v
∂x = 3, ∂y = 1, ∂x = −1 and ∂v ∂y = 3
∂v ∂u ∂u ∂v
∂y = ∂x = 3 [Satisfied], ∂y = − ∂x = 1 [Satisfied]
Therefore, f (z) satisfies Cauchy-Riemann’s equations and f (z) exists.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 8 / 38
 Interactive Activity 2: Cauchy-Riemann

Problem:
Prove that f (z) = z is an entire function.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 9 / 38
 Interactive Activity 2: Cauchy-Riemann

Problem:
Prove that f (z) = z is an entire function.
Solution:
Given f (z) = z = x − iy so that

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 9 / 38
 Interactive Activity 2: Cauchy-Riemann

Problem:
Prove that f (z) = z is an entire function.
Solution:
Given f (z) = z = x − iy so that
u(x, y ) = x and v (x, y ) = −y . we find

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 9 / 38
 Interactive Activity 2: Cauchy-Riemann

Problem:
Prove that f (z) = z is an entire function.
Solution:
Given f (z) = z = x − iy so that
u(x, y ) = x and v (x, y ) = −y . we find
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
∂x = 1, ∂y = 0, ∂x = 0 and ∂y = −1

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 9 / 38
 Interactive Activity 2: Cauchy-Riemann

Problem:
Prove that f (z) = z is an entire function.
Solution:
Given f (z) = z = x − iy so that
u(x, y ) = x and v (x, y ) = −y . we find
∂u ∂u ∂v ∂v
∂x = 1, ∂y = 0, ∂x = 0 and ∂y = −1
∂v ∂u ∂u ∂v
∂y ̸= ∂x [Not satisfied], ∂y ̸= ∂x [Not satisfied]
Since the Cauchy-Riemann equations are not satisfied for any z0 , we
conclude that f (z) is nowhere differentiable.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 9 / 38
 Interactive Activity 3: Cauchy-Riemann
Problem:
Prove that f (z) = (z 2 − 2)e −x e −iy is an entire function.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 10 / 38
 Interactive Activity 3: Cauchy-Riemann
Problem:
Prove that f (z) = (z 2 − 2)e −x e −iy is an entire function.
Solution:
Given f (z) = (z 2 − 2)e −x e −iy
Let z = x + iy
Therefore

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 10 / 38
 Interactive Activity 3: Cauchy-Riemann
Problem:
Prove that f (z) = (z 2 − 2)e −x e −iy is an entire function.
Solution:
Given f (z) = (z 2 − 2)e −x e −iy
Let z = x + iy
Therefore
z 2 = (x + iy )2 = x 2 − y 2 + 2ixy ,
e −x e −iy = e −x (cos(−y ) + isin(−y )) = e −x (cosy − isiny )

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 10 / 38
 Interactive Activity 3: Cauchy-Riemann
Problem:
Prove that f (z) = (z 2 − 2)e −x e −iy is an entire function.
Solution:
Given f (z) = (z 2 − 2)e −x e −iy
Let z = x + iy
Therefore
z 2 = (x + iy )2 = x 2 − y 2 + 2ixy ,
e −x e −iy = e −x (cos(−y ) + isin(−y )) = e −x (cosy − isiny )
f (z) = (x 2 − y 2 + 2ixy − 2)(e −x cosy − ie −x siny )

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 10 / 38
 Interactive Activity 3: Cauchy-Riemann
Problem:
Prove that f (z) = (z 2 − 2)e −x e −iy is an entire function.
Solution:
Given f (z) = (z 2 − 2)e −x e −iy
Let z = x + iy
Therefore
z 2 = (x + iy )2 = x 2 − y 2 + 2ixy ,
e −x e −iy = e −x (cos(−y ) + isin(−y )) = e −x (cosy − isiny )
f (z) = (x 2 − y 2 + 2ixy − 2)(e −x cosy − ie −x siny )
= [x 2 e −x cosy − y 2 e −x cosy − 2e −x cosy + 2xye −x siny ] + i[−x 2 e −x siny +
y 2 e −x siny + 2xye −x cosy + 2e −x siny ]

