Course Description

This course focuses on understanding the foundations of business communication in

a global workforce, with emphasis on planning, writing, and completing letters,
memos, emails, resumes, reports, and proposals, conducting business research and
communicating information; interviewing; designing and delivering oral presentations
with slides and transparencies.

Course Objectives
 Develop the knowledge and skills required for contemporary business
communications.
 Sensitively respond to cultural diversity and issues of cross-cultural
communications.
 Respond ethically to a broad range of communication needs and situations.
 Learn to be a valuable team player.
 Proofread and edit copies of business correspondence.
 Utilize electronic presentation software.
 Prepare informal and formal reports

Learning Outcomes
Upon the successful completion of this course, you should be able to:
 Select appropriate communication channels (eg. E-mail, memo, letter, report,
fax, voicemail, etc) for a particular situation and purpose.
 Use three part writing process that incorporates pre-writing, writing and
revising.
 Organize ideas effectively.
 Edit for a concise, direct, simple prose style.
 Write persuasively
 Proofread for common errors in grammar, punctuation, capitalization, use of
numbers, and abbreviation.
 Work effectively in meetings and small groups.
 Adapt your message to the requirements and formats of letters, memos and
e-mails

Course Content
1. Understanding the concept of communication: meaning of
communication, basic model of communication, basic elements of
communication, and media of communication.
2. The writing Process: Pre-writing; Writing; Revising; and Fundamentals of
grammar and usage
3. Business Correspondence: Memos and e-mail messages; routine letters
and goodwill messages; persuasive messages; Bad news messages.
4. Employment Process communication: Job application letters; resumes;
On-line resume submittal forms; Interviewing skills (Interviewer and
interviewee); listening skills.
 COMMUNICATION SKILLS
Communication is the process by which information is shared between individuals and/or
organizations by means of previously agreed symbols (words, signs, pictures, sounds etc.)
through a defined channel.
This definition implies that communication is the exchange of ideas, opinions and
information through written or spoken words or actions.
Technical Definition
 It is the transmission of messages from one person/place to another. It tells us
about the technical means/ machinery.
Process Definition
 It is a complex & dynamic process of exchanging meaningful messages. It tells us
about interpretation & meaning.
Basic model of communication
Basic elements of communication
 SENDER
 MESSAGE
 CHANNEL
 RECEIVER
 FEEDBACK
 NOISE
 CONTEXT
MODULE THREE: LISTENING AND READING SKILS
Meaning of Listening
Listening is the physical reality of hearing what another person says. The listener
participates psychologically with the speaker. In this process there is an active decoding and
interpreting of verbal messages. In short listening is the receiver’s activity in communication.
Listening vs Hearing
Hearing is the process of collecting the sound waves through the ears and sending them to
the brain. Listening involves hearing and listening with understanding. It involves both body
energy and mind in the whole process. Listening requires both deliberate efforts and keen
mind. It needs both physical and psychological efforts. On the other hand, hearing involves
perceiving the sound. Hearing is the physical component of listening. It is a passive activity
and effortless.
Listening as a Function of Communication
Listening belongs to the category of receptive communication skills. Through listening one
can acquire ideas, information, and feelings from other people. Effective communication
depends on the ability to listen properly.
Listening involves communication of oral message between the speaker and the listener.
This serves as a basis for acquisition of information, ideas, attitudes and feelings from the
speaker.
Steps of Listening
There are four steps of listening:
1. Hearing
The listener pays attention to the speaker in order to hear the message.
2. Interpretation
Interpretation exploits listener’s vocabulary, knowledge and experience in order to
understand the message.
3. Evaluation
This step allows the listener to decide what to do with the received information. Then
he/she is at liberty of choosing to believe or not believing.
4. Response
The listener’s response to the message may be in words or in body language. Response
helps the speaker to know if the listener has got the message including his/her reaction to
it.
Strategies for Developing Listening Skills

Language learning depends on listening. Listening provides the aural input that serves as the
basis for language acquisition and enables learners to interact in spoken communication.

Listening Strategies
These are techniques or activities that facilitate comprehension and recall of listening input.
Listening strategies can be classified according to how the listener processes the input.
Listening strategies can be classified depending on how the listener processes the input.
1. Top- down strategy / Background knowledge

This is the listener based strategy; the listener taps into background knowledge of the topic,
the situation or context, the type of text, and the language. This background knowledge
activates a set of expectations that help the listener to interpret what is heard and anticipate
what will come next. Top-down strategies include

 Listening for the main idea

 Predicting
 Drawing inferences
 Summarizing

2. Bottom-up strategies are text based; the listener relies on the language in the message,
that is, the combination of sounds, words, and grammar that creates meaning. Bottom-up
strategies include

 Listening for specific details

 Recognizing cognates
 Recognizing word-order patterns

Types of Listening
a. Active listening: - this occurs when one decide to participate fully in the
conversation. It involves resisting all psychological and physiological distractions and
investing mental and emotional energy in the listening process.
b. Passive listening: - this occurs by exercising little or no energy in the listening
process e.g. listening with drifting mind. Passive listener cannot expect to understand
much about the message.
Effective Listening
The major aim of effective listening apart from others is to follow what the speaker is
saying. The following are the tips for effective listening:
 Stop talking: it is not possible to listen while talking.
 Put the speaker at ease: encourage the speaker to talk comfortably. Uneasy and
uncomfortable person does not speak clearly.
 Show a desire to listen.
 Show non - verbally that you are interested to listen and that you are listening.
Make eye contact and keep it still. Other acts which are disturbing make the speaker
feel that you are not attending.
  Write down the main points and check for their correctness.This makes the speaker
more responsible and clear in what s/he says. Since s/he realizes your serious
attention.
 Do not create or tolerate distractions. Calling or receiving others or allowing others
to interrupt disturbs and irritates the speaker.
 Be patient: the speaker needs time to say what s/he wants to say. Some people are
shy or nervous or cannot easily find words to speak. If they are interrupted or
hurried, they get more nervous.
 Keep your temper under control-Since angry persons cannot speak clearly and
cannot listen.

MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION
 There are at least four media of communication
 These include,
1. Oral,
2. Written,
3. Visual and
4. Audio visual communication media.
2. Written communication
 Involves the use of fax, letters, e-mails, memorandum, reports, minutes etc
Merits
 Accurate and precise since it organized, involves facts, authentic.
 It is a permanent record, can be used for future reference.

WRITING SKILLS
Introduction
Writing needs planning for effective product. To attain such objective the following ten hints
on writing as proposed by Forest (1998) should be put into consideration.
i. Before writing anything, make a short plan of your entire composition, using any
help given in the question.
ii. Use only words and constructions with which you are familiar.
iii. Avoid flowery and pompous language. The best writers of English express
themselves in simple and clear language.
iv. Avoid abbreviations. The place for these is in notes.
v. Make your writing interesting by illustrating what you say with examples where
relevant.
vi. Do not begin writing a sentence until you know how it will continue and end.
vii. Begin a paragraph for each new topic.
viii. Pay close attention to mechanical skills- grammar, spelling and punctuation.
ix. Do not switch tenses unless the sense requires you to.
x. Check you work thoroughly at least twice. This will necessitate allowing a few
minutes at the end of the time allotted.
Letter Writing
The way you structure, choose words to use in your letter and grammaticality of your
sentences portrays your reality before your addressee. It is, therefore, suggested that people
should learn to write official/business letters because letter writing remains central in the day
to day life.
Aspects to Consider in Official Letter Writing
 Official letters should be in a good structure with at least two addresses.
 Official letters should be short. Only the necessary information should be included in
a letter (i.e. the purpose of writing the letter) since you will attach your CV with the
letter which offers much more description about you. A letter should be limited to one
page.
 Formality: Your letter should be formal and polite, do not use colloquial or shortened
words in your letter, even when the addressee is your close friend. You should be
polite even when you are writing a letter for complaint. Formality and politeness is
shown through the choice of words in your letter.

Parts / Sections of official letters

1. Sender’s address: This is written on top of the right hand corner of the paper. It
should only be the writer’s address and not his/her names in this part.

2. Date: It is important to show the date of writing the letter. Date helps for references
when needed in future. It also helps in understanding if the letter is received on time,
or there were some delays somewhere. It should be immediately after the writer’s
address.

3. Reference number: reference numbers help in keeping and retrieving the file when
needed. Reference numbers may be arranged department wise, school wise depending
on the organisational structure.

4. The name and address of the addressee, the person you are writing the letter to.
This is written below the date, on the left hand corner of the paper. You should start
writing the address with the title of the addressee. For example, “The general
manager,” “The head master,” “The DVC ARC,” etc.

5. Salutation: This is written below the addressee’s address. Leave a single space after
the addressee’s address. Salutation depends on whether you know the person you are
addressing the letter, i.e. if the addressee is a man or a woman. If you know the sex
of the person, just write Dear sir! (For a man), Dear madam! (For a woman). Again,
salutation depends on the status of the person you are writing the letter. For example,
if the addressee is your subordinate, salutation can include his/her name, e.g. Dear
Eliakimu. /Mr. Eliakimu, /Dear Flora,/Mrs. Flora, / etc.