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 10 / 38
 Interactive Activity 3: Cauchy-Riemann
Problem:
Prove that f (z) = (z 2 − 2)e −x e −iy is an entire function.
Solution:
Given f (z) = (z 2 − 2)e −x e −iy
Let z = x + iy
Therefore
z 2 = (x + iy )2 = x 2 − y 2 + 2ixy ,
e −x e −iy = e −x (cos(−y ) + isin(−y )) = e −x (cosy − isiny )
f (z) = (x 2 − y 2 + 2ixy − 2)(e −x cosy − ie −x siny )
= [x 2 e −x cosy − y 2 e −x cosy − 2e −x cosy + 2xye −x siny ] + i[−x 2 e −x siny +
y 2 e −x siny + 2xye −x cosy + 2e −x siny ]
u(x, y ) = x 2 e −x cosy − y 2 e −x cosy − 2e −x cosy + 2xye −x siny and

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 10 / 38
 Interactive Activity 3: Cauchy-Riemann
Problem:
Prove that f (z) = (z 2 − 2)e −x e −iy is an entire function.
Solution:
Given f (z) = (z 2 − 2)e −x e −iy
Let z = x + iy
Therefore
z 2 = (x + iy )2 = x 2 − y 2 + 2ixy ,
e −x e −iy = e −x (cos(−y ) + isin(−y )) = e −x (cosy − isiny )
f (z) = (x 2 − y 2 + 2ixy − 2)(e −x cosy − ie −x siny )
= [x 2 e −x cosy − y 2 e −x cosy − 2e −x cosy + 2xye −x siny ] + i[−x 2 e −x siny +
y 2 e −x siny + 2xye −x cosy + 2e −x siny ]
u(x, y ) = x 2 e −x cosy − y 2 e −x cosy − 2e −x cosy + 2xye −x siny and
v (x, y ) = −x 2 e −x siny + y 2 e −x siny + 2xye −x cosy + 2e −x siny

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 10 / 38
 Interactive Activity 3: Cauchy-Riemann
Problem:
Prove that f (z) = (z 2 − 2)e −x e −iy is an entire function.
Solution:
Given f (z) = (z 2 − 2)e −x e −iy
Let z = x + iy
Therefore
z 2 = (x + iy )2 = x 2 − y 2 + 2ixy ,
e −x e −iy = e −x (cos(−y ) + isin(−y )) = e −x (cosy − isiny )
f (z) = (x 2 − y 2 + 2ixy − 2)(e −x cosy − ie −x siny )
= [x 2 e −x cosy − y 2 e −x cosy − 2e −x cosy + 2xye −x siny ] + i[−x 2 e −x siny +
y 2 e −x siny + 2xye −x cosy + 2e −x siny ]
u(x, y ) = x 2 e −x cosy − y 2 e −x cosy − 2e −x cosy + 2xye −x siny and
v (x, y ) = −x 2 e −x siny + y 2 e −x siny + 2xye −x cosy + 2e −x siny
∂u
∂x = (2xe −x − x 2 )cosy + y 2 e −x cosy + 2e −x cosy + (2e −x − 2xe −x )ysiny
Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe
Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 10 / 38
 Interactive Activity 3: Cauchy-Riemann
∂u
∂y = −x 2 e −x siny − (−y 2 )siny + 2ycosy )e −x + 2e −x siny + (2xe −x siny +
2xye −x cosy )

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 11 / 38
 Interactive Activity 3: Cauchy-Riemann
∂u
∂y = −x 2 e −x siny − (−y 2 )siny + 2ycosy )e −x + 2e −x siny + (2xe −x siny +
2xye −x cosy )
∂v
∂x = (−2xe −x + x 2 e −x )siny − y 2 e −x siny + 2ycosy (e −x − xe −x ) − 2e −x siny

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 11 / 38
 Interactive Activity 3: Cauchy-Riemann
∂u
∂y = −x 2 e −x siny − (−y 2 )siny + 2ycosy )e −x + 2e −x siny + (2xe −x siny +
2xye −x cosy )
∂v
∂x = (−2xe −x + x 2 e −x )siny − y 2 e −x siny + 2ycosy (e −x − xe −x ) − 2e −x siny
∂v
∂y = −x 2 e −x cosy +e −x (y 2 cosy +2ysiny )+2xe −x (cosy −ysiny )+2e −x cosy