6. Title of the letter: This is written below the salutation. It is the synopsis of your
letter. Normally, the addressee will first look at the title of your letter before looking
at anything else. Since the title of the letter introduces the aim of your letter, it should
be formatted to catch your readers’ attention. Therefore, the title of the letter should
either be bolded or underlined. You should only underline it when your letter is hand
written. Don’t do both bolding and underlining at the same time. Some people may
decide to introduce the title with a preposition re others may just write the
heading/title, all are right.

7. Body of the letter

 The body of your letter should be structured in four short paragraphs with the following
contents:
Paragraph one: State why you are writing the letter and where you saw or heard the
job advertisement. For example you may write:
Iwould like to apply for a post of …as it was advertised on the daily
newspaper on 21st August 2012.

Paragraph two: Briefly explain about your qualification and experiences, especially
that which is related to the job you are currently applying. You may
give the following arguments for example: I have two years
experience of working as …
Paragraph three: Show that you believe that you are suitable for the job that you
are applying. Explain why the company should employ you. Or why
are you seeking to change the job you are currently employed. For
example you may provide the following arguments: Given the
experiences I have in this job, I have a feeling that I can work to
meet the needs of the organization. …………

Paragraph four: Tell the reader that you are ready to be interviewed when needed.
If the advertisement for the job did not require your CV, include
your phone numbers in this paragraph so that they can contact you
for an interview. For example, you may provide the following
arguments:
I am ready for an interview when needed. I can be contacted at
0761 000 001. ………………….

8. Ending: To end the letter you would write phrases such as “yours sincerely” or “yours
faithfully,” etc.

9. Signature: You should sign your letter before sending it. This should come after
ending your letter and your full name should appear just below the signature.

Example of a Job Application Letter

P.O.BOX 11031,
DODOMA,
TANZANIA.
 28thNovember, 2014.
THE VICE CHANCELLOR,
THE UNIVERSITY OF PONGWE,
P.O. BOX 411,
NAIROBI, KENYA.

Dear Sir,
A REQUEST FOR A POST OF ASSISTANT LECTURER IN LINGUISTICS
I am writing to apply for the post of assistant lecturer in linguistics which was advertised on
the daily newspaper dated 24th October 2014.
I hold master’s degree in linguistics and I have a two years working experience as an English
teacher in secondary school. I have also worked as a part-time instructor in English at the
University of Moshi in Kilimanjaro Region and a part-time instructor in communication skills at
the institute of Judicial Education in Singida Region.
Having enough experience in teaching and being a very motivated teacher, I have a feeling
that I will work to meet the objectives of establishing the course at your institution if you offer
me a chance to work as a part-time lecturer in Linguistics.
I have attached a copy of my curriculum vitae together with the copies of my certificates with
this letter for reference. I am ready to appear for an interview when needed.

I thank you in advance for your consideration.

Yours faithfully,
…NKuzariwa..
Najuta Kuzaliwa

Letters Addressed to More than One Perso

Examples of Letters Addressed to More than One Person

Box 300,
 Dodoma-Tanzania.

25th June, 2012.

The Director of Human Resource Management,
Patapata Secondary School,
Box 201,
Dodoma.

u. f. s. The Discipline Master,

School of Fine Arts and Arts Subjects.

u. f. s. The Head,
Department of Arts Subjects,
P. o. box 626,
Dodoma-Tanzania.
Dear Madam!
RE:A REQUEST FOR A STUDY LEAVE
I would like to call your attention on the heading above. I am Eliakimu Sane, who is an
employee at your school, working at the Department of Arts Subjects.
I am writing to inform you that I intend to start my bachelor degree studies (B. A. Education)
in the next academic `year 2013/2014 at the University of Dodoma and, therefore, I am
requesting a study leave of three years, that is from 21st January, 2013 to pursue my intended
studies.
I attach with this letter a copy of my admission letter from the University of Dodoma for
further reference.

I hope that you will consider my request.

Yours sincerely,

……………..
Eliakimu Sane

In replying the letters such as those above, the persons addressed will use the same channels
to inform those in authority and the persons with requests that the request(s) are agreed or
not. Using one the letters above, for example, the human resource manager will have the
addresses of those with higher ranks (bellow him/her) starting at the bottom and lastly the
name of the addressor. If there are other people with higher ranks and authorities or even
with lower ranks and authorities but need to be informed about the matter, these will be
carbon copied the letter, just to let them know about the fact and if there is anything they
need to do about the decision. In addition, the reply will have a reference number since it will
be kept in the personal file of the person with the request. See the following example:

Patapata Secondary School,

Box 201,
Dodoma.
18th December, 2012.
Ref: PT/AC/PF-23/5
Eliakimu Sane
Patapata Secondary School
u. f. s. The Head,
Department of Arts Subjects.
u. f. s. The Discipline Master,
School of Fine Arts and Arts Subjects,
P. o. box 626,
Dodoma-Tanzania.
RE: A GRANT OF STUDY LEAVE
Reference is made to your letter of 25th June, 2012. I am glad to inform you that your request
for study leave is accepted as from 21st January, 2013 as you requested. However, you will
be required to submit your progress report to the headmaster’s office at the end of every
semester for the whole period of your study.
Patapata secondary school would like to congratulate you for having been selected to pursue
your degree in education at the University of Dodoma and wish you good luck in your studies!
Parapanda M. N.

…………….
Human Resource Manager
c. c. Head master
c. c. The School Manager
c. c. Bursar

JOB RECOMMENDATION/COVERING LETTERS

Important Things to Consider when Writing a Recommendation/Covering Letters

  Your address and the contact information: You should have your address and
contact information, i.e. your address (usually the organization/institution address,
phone numbers and e-mail address) written at the top right corner of the paper.
 Date: The date of writing that recommendation letter should appear just below your
address and contact information. Leave a space between the address and the date.
 Addressee’s address: If you know where the letter is going, use the full address of
the addressee. Usually, we don’t know the addressees’ to whom for the
recommendation letters are directed to. The person you are recommending may use
the letter in many places when applying for job or positions, we do not write addresses;
instead, we write a sentence ‘To whom it may concern:’ on the right hand side of the
paper below the date.
 Title of the letter: This appears below the words ‘To Whom It May Concern:’ It
should include the name of the person and the organization. See the following
examples, Eliakimu’s service with Afrocquick; or Eliakimu’s schooling at UDOM; or Re:
Eliakimu at UDOM; or RE: ELIAKIMU
 The body of the letter: The body of the letter should have the following structure and
contents:

Paragraph one: Introduce that the person is known to you and the organization and for how
long.
Paragraph two: In this paragraph, explain the position or if the applicant is a student, the
courses taken by the applicant.
Paragraph three: Explain the strength or weaknesses of the person you are writing the
covering letter.

In ending the letter, include your full name, signature and you title/position you hold at the
institution.

EXAMPLE OF A COVERING LETTER FOR JOB RECOMMENDATION

Box 209
Dodoma
 Tanzania
0762 355 321
John Kajasho
Tanzania chief coordinator
[email protected]

17th December, 2012

To whom it may concern:

RE: ELIAKIMU SANE’S SERVICE WITH AFROQUACK

In regard with the heading above, Eliakimu Sane is an individual who is well known to
Afroquick Society Organization with a record of service spanning three years. He has had roles
of teaching at the organization at the following dates:

English language teacher May, 2006-January, 2008

African history teacher February, 2008-January, 2009

As a teacher, Eliakimu worked as advanced secondary school students’ teacher. In his

teaching, he was responsible for preparing lesson plans and teaching the subjects to Form
Five and Six students. As a teacher, Eliakimu lived and worked with other teachers coming
from cross-cultural environment.

Afroquick Society Organization is a charity based organization found in Arusha rural, providing
education to students from poor families.

During his time with Afroquick, Eliakimu has been working hard, passionate, and reliable, and
his effectiveness is indicated in the times he has been invited to return.
Please feel free to contact us with any question.
……………………..
Posh Kijoti
The chief coordinator- Southern Highland zone.

4.2.4 Report Writing

A report is an informative written document that is written after research, investigation or
critical study or observation. Usually a report contains details that can’t be found in normal
letters and memos.
Importance of Reports
 Help in decision making
 Efficient way of disseminating complex info. Systematically to a large number of people
in business
 Are a permanent record
 Present suggestions on ways in which a situation may be improved
 Key for future plans
 Identify the weaknesses of the company
 Help in the Assessment of the performance appraisals
 Help in making conclusions and interpreting the information
 For company literature review( source of reference)
 Evaluate and assess the progress of the company
Qualities of an effective report
 A report will achieve its objectives if it provides the necessary and sufficient balance
of the following characteristics relating to the specific audience and situation.
 Accuracy of facts
 Precision- being clear with the purpose of a report.
 Relevance- each fact must be significant to a report.
 Clarity- everything should be made clear.
 Design(Organisation, logic progression and layout)
 Emphasis (of the most important points).
 Reader oriented – put the report reader in mind as you write (layman or expert)
otherwise it will not be comprehended.
 Objectivity of recommendations- they should be impartial/ bias free. They should be
derived from logical conclusion to investigation and analysis.
 Simple and unambiguous language- use common core and formal language.
 Grammatical accuracy – language rules, punctuation marks should be appropriately
get applied.
Issues to consider before writing any report
 Define the problem and purpose (TOR)
 Consider who will receive the report
 Determine ideas to include
 Collect needed materials
  Sort, analyze and interpret data
 Organize data and prepare final outline (know what will form which chapter).

Types of Reports
Based on Tambwe (2011), reports are classified under various criteria as follows:
 Level of formality i.e. formal and informal.
 Purpose i.e. informative and analytical or investigative reports.
 Destination i.e. management report, public report.
 Time interval of presenting i.e. periodic or routine reports like the daily, weekly,
monthly, annual reports,
 Level of complexity i.e. simple vs complex report.
 Event oriented- special reports.
 Length i.e. short and long. The short ones 1-2 pages) includes part of the elements
required in formal reports while long ones must have all required elements in a formal
report.

Based on Shumbusho and Mwaijande(2002)

a) Routine/Periodic reports
These are reports that are made on a regular, prescribed interval in the usual routine of day
to day activities. Normally only facts are presented with no recommendations.
 Managers’ reports on the work of their departments
 Equipment maintenance reports
 Progress reports, Accident reports etc.
They aim at presenting a correct and coherent picture of the working of the firm concerned
during the period concerned.

b) Special reports
These are reports written in response to requests for specific information, for market research,
regarding a change of policy, or made after research and investigation. Examples include;
Proposal reports, feasibility reports, Investigative reports.
c) Progress report
These describe and assess the progress made during a particular period. They account on the
work already done, work in progress with other relevant facts and details yet to be completed.
They cover a brief introduction to the project; a brief account of the work completed plus any
special problems encountered and their solutions, important aspects of the work not yet
completed and any obstacles that might slow down the work.
d) Analytical reports
These are reports specially commissioned to study important aspects or events where old files
are studied, personal interviews are held, questionnaires are circulated, relevant literature is
studied and then facts are compiled, analysed and conclusions are drawn and
recommendations follow.
Parts of a report
Parts of reports do differ from one report to the other depending on the nature of it i.e. length,
subject matter presented, level of formality etc, however most complex reports include the
following elements:
a) Preliminary sections
 Title
 Terms of reference
 Synopsis
 Table of contents
 List of illustrations (abbrev., symbols)
 Glossary
b) Main body – Introduction, Main content part,(Literature review, methodology, data analysis
and presentation of findings)
c) Conclusions, recommendations and
d) List of references and Appendices
Formal simple reports on the other side contain the following parts;
Heading
There should be two headings to a report, the name of the company, and the report topic
………….
Terms of reference
This section should state exactly why the report is written. Why are you writing the report?
What was requested? Who requested it? When were you asked to do it?
Procedure
Give a brief description of the methods used to collect the information. Perhaps interviews
were held, visits made, questionnaires issued? Use numbered points if appropriate.
Findings
This will be the longest section of the report. Go through the procedure point by point and
use number and sub headings for this section. Under each heading state what information
was gathered at each stage.
Conclusion
No new fact must be introduced in this section. You must look at the findings and state
the logical implication of them. What can you infer or conclude from the findings.
Recommendations
Again no new facts must be introduced here. On the basis of information presented in findings
and conclusions, make some suggestions for action. Remember that the writer of the report
can’t make report decisions- he or she only suggests what action should be taken.
Closing section
A report should be signed and there should be a name and title shown at the foot plus the
date the report was written.
Example of a Simple Formal report;
Mbalamwezi Petroleum Company
Report on complaints about poor customer service
Terms of reference
To investigate complaint about poor customer service provided by the staff and make
recommendations, as requested by Mr.Moon Peter.
Procedure
 An interview was held with Mr. Nwankwo Kanu, the sales manager on 2/11/013
 Interviews were held with a cross section of customers (60) who we provide to our
services
Findings
 Interview with Mr. Nwankwo Kanu , (the sales manager)
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

 Interview with customers

..……………………………………………………………………………………………………………=

Conclusions
1……………………………………………………………………………
2……………………………………………………………………………

Recommendations
1……………………………………………………………………………
2……………………………………………………………………………

Bibliograph/ references
…………………………………………………………………………………

Friday Stephano
Business administration officer
4.2.5 Speech Writing
Introduction
A speech is a logical oral presentation of ideas and concepts to a group of people in a specified
setting. Speech writing on the other hand is the presentation of originally oral ideas and
related concepts in a form of writing. Normally, a speech is meant to convey one’s thoughts
or opinions, share information with or spread awareness among a large number of people. A
good speech has clarity of thought and expression, accuracy of facts and an unbiased view of
issues.

This notice manual focuses on structuring the speech and utilizing proper writing techniques.
Each speech should be comprised of three major parts: introduction, body, and conclusion.
However, before writing the speech, you are advised to outline the major points. An outline
provides a framework that arranges the major points and supporting materials. Rearrange the
major ideas in the speech until you believe the layout will have the greatest impact on your
listeners.
Basic considerations in writing
When writing anything, three major aspects should be mostly taken into account:
 Knowing your reader - before one begins writing even the first draft, one needs to
think about who will receive the message. Who are they? Why will they read the
message? What do they already know about my subject matter? What are their
attitudes towards my message? Answers to these questions and any other relevant
ones will guide the writers to know their readers. Better messages are those appealing
to the reader’s needs.

 Know your Purpose – What changes do you aim your message to institute to your
readers? Is it just for informing, requesting, confirming, persuading, inquiring,
complaining or demonstrating? However, some messages do combine two or more of
these purposes. This will guide you towards an appropriate diction and focus.

 Know your subject – for the clarity of a message, you will need to promptly know your
subject well. This knowledge may emanate from the job experience you have had been
doing or through doing further research of the topic you want to talk about.

 Developing a writing style – this is the modality through which your message will be
organized. Is it in a letter, memo or report format?
Writing a Speech
After you have analyzed your audience, selected the topic, collected supporting materials, and
written an outline, it is time to write the speech.
The Introduction
The introduction usually states the purpose of the speech. A good introduction serves as an
attention getter, previews the topic and main ideas, and establishes your credibility as a
speaker (O’Hair, Rubenstein, & Stewart, 2007). Some good ways to grab attention include
using a quotation, telling a story, posing questions, using humor, using startling facts or
statistics, providing an illustration or anecdote, or referencing historical or recent events. A
preview statement identifies the main points of the speech, helping the audience focus on the
key points of the remainder of the presentation. The audience determines your credibility
based on the introduction—they want to know why they should believe
what you have to say. Therefore, establishing yourself as a credible speaker in the introduction
is imperative, especially for a persuasive speech, so that the audience will want to be
persuaded by you. You should include some experience or knowledge that shows why you
are credible on the topic.
The Body
The body is the largest part of the speech, where you provide the audience with the major
supporting materials. The main points of the speech are contained in this section. Main points
should flow from the speech’s goal and thesis statement. It is advisable to limit your content
to include between two and five main points, with a maximum of seven main points. Speeches
with three main points are common. If you have too many main points, your audience will
forget them. Focusing on a few points and providing effective supporting points for each
makes your speech more memorable. Supporting points are the supporting materials you have
collected to justify your main points. These help to substantiate your thesis.

The Conclusion
The conclusion wraps up the presentation by providing a summary of what the audience was
supposed to have learned or have been persuaded to do during the presentation.You can
signal that the conclusion is approaching byusing key phrases, such as “finally,” “let me close
by saying,”“I’d like to stress these three points,” and “in conclusion.”Because the conclusion
is the last opportunity to motivateyour listeners, it should end strongly. For a
persuasivespeech, a strong ending would be a call to action, where youtell the audience
members they should do something withthe information they have learned.Many times, you
can use a mirrored conclusion example that ties back to or “mirrors” the information you
provide in the introduction. For example, if you use statistics as your attention-getting method
in the introduction to a speech about recycling on campus, your speech’s beginningand ending
might sound something like this:

Introduction: “According to the University of Florida’s Office of Sustainability, the campus used
more than 4 million trash bags in 2006 alone, weighing 163 tons without the trash. Altogether,
UF generates over 14,000 tons of trash per year.” Mirrored Conclusion: “Each time you are
about to throw a
bottle, can, or newspaper in the trash, decide to recycle it instead and help reduce the 14,000
tons of waste we create each year at UF.”

Conversational Speech
You should write the speech like you talk. Follow these writing tips to make your speech as
conversational as possible:
• Use short sentences of 20 words or less. You usually do not use long sentences in a
conversation. Short sentences— even sentence fragments—are fine for a speech.
• Avoid complicated sentence structures. Simple sentences that have a subject, verb, and
object are perfect for public speaking.
• Use contractions. “Do not” and “cannot” are usually too formal for most speeches. “Don’t”
and “can’t” are fine. Be careful of contractions ending in “-ve” (e.g., “would’ve,” “could’ve”)
because they sound like “would of ” and “could of.”
• Avoid jargon or technical language. Use words that your audience knows.
• Round large numbers. Detailed numbers• Use repetition. The same word or phrase used
repeatedly emphasizes a major point.
• Write with visual imagery. Make your listeners “see” what you are saying. Help them visualize
the situation you are describing.

Types of Speeches
Speeches can be divided into the following categories: the informative speech, the persuasive
speech, and speeches for special occasions.

Informative Speech
If the speech’s purpose is to define, explain, describe, or demonstrate, it is an informative
speech. The goal of an informative speech is to provide information completely and clearly so
that the audience understands the message. Examples of informative speeches include
describing the
life cycle stages of an egg to a chicken, explaining how to operate a camera, or demonstrating
how to cook a side dish for a meal. The organization of the speech depends on your specific
purpose and varies depending on whether you are defining, explaining, describing, or
demonstrating. Informative demonstration speeches lend themselves well to the use of visual
aids to show the step-by-step processes with real objects.