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 11 / 38
 Interactive Activity 3: Cauchy-Riemann
∂u
∂y = −x 2 e −x siny − (−y 2 )siny + 2ycosy )e −x + 2e −x siny + (2xe −x siny +
2xye −x cosy )
∂v
∂x = (−2xe −x + x 2 e −x )siny − y 2 e −x siny + 2ycosy (e −x − xe −x ) − 2e −x siny
∂v
∂y = −x 2 e −x cosy +e −x (y 2 cosy +2ysiny )+2xe −x (cosy −ysiny )+2e −x cosy
Therefore,
∂u
∂x = 2xe −x cosy −x 2 cosy +y 2 e −x cosy +2e −x cosy +2e −x ysiny −2xe −x ysiny
and

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 11 / 38
 Interactive Activity 3: Cauchy-Riemann
∂u
∂y = −x 2 e −x siny − (−y 2 )siny + 2ycosy )e −x + 2e −x siny + (2xe −x siny +
2xye −x cosy )
∂v
∂x = (−2xe −x + x 2 e −x )siny − y 2 e −x siny + 2ycosy (e −x − xe −x ) − 2e −x siny
∂v
∂y = −x 2 e −x cosy +e −x (y 2 cosy +2ysiny )+2xe −x (cosy −ysiny )+2e −x cosy
Therefore,
∂u
∂x = 2xe −x cosy −x 2 cosy +y 2 e −x cosy +2e −x cosy +2e −x ysiny −2xe −x ysiny
and
∂v
∂y =
−x 2 e −x cosy +y 2 e −x cosy +2ye −x siny +2xe −x cosy −2xye −x siny +2e −x cosy

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 11 / 38
 Interactive Activity 3: Cauchy-Riemann
∂u
∂y = −x 2 e −x siny − (−y 2 )siny + 2ycosy )e −x + 2e −x siny + (2xe −x siny +
2xye −x cosy )
∂v
∂x = (−2xe −x + x 2 e −x )siny − y 2 e −x siny + 2ycosy (e −x − xe −x ) − 2e −x siny
∂v
∂y = −x 2 e −x cosy +e −x (y 2 cosy +2ysiny )+2xe −x (cosy −ysiny )+2e −x cosy
Therefore,
∂u
∂x = 2xe −x cosy −x 2 cosy +y 2 e −x cosy +2e −x cosy +2e −x ysiny −2xe −x ysiny
and
∂v
∂y =
−x 2 e −x cosy +y 2 e −x cosy +2ye −x siny +2xe −x cosy −2xye −x siny +2e −x cosy
From the expressions of ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
∂x and ∂y , it is seen that ∂x = ∂y .
∂u
Also, ∂y =
−x e siny +y 2 e −x siny −2ye −x cosy +2e −x siny +2xe −x siny +2xye −x cosy
2 −x

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
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25, 2024 11 / 38
 and

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
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of SeveralofVariables
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Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 12 / 38
 Interactive Activity 3: Cauchy-Riemann

∂u
∂x =
−2xe −x siny +x 2 e −x siny −y 2 e −x siny +2ye −x cosy −2xye −x cosy −2e −x siny
∂u
From the expressions of ∂y and ∂v∂x , it can be deduced that

∂u
∂y = − ∂v
∂x

Since the Cauchy-Riemann equations are satisfied, f (z) is analytic.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
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 Analytical functions: Definition and Theorem

Definition
′
If the derivative f (z) exists at all points z of a region R, then f (z) is said
to be analytic in R and is referred to as an analytic function in R or a
function analytic in R.
A function f (z) is said to be analytic at a point z0 if there exists a
′
neighborhood |z − z0 | < δ , at all points of which f (z) exists.

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Calculus
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 Analytical functions: Definition and Theorem

Definition
′
If the derivative f (z) exists at all points z of a region R, then f (z) is said
to be analytic in R and is referred to as an analytic function in R or a
function analytic in R.
A function f (z) is said to be analytic at a point z0 if there exists a
′
neighborhood |z − z0 | < δ , at all points of which f (z) exists.

Theorem
′
If f (z) is analytic at a point z, then the derivative f (z) is continuous at z.

If f (z) is analytic at a point z, then f (z) has continuous derivatives of all

order at the point z.