Persuasive Speech
Persuasive speeches are given to reinforce people’s beliefs about a topic, to change their
beliefs about a topic, or to move them to act. When speaking persuasively, directly state what
is good or bad and why you think so near the beginning of the speech. This is your thesis
statement that you want to make early on. Since your purpose is topersuade using logic and
reasoning, this communicates to listeners that you want to convince them of your point of
view. One way to structure a persuasive speech is to use the
five-part argument:

 The introduction attracts the attention of the audience, sets the tone, and describes
what the persuasive speech is about. The introduction usually includes the thesis
statement—the specific sentence that explains the main point of the argument.
 The background provides the context and details needed for a listener to understand
the situation being described, as well as the problem or opportunity being addressed.
 Lines of argument make up the body of the speech. Here is where you include all the
claims, reasons, and supporting evidence you have that help you make your points
effectively.
 Refuting objections means disproving, ruling out, and countering any potential
objections before the listeners can think of reasons not to be persuaded.
 The conclusion is where you present your closing arguments. To be effective, the
conclusion should restate your thesis statement and summarize the main points of
your argument. If you are advocating a particular solution to a problem or a decision
to be made, you should close by asking your listeners to adopt your point of view.
Speeches for Special Occasions
Speeches for special occasions are prepared for a specific occasion and for a specific purpose
dictated by that occasion (O’Hair et al., 2007). Speeches for special occasions can be
informative, persuasive, or both, depending on the occasion. Two of the more common types
of speeches for special occasions are the speech of introduction and the speech of welcome.
The speech of introduction is a brief speech that provides the main speaker’s qualifications.
This speech prepares the audience for the main speaker by establishing the speaker’s
credibility and helps make the speaker feel welcome. To write the speech of introduction,
gather biographical information about the speaker. Try to find out one or two pieces of
information about the speaker’s background or credentials that would establish a relationship
with the
audience. The speech of introduction is usually one to no more than three minutes in length.
The speech of welcome acknowledges and greets a person or group of people. The speech of
welcome expressespleasure for the presence of the person or group. The purpose is to make
the person or group feel welcome and to provide information about the organization you
represent. Find out something about the person or group beforehand that you can include in
the speech of welcome. The speech of welcome typically lasts between three and five minutes.

Speech format:
• Beginning: A pre-speech note
Salutation
Occasion of speech and an announcement of topic:
• Development of topic:
Reference to newspapers statistics, effects and results, arguments, etc
• Winding up: Summing up of all points
• Conclusion : Conclude with a hope or an appeal or a warning
End with a ‘Thank You’
N.B;
Points to remember:
• It is very important to hold the attention of the audience. Therefore, keep the speech to the
point and appealing.
• Start the speech with an interesting bit of information, a question or a quotation.
• Convey your opinions and views in an organised and coherent manner.
• Develop each point properly and then move on to the next one.
• Provide examples, statistics and facts that are properly researched and authentic.
• Interact with the audience by posing questions and including some humour, if it is
appropriate.
• End with an emphasis on your point of view and personal inferences so that the audience
thinks about what you have expressed.
• Always thank the audience for listening to you before leaving the stage.
Sample speeches:
1. You have lately read the account of many cases of violent behaviour by school children.
Some instances have been quite injurious and harmful to the victims. You are shocked
by these accounts and decide to share your views with your schoolmates. Prepare a
speech for the morning assembly on the topic ‘Growing violence in children: Causes
and cures’.

Honourable principal, respected teachers and my dear friends,

I would like to share my views on the growing violence among children these days, which is
proving to be rather detrimental to the children’s progress. Lack of an appropriate environment
and good parental care, and pressure of peers are some of the factors that are responsible
for giving rise to negative emotions in children. Feelings of neglect and immense pressure
cause anger and dissatisfaction in these youngsters. The growing exposure to crime films and
thrillers too raises the levels of aggression in them.

Moreover, the rush of consumerism has aroused a child’s desire to possess whatever he sees
in the advertisements on the television. And in case of non-fulfillment of these desires and
wants, there is cause for resentment and frustration. Television shows like WWF and violent
scenes in movies etc lead the innocent children to imitate them. The negative characters in
movies become their role models whom they want to ape in order to appear ‘cool’. Parents,
teachers and social reformers should inculcate the right values in children through persuasion
and instruction. Being the torch-beaness of the future, children need to be guided well and
shown the correct path in life. Let us hope for a better future with the children of today
becoming sensible and sensitive citizens of tomorrow.

Thank you.

2. Write a speech in about 150–200 words on ‘Environmental Pollution’, which you have
to deliver during the morning assembly in your school.

Respected principal and teachers and my dear friends,

Today I am going to speak on the topic ‘Environmental Pollution’, which is a serious problem
that the whole world is facing today. The tremendous increase in population is the root cause
of all kinds of pollution. More people on this earth means more waste material being created.

Another factor is the advancement in science and technology. It has made our lives very
comfortable but has also given rise to a variety of problems that are harming the environment.
Pollution comes in various forms. Air pollution is caused by the smoke from factories, the
exhaust fumes from vehicles and the burning of garbage containing
chemical materials. Water pollution is caused when toxic waste materials are disposed off into
seas and rivers. Soil pollution is again the result of incorrect methods of waste disposal.
Radioactive waves from electronic objects and non biodegradable material like plastics also
contaminate the air and the soil. With modernisation, we have reached a stage where the
enormous noise caused by industrial and transport activities has become a health hazard.
Even though it may not be possible for mankind to eliminate environmental pollution totally,
the hazards can be minimised by adopting alternate methods and following certain rules. We
must remember that by protecting the environment, we are protecting ourselves.

Thank you.

WORKSHEETS
1. You have to deliver a speech in the morning assembly on the relevance of Mahatma
Gandhi in the 21st century, in India. We gave him the title of ‘the Father of the Nation’,
yet we appear to remember Gandhiji’s life-work and his sacrifice for his motherland
only on two days of the year—30 January and 2 October. Politicians give speeches at
public gatherings, the film ‘Gandhi’ is telecast on a couple of TV channels, but in our
daily lives we think it unnecessary to follow his example. Write the speech in about
150–200 words, describing Gandhiji’s contribution to our country.

3. Wheelchair Warriors, Sanjana, Vipul and Atul, have been suffering from a debilitating
disease—muscular dystrophy—for almost three decades. The symptoms started
appearing when they were in their early teens. But disability has not dampened their
spirit. It has only made them more determined. You are deeply moved by the above
report. You realise that physically challenged people can also play a constructive role
in society. We should neither underestimate nor ignore them; and we should definitely
not pity them. We must give them the opportunity to prove themselves. Give a speech
during the morning assembly urging your schoolmates to understand people like
Sanjana, Vipul and Atul.

4. The student council of your school has to select its president. Many students have
forwarded their names for the voting process. You, as a nominee, have to motivate
the students to vote for you. Write a speech stating the reasons why you should be
selected, your positive points, etc.

5. The Government of Tanzania has declared 14 October 2014 as ‘Nyerere Day’ and
has distributed posters in schools around Dodoma stating;
Grow More Trees! For
• More oxygen in the environment, Comforts they give to mankind
• Trees are man’s best friends against Weak roots, Cutting down of trees
• Soil erosion
Using ideas from the above poster write a speech on ‘Need for Preservation of
Plants and Trees’.
 6. On the ocassion of the World Health Day, Kamayani has been asked to give a speech
on ‘Need for Health Care Centres’. Taking ideas from the notes below, write the speech
in about 150 words, to be delivered in the morning assembly. Government launched
health care schemes—pulse polio campaign—re-emergence of infections like dengue,
cholera, etc—HIV infection multiplied—urgent need of health centres—can prevent
diseases—early diagnosis—effective cure—will ensure a disease-free nation.

7. Stop! Stop! Stop! Female foeticide disallowed Girls – gift to humanity

Girls deserve equal opportunities Opposing nature Foeticide-creating imbalance is girl-
boy ratio .
Using your ideas after observing the poster above, write a speech for the morning
assembly on ‘Female foeticide a bane’. Do not exceed 150 words.

8. You have to give a speech on the topic, ‘Introduction of the new grading system in
form IV National Examinations results. You have read a few newspapers and made
the notes below, Write your speech using these notes in not more than 150 words.

• Will decrease pressure on the students

• Cumulative assessment
• No rat race for the students
• Fewer cases of stress-related suicides

4.2.6 Writing Messages on Greeting Cards

“What is so often missing from our lives today is the richness of shared humanity, those
moments when we feel really connected to other human beings. The act of writing personal
notes not only feeds our own soul, but also lets us share ourselves with others offering hopes,
affirming life, connecting.” By Sandra E. Lamb

Examples of the typical occasions and events for which you may want to send a greeting card
with your written message are: birth days, weddings, birth and adoptions, welcome, new
years, employee leaving, retirement, promotion, holidays, sympathy, get well (sickness,
injured) etc.
 Principles and Guidelines when thinking about the content to present

 Write as soon as you hear and confirm the news.