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Calculus
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 Conditions for a Complex Function to be Analytic
A necessary condition for a complex function to be analytic

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Calculus
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 Conditions for a Complex Function to be Analytic
A necessary condition for a complex function to be analytic
Let
f (x, y ) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y )

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Calculus
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 Conditions for a Complex Function to be Analytic
A necessary condition for a complex function to be analytic
Let
f (x, y ) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y )
be a complex function. Since x = (z + z)/2 and y = (z − z)/2i,
substituting for x and y gives

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
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25, 2024 14 / 38
 Conditions for a Complex Function to be Analytic
A necessary condition for a complex function to be analytic
Let
f (x, y ) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y )
be a complex function. Since x = (z + z)/2 and y = (z − z)/2i,
substituting for x and y gives
f (z, z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y )

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Calculus
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 Conditions for a Complex Function to be Analytic
A necessary condition for a complex function to be analytic
Let
f (x, y ) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y )
be a complex function. Since x = (z + z)/2 and y = (z − z)/2i,
substituting for x and y gives
f (z, z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y )
A necessary condition for f (z, z) to be analytic is

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Calculus
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25, 2024 14 / 38
 Conditions for a Complex Function to be Analytic
A necessary condition for a complex function to be analytic
Let
f (x, y ) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y )
be a complex function. Since x = (z + z)/2 and y = (z − z)/2i,
substituting for x and y gives
f (z, z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y )
∂f
A necessary condition for f (z, z) to be analytic is ∂z

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
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25, 2024 14 / 38
 Conditions for a Complex Function to be Analytic
A necessary condition for a complex function to be analytic
Let
f (x, y ) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y )
be a complex function. Since x = (z + z)/2 and y = (z − z)/2i,
substituting for x and y gives
f (z, z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y )
∂f
A necessary condition for f (z, z) to be analytic is ∂z
Therefore a necessary condition for f = u + iv to be analytic is that f
depends only on z. In terms of of the real and imaginary parts u, v of f ,
∂f
in ∂z is equivalent to

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
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Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 14 / 38
 Conditions for a Complex Function to be Analytic
A necessary condition for a complex function to be analytic
Let
f (x, y ) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y )
be a complex function. Since x = (z + z)/2 and y = (z − z)/2i,
substituting for x and y gives
f (z, z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y )
∂f
A necessary condition for f (z, z) to be analytic is ∂z
Therefore a necessary condition for f = u + iv to be analytic is that f
depends only on z. In terms of of the real and imaginary parts u, v of f ,
∂f
in ∂z is equivalent to
∂u ∂v
=
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
=−
∂y ∂x
Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe
Calculus
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25, 2024 14 / 38
 Conditions for a Complex Function to be Analytic

∂u ∂v
=
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
=−
∂y ∂x
are known as the Cauchy-Riemann equations.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
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25, 2024 15 / 38
 Conditions for a Complex Function to be Analytic

∂u ∂v
=
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v
=−
∂y ∂x
are known as the Cauchy-Riemann equations.
They are a necessary condition for f = u + iv to be analytic.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
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25, 2024 15 / 38
 Necessary and sufficient conditions for a function to be
analytic

The necessary and sufficient conditions for a function f = u + iv to be

analytic are that:
1. The four partial derivatives of its real and imaginary parts ∂u ∂v
∂x , ∂y ,
∂u
∂y
, ∂v
∂x satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
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25, 2024 16 / 38
 Necessary and sufficient conditions for a function to be
analytic

The necessary and sufficient conditions for a function f = u + iv to be

analytic are that:
1. The four partial derivatives of its real and imaginary parts ∂u ∂v
∂x , ∂y ,
∂u
∂y
, ∂v
∂x satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations.
2. The four partial derivatives of its real and imaginary parts ∂u ∂v
∂x , ∂y ,
∂u
∂y
, ∂v
∂x are continuous.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
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 Necessary and sufficient conditions for a function to be
analytic

Theorem
If f (z) is analytic, then

∂2u ∂2u
+ =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
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 Necessary and sufficient conditions for a function to be
analytic

Theorem
If f (z) is analytic, then

∂2u ∂2u
+ =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2

∂2v ∂2v
+ =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
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 Necessary and sufficient conditions for a function to be
analytic

Theorem
If f (z) is analytic, then

∂2u ∂2u
+ =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2

∂2v ∂2v
+ =0
∂x 2 ∂y 2
The real and imaginary parts of an analytic function are harmonic
conjugate functions, i.e., solutions to Laplace equation and satisfy the
Cauchy Riemann equations.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
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 Singularities of Analytic Functions

Points at which a function f (z) is not analytic are called singular points or
singularities of f (z). There are various types of singular points:

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 Singularities of Analytic Functions

Points at which a function f (z) is not analytic are called singular points or
singularities of f (z). There are various types of singular points:
1. Isolated Singular Points

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 Singularities of Analytic Functions

Points at which a function f (z) is not analytic are called singular points or
singularities of f (z). There are various types of singular points:
1. Isolated Singular Points
The point z = z0 , is called an isolated singular point of f(z) if we can find
δ > 0 such that |z − z0 | = δ,enclosed in singular point except z0 .
|z − z0 | = δ encloses no singular point except z0 . If z0 is not a singular
point and ∃ δ > 0 such that |z − z0 | = δ encloses no singular point, then
z0 is called an ordinary point of f (z).