 Always add your own message to that of a greeting card, even when the
printed verse on the card seems perfect. One’s own words make the message
really personal, add the sender’s voice, and help to make the connection the
sender wants when sending a message for a joyful occasion, or a sad one.
 First and foremost, think about offering encouragement.
 Rely on the prevailing relationship with the recipient to dictate your message.
 If possible, learn something about how the recipient views his or her situation
before writing. Focus on the recipient and don’t misdirect your message
towards your own feelings.
 Express simply that you were sorry of hear about the accident/ illness if that is
the case.
 Make a statement about your concern.
 Try to relieve any possible anxiety about things other than the recipient’s
recovery.
 Keep the message sunny and upbeat.
 Be short and concise.
 Consider the religious preferences, ethnic mores, family wishes, and
organizational customs of the recipient when writing your message, and don’t
include any conflicting ideologies you may embrace.
 Make a specific offer of help, indicating when and how you will take the next
step to carry out your offer.
 Combine your message with a small gift of a book or an activity the recipient
can enjoy while recuperating.
 For the recovering child, build anticipation of an upcoming event at a time when
he or she will be fully recovered, and include some kind of related activity for
now.
 If you send flowers or another gift, include a personal note.
 Close on a warm and positive note.

Avoiding wrong messages:

 Don’t moralise or include empty statements which meant to be sympathetic such
as, “it could have been much worse or at least you didn’t die…”
 Be sure to omit any hint or pity.
 Do not offer unsolicited advice, think only of offering comfort.
 Avoid insincere or empty offers of help.
 Avoid dramatic or tragic words or phrases in referring to either the patient or
your own feelings. Words like tragic accident, the worst case are not comforting.
 Do not dwell in comparative stories, like peter’s brother had the same
operation…”

The addition of Sender’s own message becomes easier if he/she:

 Focuses on the sender’s and recipient’s relationship.
  Focuses on the occasion about which one is writing, and its effects on the
recipient or how she or he feels about it. These two steps create a circle of light
in which one will be able to effectively write one’s message.
 Puts herself/ himself how one feels about the recipient, the event, and the
person’s reaction to it into this circle. Reflect all these lights when writing your
message.

Consider special situations: e.g. The injury or illness will have severe financial
repercussions for the recipient. Inquire to learn how best to offer help, but don’t let your offer
take on the character of charity.

4.2.7 Curriculum Vitae Writing

The term resume is used by Americans while CV by the British but both convey the same
information.
• Some scholars claim that a resume is shorter (max 2 pages) than a CV.
• A good CV can kick start your carrier as it advertises you.

What is a CV? A CV is a document which gives a brief account of one’s personal data,
educational qualifications, work experience and other additional information deemed
important for the job one is seeking.

A CV FORMAT/INGREDIENTS
• PERSONAL DATA

Name, sex, date of birth, nationality, age, marital status, contact address, phone no.
• EDUCATION BACKGROUND

Year Institution Qualification

2011-2013 Udsm M.A (PSPA)
2006- 2010 Udom BA (ACC)
 WORK EXPERIENCE

2010 to date - marketing manager smith comp.

2007- 2010 - accountant Mwene Sec. school.
……………………………………………………………………….
 OTHER WORKING SKILLS

Computer , language etc

 WORKSHOPS AND CONFERENCES ATTENDED

• HOBIES AND INTERESTS

• REFERENCES / REFEREES
Here is a section where you will list people (usually three) who know you professionally. These
could be:
- Your superior in your organization, your instructors etc.
- You should give their full names and contacts

• DECLARATION, SIGNATURE AND DATE

- Declaration is the statement given to certify that the information you have given is true.

- Signature abides you to the CV i.e. showing that the document is yours.

- The date shows how recent your CV is.

.2.8 Essay Writing

What is it?
Essay writing is one of writing we normally do in academic life. Essay writing is important in
academic life because it is one way of communicating ideas in various subjects of
specializations.Thus an essay is a piece of writing on a particular subject or topic. It can be
fictional or non fictional.
Characteristics of a good essay
Unity: Sentences should focus on one theme or topic with a definite purpose (homogenous
entity rather than a separate entity”
Order: Logical organization of ideas or arguments (systematicity)
Brevity: Essay should not be too long. At least 300 words.
Style: Formal style: No slang, colloquial terms or contractions. Language should be simple,
direct and natural.
Coherence: All sentences in should be related to one another logically. Coherence helps the
reader to follow the flow of writer’s ideas. Coherence in essays is attained by using transitional
markers (transitional words) which include: such as, and, also, furthermore, likewise, for
instance, on the other hand, aforementioned, he, she, in contrast, conversely, similarly, again,
additionally, consequently, as follows, etc.
Cohesion: This is a grammatical and /or lexical relationship between different elements of a
text. Relationship between sentences is achieved by using cohesion or transition markers such
as: moreover, besides, in addition, this, the former, finally, etc.
Completeness: This means that the subject of the essay should be adequately developed
by providing details, explanations, definitions, evidence, etc. This will make the reader get
satisfied and not left with vague expressions or unanswered questions.
Personal touch: An essay should reveal personal feelings or opinions of the writer. One has
to express his own views in an essay rather than just quoting other people’s ideas. People
have to know your stand.
Use of citations and references: Proper citations and referencing

Approaches towards Writing Good Essays

1. Build a Rhetorical Power
Rhetorical power is a power to persuade and to communicate. It is the power to express what
you feel, what you believe, what you know and what you have discovered about yourself and
about the world around you.
A rhetorical power is built from reading. Reading generates writing. From reading you can be
able to do the following:
- learn on a particular topic you want to write on
- you can learn the feelings of those you want to persuade or inform
- And you can learn good writing styles
2. Decide on the Purpose of your Essay
To write anything including essays one must decide on the purpose of writing. This process
entails, being clear on reasons of writing, one asks these questions himself/herself:
 Do you want to report on something?
 Do you want to describe something?
 Do you want to discuss about something?
 Do you want to compare and contrast on certain issues?
 Do you want to outline on something?
 Are you intending to comment on something, etc
3. Decide on What Type of Essay you Want to Write
Is it narrative; expository; descriptive; argumentative; imaginative etc
Narrative essay: Consists of stories or narrations of events. Some of the events may be
historical, personal or fictional.
Expository essay: It is also called explanatory essay. It explains some subject, terms or
ideas; compares things; or explains how to do something (gives instructions). Examples:
Cause and effect essays, compare and contrast essays, those which define certain concepts
and those which expose problems and provide solutions. Expository essays are the essays
that most of college and university students write during their tests and examinations.
Descriptive essay: Describes about places, things like animals or buildings, actions,
phenomena or events that happened in the past, manufactured articles such as cars etc.
Argumentative or persuasive essay: Essay with the aim of convincing or persuading,
motivating, or persuading readers to accept changes or take actions and sometimes it can be
written for the purpose of discouraging some bad behaviour among intended readers.
 It involves inductive or deductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning proceeds from
specific aspects or details to the general aspects or idea. Deductive reasoning proceeds
from logically general facts to specific details or aspects.
Imaginative essay: Essay which expresses ones feelings about certain situation or
experience. A writer places himself or herself in someone’s position and starts writing about
what he feels about that position or certain experience.
4. Think of your Audience
 Who are you writing to (audience), are they lay people, technical, or non technical
people? Or is it simply your lecturer(s)
 Consideration of your audience is necessary because it will affect the choice of
vocabulary, structure and approach (how you have to say it), what you have to write
(content) and style of writing and presentation. This consideration again is necessary
because by doing so you will be putting the reader in first priority for the essay is
aimed at him/her.
5. The Essay Question
 Any writing and in particular essay writing starts with an essay question. For timed
essays there is usually a question set for you by your examiners/lecturers. For free
written essay, long report or term paper it should start by a question of your own
making. That is, make your own essay question.
6. Understand the Requirements of the Essay Question
 After you have been presented with an essay question or after you have made your
own question, then the next step is to understand the requirements of the essay
question.

 Understanding the demands of the question correctly is an important skill towards the
best approach to follow and producing an effective answer to the question.
 There have been many cases where students produce stereo type answers particularly
copying from lecture notes as if all questions had the same demands.
 It should be understood that instructions to essay questions enormously. Each essay
question has its own specific requirements. With the timed essays tutors and
examiners normally spell out these requirements in the essay questions themselves.
Thus try to develop the ability to recognise exactly what is required by the essay
question.
 There are three important things that you need to do in order to be able to understand
the requirements of the essay question and interpret it effectively:
I. Subject or Theme
 Identify the subject or theme of the question. Actually this is the key word of the
essay. The key word is a broad area; it may be land surveying, economics, urban
poverty, education, trading systems, population etc.
 This will help you remember things you know about the topic or subject.

II. Key Instructional Words

 Identify the key instructional words of the question. These show exactly what to do in
the essay.
  These words are the words that instruct/direct the candidate what the question
demands.
 It is generalized that, in most cases the instructional words demand either FACTS or
OPINIONS, o r BOTH. Let us look at some of these words and what they demand:

III. Special Conditions

 In addition to the key instructional words, you are also supposed to note any special
conditions for answering the question.