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
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 Singularities of Analytic Functions

2. Poles If we can find an n > 0 (n ∈ Z) such that

limz→z0 (z − z0 )n f (z) = A ̸= 0

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

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 Singularities of Analytic Functions

2. Poles If we can find an n > 0 (n ∈ Z) such that

limz→z0 (z − z0 )n f (z) = A ̸= 0

then z = z0 is called a pole of order n.

If n = 1, then z0 is a single pole / simple pole.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
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 Singularities of Analytic Functions

Example

1
(i). f (z) = (z−2) 3 has a pole of order 3 at z = 2.

=⇒ limz→2 (z − 2)3 f (z) = limz→2 1 ̸= 0.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
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 Singularities of Analytic Functions

Example

1
(i). f (z) = (z−2) 3 has a pole of order 3 at z = 2.

=⇒ limz→2 (z − 2)3 f (z) = limz→2 1 ̸= 0.

(ii). f (z) = (z−1)23z−2
(z+1)(z−4)
has a pole of order

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
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 Singularities of Analytic Functions

Example

1
(i). f (z) = (z−2) 3 has a pole of order 3 at z = 2.

=⇒ limz→2 (z − 2)3 f (z) = limz→2 1 ̸= 0.

(ii). f (z) = (z−1)23z−2
(z+1)(z−4)
has a pole of order
(a) 2 at z = 1
3z−2 3(1)−2
limz→1 (z − 1)2 f (z) = limz→1 (z+1)(z−4) = (1+1)(1−4) = − 16 ̸= 0

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
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 Singularities of Analytic Functions

Example

1
(i). f (z) = (z−2) 3 has a pole of order 3 at z = 2.

=⇒ limz→2 (z − 2)3 f (z) = limz→2 1 ̸= 0.

(ii). f (z) = (z−1)23z−2
(z+1)(z−4)
has a pole of order
(a) 2 at z = 1
3z−2 3(1)−2
limz→1 (z − 1)2 f (z) = limz→1 (z+1)(z−4) = (1+1)(1−4) = − 16 ̸= 0
(b) Single pole i.e. order 1 at z = −1 and z = 4.

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Calculus
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 Singularities of Analytic Functions

3. Removable singularity
The singular point z0 is called a removable singularity of f (z) if
limz→z0 f (z) exists.

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Calculus
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 Singularities of Analytic Functions

3. Removable singularity
The singular point z0 is called a removable singularity of f (z) if
limz→z0 f (z) exists.
For f(z)= sinz sinz
z , ∃ a singularity at z = 0 since limz→0 z = 1.

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Calculus
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 Singularities of Analytic Functions

3. Removable singularity
The singular point z0 is called a removable singularity of f (z) if
limz→z0 f (z) exists.
For f(z)= sinz sinz
z , ∃ a singularity at z = 0 since limz→0 z = 1.
Therefore, z = 0 is a removable singularity.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
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 Singularities of Analytic Functions

4. Essential Singularities
An isolated singular point which is not a pole (removable singularity) or
branch point is called an essential singular point. Example:
f (z) = sin(1/z) has an essential singularity at z = 0.

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Calculus
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 Singularities of Analytic Functions

4. Essential Singularities
An isolated singular point which is not a pole (removable singularity) or
branch point is called an essential singular point. Example:
f (z) = sin(1/z) has an essential singularity at z = 0.
5. Branch Points
When f (z) is a multivalued function, any point which cannot be an
interior point of the region of definition of a single-valued branch of f (z) is
√
a singular branch point. Example: f (z) = z − z0 has a branch point at
z = z0 .