 Special conditions are phrases or clauses which are in the question to limit the scope
of the essay by setting boundaries in terms of time, place, and amount of words/
pages, extent etc. They give restrictions in order to get a topic which can be completely
developed in a single paper.
Examples:
(i) Explain in your own words the practical problem of aircraft technology in the third world
countries.
 Theme/subject: aircraft technology
 Key instructional word: explain
 Special conditions: in your own words, and in the third world countries
(ii) With vivid examples compare and contrast formal and informal reports on their format
and use.
 Theme/subject: formal and informal reports
 Key instructional words: compare and contrast
 Special conditions: with vivid examples; format and use

7. Deciding on the Structure of your Essay

Planning an essay question involves an effort to try to organize the material and decide on
the most effective order of presentation. Deciding on organization or structure of presentation
of the required information is dependent on correct and careful planning. Planning helps to
shape the development of your essay, the content to enter and how much time to spend on
each part of the essay and the entire writing process. Thus make a plan.A plan is therefore,
essentially a sketch, an outline, a frame work or a skeleton of your essay.

Steps in Planning
1. List the points you want to cover. List only those points which meet the needs of the
question,
your reader and of your plan.
2. Select those items/points which you think are most relevant to the topic
3. Break the material into logical decisions thus creating a sense of unity. This can be done
by
classifying and analyzing the points and deciding the order of presenting. For example:
 General items to specific ones;
 Important items come first, before less important items while larger items come before
smaller ones.
8. The Order of the Essay
A systematic and good order of any essay is to present the information into three parts which
are logically connected to each other namely:
 The Introduction
 The Body/Discussion
 The Conclusion
Writing Introductions:
After a plan what follows is the introduction.This is an important area of the essay. The
introduction should supply an overall framework so that the reader can grasp the details that
later explain and develop the essay. In the introduction:
 Orient the reader(s) by defining/ explaining key the terms or concepts and provide
necessary background information. Tell what causes you to write the essay. Explain
clearly the purpose of writing the essay; give the organization of the essay as well.
Define terms: include definitions or explanations of key terms and concepts, especially
if you are describing a process.
 Provide the necessary background information. Although you know what you are
writing/speaking about, the reader/listeners often does.
 State the purpose of writing the essay: orient the reader to your topic; mention the
reason for your writing. The reasons may be to educate; to describe; to explain; to
inform etc.
 State the organization/ scope of the essay: this refers to what the essay will accomplish
for the reader. In this area you should show the audience what the essay will do and
how it will do it step by step. For example:
This essay intends to highlight the use of teaching and learning strategies and the
effect
on students learning in Tanzanian higher learning institutions.
 The introduction is generally short, usually a paragraph or two.

Development of the Main body:

 The main body is the section where the writer provides all the required arguments,
details, reasons, and examples.The arguments are organized in paragraphs. The
paragraphs should have unity, coherence, clear, and complete.
  Each paragraph should have a topic sentence. Topic sentence refers to a sentence
that carries the main idea of a paragraph.The development of the main body’s
paragraphs can follow either of the following patterns; inductive or deductive
pattern:Inductive paragraph is the paragraph which is organized in such a way that
specific details come first ending with the general /main idea.Deductive paragraph
is the one in which the general/main idea comes first followed with the specific
details.Usually each paragraph carries one main point. And principles of paragraphing
such as unity, coherence, and order have to be considered. Also principles of sentence
structure, grammar, punctuations and the like have to be taken care of.
Writing a Concluding Paragraph:
 Conclusion, just like introduction is the difficult part to most students. This is the last
and emphatic part of the essay.The conclusion should be convincing. It involves the
following activities: restating the essay/thesis statement, summarizing main ideas,
providing concluding remarks and then giving the final statement. It is in the
conclusion one can show his/her own stand. This indicates the personal touch of the
essay.
Post Writing Stage:
 Proof read the essay to identify areas of weaknesses.
 Edit the essay in order to have the correct version.
 Add more information if some sentences are not complete.
 Ensure that the bibliography/references are written in a correct format, showing names
of authors, years of publication, titles, edition numbers, places of publication, names
of publishers and/or volume numbers, issue numbers and pages where articles are
located in newspapers or journals.
 Make sure that necessary details like your name, programme of study and other
specifications are provided.
 Submit the essay on time.

4.3.0 PUNCTUATION MARKS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Period/ Full stop ( . )

 To indicate the end of a declarative sentence. Example: Here is the place.
 To indicate that letters are used as abbreviations. Example: Dr. Carle D. Reynolds
 To indicate decimal fractions.Example: 16.34

Three Periods--Ellipses (…)

 To indicate that a portion of quoted matter is omitted. Example: “To receive, obey,
and pass on…”

Comma ( , )
  To separate independent clauses joined by a conjuction. Example: This is the street,
but I don’t know the number of the house.
Note: no comma is used unless each statement is independent. Example: You will
police
the area and maintain a fire watch.
 To separate parts of a series. Example: Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday
 To separate coordinate or “equal” adjectives in a series.Example: a loud, sharp blast
Note: Unless the adjectives modify the same noun in the same way, they are not in
series and no comma is used. To test, check if the adjectives can be reversed. If not,
no comma.
Example: heavy woolen clothing
 To separate introductory statements beginning with such words as when, while,
since, if,
because, until, although, and whenever (or other subordinate conjunctions)
Example:
When the rain was falling, there was very little wind.
 To set off introductory prepositional phrases (starting with on, in, at, to, by, for, of,
through, etc.) Example: By the time she crawled into bed, she was too exhausted to
sleep.
Note: Short prepositional phrases (3 words or less) are not always followed by
commas.
Example: In Japan he served as platoon commander.
 To separate non-essential elements from the rest of the sentence. A non-essential
element is a word or group of words that gives additional identifying information
about someone or something already identified; it’s non-essential because the
sentence is still clear without it. Examples: The President, who is the Commander-in-
Chief of the armed forces, rates a salute.I visited Albany, the capital of the state of
New York.
Note: Commas are NOT placed around essential elements—those that limit meaning or
give

 identifying information about someone or something not already identified.

Example: The procedure that you are required to follow is explained in TM 5-250.
 To set off introductory phrases beginning with verb participles ending in –ing, -ed, -en,
etc.
Example: Having turned off the lathe, I stopped the motor.
 To set off such expressions as you, no, well, on the other hand, you might say, and of
course,(such expressions are called interrupters)Example: He was, of course, the first
person I saw.
 To set off such expressions as he said from direct quotations.Example: “That decision,”
he explained, “must be your own.”
Note: No comma is used to separate such expressions from the rest of the sentence if the
sentence is an indirect quotation (often introduced with the word that).Example: He
explained that the decision must be my own.

 To separate contrasting elements. Example: The wall is gray, not blue.

 To prevent misreading. Example: Undressing, the child ran into the bathroom.
 To set off the name of a person addressed. Example: Frank, may I borrow your skill
saw?
Semicolon ( ; )
 To separate independent statements that are not joined by a coordinating conjunction
(and, but,or, nor, for, yet, so). Example: Black is a mixture of all colors; white is the
complete opposite.Note: If the independent statements are short, a comma may be
used.
Example: Horses sweat, men perspire.
 To separate independent statements when the second statement begins with such
conjunctiveadverbs or phrases like therefore, however, thus, otherwise, on the other
hand, for example, infact, that is, etc.Example: I submitted a request six months in
advance; still, I did not receive a permit intime for the departure.

 To separate independent statements joined by conjunctions if such statements are long

or theycontain internal punctuation. Example: Classic science fiction sagas include Star
Trek, with Mr. Spock and his largepointed ears; Battlestar Galactica, with its Cylon
Raiders; and Star Wars, with Han Solo,Luke Skywalker, and Darth Vader.
Apostrophe ( ’ )
 To show possession (if the word does not end in s, add an apostrophe and an
s.).Example: The doctor’s advice, the housewife’s choice, man’s clothing, Martin’s
house
Note: If the word is singular and ends in s or an s sound, use apostrophe and an s
Example: Mr. Schultz’s carunless pronunciation is awkward:
Example: Miss Simmons’ coat
 To indicate the omission of letters in contractions . Examples: can’t, won’t, doesn’t,
haven’t, it’s.

 To form the plural of letters, words, and symbols that do not have logical plurals
Example: three 2’s, too many &’s, and seven c’s

Dash ( — )
 To indicate a sudden, abrupt break of an unfinished word or sentence
Example: “She will take charge of this post and – Wait a minute. Who are you?”

 To set off a summary of a preceding series.Example: Food, clothing, shelter, and a

sense of humor – those are the things a manneeds to survive.

Hyphen ( - )
 To join two or more words serving as a single adjective before a noun
 Example: a one-way street, chocolate-covered peanuts
 Use a hyphen with compound numbers
 Example: forty-six, sixty-three
 Our much-loved teacher was sixty-three years old.
 To avoid confusion or an awkward combination of letters
 Example: re-sign a petition (vs. resign from a job)
 semi-independent (but semiconscious)
 shell-like (but childlike)
 Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex- (meaning former), self-, all-; with the suffix -elect;
between a
 prefix and a capitalized word; and with figures or letters
 Example: ex-husband, self-assured
 To divide words at the end of a line if necessary, or show a break between syllables
 Example: pre-fer-ence, sell-ing

 Quotation Marks (“__” and ‘__’)

 To set off quoted matter (including punctuation marks, usually. See a handbook for
details.)
 Example: “I saw it,” he replied.
 Note: Indirect quotes are not set off by quotations.
 Example: He said that the decision must be my own.
 To indicate a quotation within a quotation (single quotation marks)
 Example: I replied, “When I asked him if he had ever heard of the American
Revolution,
 he said, ‘I saw it.’”
 To enclose titles of short stories, poems, magazine articles, portions of books, and
individual
 television show episodes
 Example: Good diagrams can be found in the chapter entitled “Engine Constructions”
 in Dean Austin’s book Automotive Mechanics.

 Italics ____________________
 To indicate the titles of books, plays, magazines, long musical compositions, works of
art,
movies, and television show series. Example: I highly recommend The Technique of
Clear Writing, by Robert Gunning.

 To indicate use of foreign words. Example: And there I was, en dishabille.

 To indicate that the writer is referring to a word rather than to the sense that it
conveys
Examples: He mistook was for saw.Can you spell precede?
(Note: Letters, figures, and symbols, when used as such, are also italicized.)
 Examples: The m looks like a w.
 Type &rather than and.

 Parentheses ( )
 To set off digressions or elements which provide extra information
 Example: The progress report (Form #78) is submitted each week.
 I told him (Travers) exactly what to do.
 To enclose numbers and letters enumerating parts
 Example: The principal parts are (1) the present tense, (2) the past tense, and (3) the
past
 participle.

 Brackets [ ]
 To set off material inserted in a direct quotation
 Example: Audubon reports that “if there are not enough young to balance deaths, the
end
 of the species [California condor] is inevitable.”

 Colon ( : )
 Used after an independent clause (complete sentence) to direct attention to a list, an
appositive,
 or a quotation
 Example: He laid down three rules: no smoking, no idle talk, and no sleeping.
 Example: A rainbow consists of the following colors: red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
 and violet.
 Example: The speaker quoted a popular saying: “We grow too soon old and too late
 smart.”
 To separate two independent clauses (complete sentences) when the second one
summarizes or
 explains the first
 Example: Faith is like love: it cannot be forced.

 Slash ( / )
 To indicate the end of a line of poetry
 Example: Here with a Loaf of Bread beneath the Bough, / A Flash of wine, a Book of
 verse – and Thou
 To set off phonemic transcriptions
 Example: In French the /e/ is pronounced as /A/.
 To separate paired terms (use sparingly)
 Example: pass/fail
 producer/director

Spelling Rules
Preliminary
A prefix is a group of letters placed at the beginning of a word, a suffix is a group of letters
placed at the end of a word.
Rules:
1. A word ending with a silent e loses the e if a suffix beginning with a vowel is added:
Hate - hating ; continue - continuation
Like - liking
If the suffix begins with a consonant, the e is not dropped e.g. extremely,
encouragement
2. The suffix –ful has only one l:
Delightful Playful beautiful hopeful
3. Final ie is changed to y when –ing is added:
Lie - lying ; die dying
4. Q is always followed by u, e.g. quantity, quality, equation etc.
5. A final –y preceded by a consonant is changed to –ies in the plural:
Cry - cries ; country - countries
If the y is preceded by a vowel, it remains y in the plural e.g. donkey – donkeys;
monkey - monkeys
6. When a suffix is added to a word of more than one syllable ending in –y, the y changes
to i: happy - happiness ; study - studious
-y is retained before a suffix beginning with i e.g. study + ing = studying
7. If we add a suffix beginning with a vowel to a single consonant, we double the final
consonant providing the preceding syllable is stressed and contains a single vowel.
Begin - beginning ; prefer - preferred ; omit – omitted ; forbid – forbidden
 It is obvious that if the word has only one syllable, contains a single vowel and ends
with a single consonant this rule must apply. Sit - sitting ; big – bigger
8. When –ly is added to an adjective ending in –l to form an adverb, the result is a double
l, e.g. delightfully, successfully, orally etc.
9. When a prefix ends with the same letter as the first letter of the word it is placed
before, the result is doubling:
Mis- misspelt ; un- unnoticed ; il- illegal ; im- immeasurable
10. When the suffix –ness is added to a word ending in –n, the result is a double n,
Keen – keenness ; mean – meanness
11. A certain group of verbs contain s while their corresponding nouns contain c:
Verbs Nouns
Advise Advice
Prophesy prophecy
12. There are only three verbs ending in –ceed. These are succeed, exceed and proceed.

13. Irregular plurals do take different forms as follows:

- Words ending in –o. some form their plurals by simply adding –s as in:
Piano – pianos ; solo – solos; dynamo – dynamos ; radio – radios
etc.
- Others take the plural ending –oes: as in cargo – cargoes ; echo – echoes ; hero –
heroes
Potato – potatoes; volcano – volcanoes ; motto -
mottoes

INTERNET USE

Grencoe (2000: 562) points out that the internet is a computer-based, worldwide information
network. He further argues that the internet uses telephone lines and cable lines and satellites
to link personal computers worldwide. On the other hand, the Federal Networking Council
(FNC) defines the term Internet as the global information system that is logically linked
together by a globally unique address space based on the Internet Protocol (IP) or its
subsequent extensions.

A Basic Internet Vocabulary List

Internet – a network that links networks worldwide by satellite and telephone

Web – a collection of electronic files linked together; anatomy similar to a spider’s web
Search engine – a computer program that searches for specific words or phrases on
the web
Website – a collection of one or more web pages
Intranet - an internal network of data and information that is used in many companies;
typically password protected, accessible only from within the company’s confines, and
housed on a separate server. Contains the same features as the internet
Google - a popular search engine; slang term meaning to look up information on the
internet
Home page – the first page of a website; usually contains an index of the entire
website
Server - systems that store information shown on the web; stores web pages and other
information used both on the internet and intranet
Internet Explorer (IE) – a type of browser
Address field – the place on the screen in which you type the URL or web address
Online – being connected to the Internet
Firefox – a type of browser
Status bar – a symbol at the bottom of a web page that indicates the percentage of
the page that has loaded
Browser – software used for searching the web
Internet service provider (ISP) - a company that provides customers access to the
internet
http:// - Hypertext Transfer Protocol; the protocol or standard that defines how all
information is sent over the internet; usually precedes a URL
URL – Uniform Resource Locator; a unique address that sends a request to the server
which houses the information you are looking for
Window – a screen that displays a web page
Domain – an identification string located at the end of a web address; examples - .net,
.org, .com
www – world wide web; the extension which begins many URLs
Hyperlinks – text and images within a website that reference other web pages or sites;
usually appear in a different color and are underlined. Cursor will change to a hand icon
when touched
Tab – a feature that allows you to open multiple web pages or windows at once
html – Hypertext Markup Language; the code in which most internet content is written

Using Internet Search Engines

Search engines are a type of software that uses the user’s key word to compile lists of related
Web sites. Examples of search engines are, goggle, yahoo, g mail etc. these can be accessed
by typing www. Google.com; www.yahoo.com

Evaluating Internet Sources

Keep in mind that the quality and reliability of information you find on the internet may vary
widely. Anyone with a bit of computer know-how can create a website and post information
there. Such a person can be an expert, a high school student or a lay man. Be careful, then,
to look closely at your electronic source in the following ways:
 a) Internet address- who is sponsoring the website. Look the part that follows the
“dot.” The following table may guide you:
Extension meaning reliability

.com commercial/business organization varies

.edu educational institution usually reliable
.gov government reliable
.net commercial varies
.org non profit organization usually reliable

b) author - what credentials does the author have? Has the author published
other
material on the topic?
c) Internal evidence - does the author seem to present materials objectively?
Present all sides fairly before giving his/her own opinions? Does the author
produce solid, adequate support for his or her views?
d) Date – is the information up to date or archaic? Check at the top or bottom of
the document for copyright, publication, or revision dates.

Applications of the Internet

On the internet you can read the news, shop, pay bills, send emails, watch television
programmes, transfer files etc.

 Traditional core applications:

Email, News Remote Login File Transfer

 New applications:
Videoconferencing, Telephony, Internet Broadcast etc

Better Searching of Materials on the internet

 Use key words not full sentences or questions. E.g. instead of typing “ I need tips for
growing tomatoes” simply type “growing tomatoes”.
 If you cannot` find what you want, try to use different words or a different way of
expressing it.
 Practice putting key words into the search box and pressing the search button.
 A list of search results will appear, with the most popular websites near the top of
the list.
 To view a website, simply click on the link.
 MODULE 6 : DICTIONARY USE AND REFERENCING

What is a dictionary?
A dictionary is a reference book with a list of words which are usually in alphabetical order
together with a guide to their meanings, pronunciation, spelling or their equivalents in other
languages.