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Calculus
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 Singularities of Analytic Functions

4. Essential Singularities
An isolated singular point which is not a pole (removable singularity) or
branch point is called an essential singular point. Example:
f (z) = sin(1/z) has an essential singularity at z = 0.
5. Branch Points
When f (z) is a multivalued function, any point which cannot be an
interior point of the region of definition of a single-valued branch of f (z) is
√
a singular branch point. Example: f (z) = z − z0 has a branch point at
z = z0 .
6. Singularity at infinity

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Calculus
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 Mapping by elementary functions

Transformations or Mappings
The set of equations
v =v (x,y )

u=u(x,y )

defines, in general, a transformation or mapping, which establishes a

correspondence between points in the uv and xy planes.

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 Mapping by elementary functions

Transformations or Mappings
The set of equations
v =v (x,y )

u=u(x,y )

defines, in general, a transformation or mapping, which establishes a

correspondence between points in the uv and xy planes.
These equations are called transformation equations. If to each point of
the uv plane, there corresponds one and only one point of the xy plane.

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Calculus
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 Jacobian of a Transformation

Jacobian of a Transformation
′
A region R of the xy plane is, in general, mapped into a region R of the
uv plane.

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 Jacobian of a Transformation

Jacobian of a Transformation
′
A region R of the xy plane is, in general, mapped into a region R of the
uv plane.
Then if ∆Axy and ∆Auv denote, respectively, the areas of these regions,
we can show that if u and v are continuously differentiable,

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
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25, 2024 24 / 38
 Jacobian of a Transformation

Jacobian of a Transformation
′
A region R of the xy plane is, in general, mapped into a region R of the
uv plane.
Then if ∆Axy and ∆Auv denote, respectively, the areas of these regions,
we can show that if u and v are continuously differentiable,

∆Auv ∂(u, v )
lim =
∆Axy ∂(x, y )

where lim denotes the limit as ∆Axy (or ∆Auv ) approaches zero and the
determinant
∂u ∂u
∂(u, v ) ∂x ∂y ∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= ∂v ∂v = −
∂(x, y ) ∂x ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂x
is called the Jacobian of the transformation
Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe
Calculus
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25, 2024 24 / 38
 Complex Mapping Functions

Complex Mapping Functions

When u and v are real and imaginary parts of an analytic function of a
complex variable z = x + iy , i.e., w = u + iv = f (z) = f (x + iy ). In such
a case, the Jacobian of the transformation is given by

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
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 Complex Mapping Functions

Complex Mapping Functions

When u and v are real and imaginary parts of an analytic function of a
complex variable z = x + iy , i.e., w = u + iv = f (z) = f (x + iy ). In such
a case, the Jacobian of the transformation is given by

∂(u, v ) ′
= |f (z)|2
∂(x, y )
′
It follows that the transformation is one-to-one in regions where f (z) ̸= 0.
′
Points where f (z) = 0 are called critical points.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

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 Conformal mapping

Conformal mapping
Suppose that under transformation, point (x0 , y0 ) of the xy plane is
mapped into point (u0 , v0 ) of the uv plane while curves C1 and C2
′ ′
[intersecting at (x0 , y0 )] are mapped, respectively, into curves C1 and C2
[intersecting at (u0 , v0 )].

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Calculus
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 Conformal mapping

Conformal mapping
Suppose that under transformation, point (x0 , y0 ) of the xy plane is
mapped into point (u0 , v0 ) of the uv plane while curves C1 and C2
′ ′
[intersecting at (x0 , y0 )] are mapped, respectively, into curves C1 and C2
[intersecting at (u0 , v0 )].
Then, if the transformation is such that the angle at (x0 , y0 ) between C1
′ ′
and C2 is equal to the angle at (u0 , v0 ) between C1 and C2 both in
magnitude and sense, the transformation or mapping is said to be
conformal at (x0 , y0 ). A mapping that preserves the magnitudes of angles
but not necessarily the sense is called isogonal.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

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 Theorem

Theorem
′
If f (z) is analytic and f (z) ̸= 0 in a region R, then the mapping w = f (z)
is conformal at all points of R.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

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 Theorem

Theorem
′
If f (z) is analytic and f (z) ̸= 0 in a region R, then the mapping w = f (z)
is conformal at all points of R.

For conformal mappings or transformations, small figures in the

neighborhood of a point z0 in the z plane map into similar small figures in
the w plane and are magnified (or reduced) by an amount given
′
approximately by |f (z0 )|2 , called the area magnification factor or simply
magnification factor.

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 Theorem

Theorem
′
If f (z) is analytic and f (z) ̸= 0 in a region R, then the mapping w = f (z)
is conformal at all points of R.

For conformal mappings or transformations, small figures in the

neighborhood of a point z0 in the z plane map into similar small figures in
the w plane and are magnified (or reduced) by an amount given
′
approximately by |f (z0 )|2 , called the area magnification factor or simply
magnification factor. Short distances in the z plane in the neighborhood of
z0 are magnified (or reduced) in the w plane by an amount given
′
approximately by |f (z0 )|, called the linear magnification factor. Large
figures in the z plane usually map into figures in the w plane that are far
from similar.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 27 / 38
 Riemann mapping theorem

Riemann mapping theorem

Let C be a simple closed curve in the z plane forming the boundary of a
simply connected region R.
′
Let C be a circle of radius one and center at the origin [the unit circle]
′
forming the boundary of region R in the w plane.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 28 / 38
 Riemann mapping theorem

Riemann mapping theorem

Let C be a simple closed curve in the z plane forming the boundary of a
simply connected region R.
′
Let C be a circle of radius one and center at the origin [the unit circle]
′
forming the boundary of region R in the w plane.
′
The region R is sometimes called the unit disk. Then Riemann’s mapping
theorem states that there exists a function w = f (z), analytic in R which
′
maps each point of R into a corresponding point of R and each point of
′
C into a corresponding point of C the correspondence being one-to-one
′
and onto, i.e., every point of R is the image of exactly one point of R.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 28 / 38
 Riemann mapping theorem

Riemann mapping theorem

Let C be a simple closed curve in the z plane forming the boundary of a
simply connected region R.
′
Let C be a circle of radius one and center at the origin [the unit circle]
′
forming the boundary of region R in the w plane.
′
The region R is sometimes called the unit disk. Then Riemann’s mapping
theorem states that there exists a function w = f (z), analytic in R which
′
maps each point of R into a corresponding point of R and each point of
′
C into a corresponding point of C the correspondence being one-to-one
′
and onto, i.e., every point of R is the image of exactly one point of R.
For example, the upper half plane can be mapped conformally onto the
unit disk.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 28 / 38
 Fixed or Invariant Points of a Transformation

Fixed or Invariant Points of a Transformation

Suppose that we superimpose the w plane on the z plane so that the
coordinate axes coincide and there is essentially only one plane.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 29 / 38
 Fixed or Invariant Points of a Transformation

Fixed or Invariant Points of a Transformation

Suppose that we superimpose the w plane on the z plane so that the
coordinate axes coincide and there is essentially only one plane.
Then we can think of the transformation w = f (z) as taking certain
points of the plane into other points. Points for which z = f (z) are called
the fixed or invariant points of the transformation.
Example
The fixed or invariant points of the transformation w = z 2 are solutions of
z 2 = z, i.e., z = 0, 1.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 29 / 38
 Some General Transformations

Some General Transformations

In the following, α, β are given complex constants while a, θ0 are real
constants.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
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of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 30 / 38
 Some General Transformations

Some General Transformations

In the following, α, β are given complex constants while a, θ0 are real
constants.
1. Translation. w = z + β
By this transformation, figures in the z plane are displaced or translated in
the direction of vector β.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 30 / 38
 Some General Transformations

Some General Transformations

In the following, α, β are given complex constants while a, θ0 are real
constants.
1. Translation. w = z + β
By this transformation, figures in the z plane are displaced or translated in
the direction of vector β.
2. Rotation. w = e iθ0 z
By this transformation, figures in the z plane are rotated through an angle
θ0 . If θ0 > 0, the rotation is counterclockwise while, if θ0 < 0, the rotation
is clockwise.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 30 / 38
 Some General Transformations

Some General Transformations

In the following, α, β are given complex constants while a, θ0 are real
constants.
1. Translation. w = z + β
By this transformation, figures in the z plane are displaced or translated in
the direction of vector β.
2. Rotation. w = e iθ0 z
By this transformation, figures in the z plane are rotated through an angle
θ0 . If θ0 > 0, the rotation is counterclockwise while, if θ0 < 0, the rotation
is clockwise.
3. Stretchingˆ. w = az
By this transformation, figures in the z plane are stretched (or contracted)
in the direction z if a > 0 (or 0 < a < 1). We consider contraction as a
special case of stretching.
4. Inversion. w = 1/z

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 30 / 38
 Successive Transformations

Successive Transformations
If w = f1 (ζ) maps region Rζ of the ζ plane into region Rw of the w plane
while ζ = f2 (z) maps region Rz of the z plane into region Rζ , then
w = f1 [f2 (z)] maps Rz into Rw .