Dictionary Typology
There is no single approach used to tell the number of dictionaries produced in all human
life history. The following are the approaches used to classify dictionary:
1. The number of languages used to compile the dictionary. From it, there are three
types of dictionaries as follows:
a) Monolingual dictionary- Made up of one language
b) Bilingual dictionary- Made up of two languages
c) Multilingual dictionary- Made up of more than two languages
2. The age of the users approach gives us two types of dictionaries
a) Children’s dictionaries-This type of dictionary has the following characteristics like
big font size, attractive color and few citation forms with pictures
b) School dictionaries - Dictionaries of different subjects used by school going age
children.
3. The size- based approach
a) Unabridged dictionary
It is a big dictionary and consists of all words in that language at that particular
time. It cannot be carried easily, usually are put on the table.
b) Desk dictionary
It is relatively big but not as unabridged .Consists of about 60000 words to
100,000 words
c) Concise dictionary
It is a little bit big with less than 60000 words
d) Compact dictionary
It is relatively small but bigger than pocket dictionary
e) Pocket dictionary
It is small and portable dictionary
f) Vest dictionary
A very small and portable dictionary
g) Mini dictionary
It is the smallest one, normally with words of specialized fields

Information in a Dictionary

Any good dictionary will provide you with the following information:
 1. Lexical Entry

This is a headword appearing in its appropriate alphabetical place in a dictionary. It is

always in black ink and is the word with minimal affixation
2. Spellings

A good dictionary shows the conventional spellings of the words as well as the spellings of
irregular verb forms and plurals in both varieties of English (AmE and BrE).e.g.
Colour- color
Programme- program
Center - centre
3. Pronunciation

Any good dictionary has a special way showing how words are pronounced and stressed,
including differences in pronunciation between AmE and BrE. For example in the words like
bird, park the sound / r/ is pronounced AmE while in BrE the sound /r/ is not pronounced.
4. Word class

A good dictionary will show whether the word is commonly used as a noun, pronoun, verb,
adjective, adverb, conjunction or preposition, although this is largely determined by actual
use in a sentence.
5. Meaning

Since almost every word has more than one meaning, a good dictionary will provide a full
range of meanings that a word has in use. To show this meanings are always numbered.
In cases where the word changes word class, say from verb to adjective to assume a new
meaning, such changes are also indicated
6. Usage

A good dictionary shows how word is put to use whether the word is used as a dialect,
colloquial, a slang, taboo or euphemism
7. Idioms

Are fixed phrases usually made up of a verb followed by a noun phrase. An idiom has its
own special meaning and it is often impossible to guess meaning of the word phrase by
looking at the separate words that it is formed from. Or these are phrases where by the
meaning of it does not associate or correlate with the words that form it. For example , kick
the bucket- to die, Rub shoulders with- be friendly with, Hit a snag- be faced with a
problem
8. Phrasal verbs

These are groups of words usually made up of a verb followed by an adverb and or a
preposition. These groups of words act like verbs and have special meanings which are
different from the meanings of individual words which make up the phrases. For example
look down upon- despise, look up to – respect, put up with- tolerate without
complaining
Phrasal verbs like idioms have separate entries listed in alphabetical order in the dictionary.
 9. Inflections

This is a change made in the form of a word in relation to its use. For example, the pronoun
‘he’ changes to ‘ him’ in the object position, ‘crisis’ changes to ‘crises’ when it is in plural
form and the word ‘swim’ changes to ‘swam’ it is past tense. A good dictionary will usually
show inflections of words whose written forms or pronunciation is irregular or when there is
a likelihood of confusion.
10. Abbreviations and Acronyms

Abbreviations are shortened forms such as

NB- for note well
PhD – Doctor of Philosophy
cf – for compare
Acronyms on the other hand, are a group of letters of the name of something. New
acronyms are freely produced especially by scientist and administrators and particular for
names of organisation
UDOM- University of Dodoma
COD- Cash on Delivery
UNICEF- United Nations International Children’s Fund
RADAR- Radio Detecting and Ranging

REFERENCING

References: List of specific works that you used in your work. References usually come at
the end of a text (essay or research report) and should contain only those works cited within
the text. So, use the term ‘References’ to cover works cited.

Bibliography: Lists of works for background or for further reading, these may be books
which you read as part of your research, but which were not actually cited in your work.
OR
A Bibliography is any list of references at the end of a text, whether cited or not. It
includes texts you made use of, not only texts you referred to in your paper, but your own
additional background reading, and any other articles you think the reader might need as
background reading.

 Both References. & Bibliography must be in alphabetical order; and each entry must
be
laid out in a strictly ordered sequence
  Bibliography refers to a list of all works or sources of information; books, articles,
newspapers etc cited or not cited in your work which can be an essay, seminar
paper, research report and a book.

There are many styles or formats of writing bibliography. But it is not very important which
format you adopt. However, one has to be consistent with the format he/she has chosen.
Two formats are common; APA (American Psychological Association) and MLA
(Modern language Association).For the purpose of this course, the APA style is
discussed.

Guidelines for Bibliography Writing in APA Style

 Arrange all entries in alphabetical order. Use surnames, author’s first name or initials.
 If there are two authors, then provide both names.
 Where there are more than two authors, write the first author, followed by the word
et al. Et al means “and others”.
 Where no name of author exists, use the editor’s name and indicate in brackets with
(Ed or Eds)
 Likewise, the name of the organization or country can be used in place of the name
of the author, such as Mzumbe, UDSM, Tanzania, URT etc.
 Entries in bibliography are not numbered.
 Titles for books, journals or newspapers are underlined if you are writing using a
typewriter. But if you are using a computer, the titles are italicised.
 Titles for articles and unpublished materials are enclosed in quotation marks
 For books which have been re-edited, use abbreviation (ed), like 4th ed.
 Place of publications come first followed by name of publisher, separated by colon.
Avoid using the names of countries as places of publication. Use towns or other
places, e.g London, Dar es Salaam, Mzumbe, Morogoro, Tokyo, New York, etc. But
not Tanzania, England, the USA etc.
 Where there is no place of publication or publisher, use abbreviation (n.p)
 Use (n.d) to indicate that there is no date of publication.
 To indicate one page, use “p.”; and many pages use “pp.”
 To indicate one section use “s” and for many sections use “ss”

Examples,
1. Books:
 Author’s name (s)
 Year of publication
 Title of the book (underlined or italicised)
 Number of edition
 Place of publication
 Name of publisher.

Martin, J. (2004). Management Accounting (4th ed). New York: Prentice Hall.
Lugano, S and Chan, S. (1999). Effective Business Comunication. Dar es Salaam: Dar es
Salaam Printers.

2. Articles in Journals:
  Author’s name (s)
 Year of Publication
 Title of the article in quotation marks
 Title of journal underlined or italicised
 Number of volume, and issue
 Page number (s)

Salim, S. (2008). “Sexual Harassment in Higher Learning Institutions”. Uongozi Journal.

Vol.7,
No.11. pp. 12-34.

3. Article From Newspapers:

 Author’s name (s)
 Year of Publication
 Title of the article in quotation marks
 Title of newspaper underlined or italicised
 Number of issue
 Page number (s)
e.g.
Ihucha A. (Novermber10, 2008). “ Namanga to receive Power from Kenya”. The Guardian,
No.4359,. p.2.

4. Unpublished Papers:
 Author’s name (s)
 Year of presentation
 Title in quotation marks
 Where it was presented.

Mwambalaswa, J. (2006). “Pedagogy and Andragogy”. Paper presented at the Workshop on

teaching Under new Curricululm at Mzumbe University.

Unpublished Dissertation/Thesis:
 Author’s name (s)
 Year of report writing/submission
 Title in quotation marks
  Where it was submitted/presented
e.g.
Yahaya, O. (2010). “The Use of English Language Teaching and Learning Strategies and the
Effect on Language Learning in Tanzanian Secondary School Classrooms: The Case of
Mbeya Region”. Unpublished M.A.Education Dissertation, University of Dar es salaam.

Msami, T. (2007). “Assessment of PEDP Implementation in Tanzania: A Case Study of

Morogoro Municipality”. Unpublished M.A Dissertation/Thesis Submitted to faculty of
Education. University of Dar es Salaam.

Government Publications:
 Country’s name
 Year of publication
 Title of publication
 Place of publication
 Name of publisher
e.g.
United Republic of Tanzania. (2003). Economic Revival Programme. Dar es salaam:
Government Printers.

Electronic Sources:
 Name of author/editor/organisation/institution/country
 Year of publication
 Title
 Location of server, if known
 Publisher/maintainer of site (if known)
 Website.
 Retrieving date and time
e.g.
Sheri, B. and Alison, R. (2007). Active Teaching Strategies. Retrieved on August 12th ,2010.
From http://www.baker.edu/departments/etl/training resources.cfm.
Meaning of Initials:
 http: Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
  www: World Wide Web
 html or htm: Hyper Text Markup Language
 URL: Uniform Resource Locator

Sample of Bibliography in APA Style/Format

APA = American Psychological Association

 Note that, in writing a bibliography in APA style, the details of the sources should be
as follows:

 Books: Author’s name, year, title, edition number, place of publication and name of
publisher.
 Articles from journal: Author’s name, year, title of article in quotation marks, title
of journal, volume number, issue number and page number (s).
 Articles from a newspaper: Author’s name, year, title of article in quotation
marks, title of newspaper, issue number and page number(s).
 Unpublished paper: Author’s name, year, title of article in quotation marks, place
where the paper was presented.
 Unpublished Dissertation/Thesis: Author’s name, year, title in quotation marks,
place where it was submitted/presented.
 Government Documents: Author’s name, year, title, place of publication, name of
publisher.

Examples
Abbardel, S. and Priscilla, P. (Eds)(2005). Organisational Behaviour. London: Prentice Hall.
Felix, T. (Ed) (2003). Public Policy Formulation. New York: (n.pub)
Kamando, A. (2007). “Self Help Projects in Same District: A Case Study of Hedaru
Development Project”. Unpublished MA Dissertation, University of Dar es Salaam.