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 31 / 38
 Successive Transformations

Successive Transformations
If w = f1 (ζ) maps region Rζ of the ζ plane into region Rw of the w plane
while ζ = f2 (z) maps region Rz of the z plane into region Rζ , then
w = f1 [f2 (z)] maps Rz into Rw .
The functions f1 and f2 define successive transformations from one plane
to another, which are equivalent to a single transformation. These ideas
are easily generalized.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 31 / 38
 The Linear Transformation

The Linear Transformation

The transformation

w = αz + β

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 32 / 38
 The Linear Transformation

The Linear Transformation

The transformation

w = αz + β
where α and β are given complex constants, is called a linear
transformation. Letting α = ae iθ0 ,

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 32 / 38
 The Linear Transformation

The Linear Transformation

The transformation

w = αz + β
where α and β are given complex constants, is called a linear
transformation. Letting α = ae iθ0 ,
We see that a general linear transformation is a combination of the
transformations of translation, rotation, and stretching.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 32 / 38
 The Bilinear or Fractional Transformation

The Bilinear or Fractional Transformation

The transformation

αz + β
w= , αδ − βγ ̸= 0
γz + δ

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 33 / 38
 The Bilinear or Fractional Transformation

The Bilinear or Fractional Transformation

The transformation

αz + β
w= , αδ − βγ ̸= 0
γz + δ

is called a bilinear or fractional transformation. This transformation can be

considered as a combination of the transformations of translation,
rotation, stretching, and inversion.
The transformation has the property that circles in the z plane are mapped
into circles in the w plane, where by circles we include circles of infinite
radius that are straight lines.
The transformation maps any three distinct points of the z plane into
three distinct points of the w plane, one of which may be at infinity.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 33 / 38
 The Bilinear or Fractional Transformation

If z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 are distinct, then the quantity

(z4 − z1 )(z2 − z3 )
(z2 − z1 )(z4 − z3 )

is called the cross ratio of z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 . This ratio is invariant under the

bilinear transformation, and this property can be used in obtaining specific
bilinear transformations mapping three points into three other points.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 34 / 38
 Mapping of a Half Plane onto a Circle

Mapping of a Half Plane onto a Circle Let z0 be any point P in the

upper half of the z plane denoted by R.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
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of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 35 / 38
 Mapping of a Half Plane onto a Circle

Mapping of a Half Plane onto a Circle Let z0 be any point P in the

upper half of the z plane denoted by R.
Then, the transformation
 
iθ0 z − z0
w =e
z − z0

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 35 / 38
 Mapping of a Half Plane onto a Circle

Mapping of a Half Plane onto a Circle Let z0 be any point P in the

upper half of the z plane denoted by R.
Then, the transformation
 
iθ0 z − z0
w =e
z − z0
′
maps this upper half plane in a one-to-one manner onto the interior R of
the unit circle |w | = 1. Each point of the x axis is mapped to the
boundary of the circle. The constant θ0 can be determined by making one
particular point of the x axis correspond to a given point on the circle.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 35 / 38
 Mapping of a Half Plane onto a Circle

We have used the convention that unprimed points such as A, B, C , etc.,

′ ′ ′
in the z plane correspond to primed points A , B , C , etc., in the w
plane.

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 36 / 38
 Mapping of a Half Plane onto a Circle

We have used the convention that unprimed points such as A, B, C , etc.,

′ ′ ′
in the z plane correspond to primed points A , B , C , etc., in the w
plane. Also, in the case where points are at infinity, we indicate this by an
′ ′
arrow such as at A and F , which correspond, respectively, to A and F
(the same point). As point z moves on the boundary of R [i.e., the real
axis] from −∞ to +∞, w moves counterclockwise along the unit circle
′ ′
from A back to A .

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 36 / 38
 Thank you

Thank you

Dr. O.A. George Dr. P.S. Olayiwola Dr. John Ogbemhe

Calculus
(Department
of SeveralofVariables
Systems Engineering University
Novemberof Lagos)
25, 2024 37 / 38