Quantum Physics III (8.

06) — Spring 2018

Assignment 1

Posted: Wednesday, February 7, 2018

Announcements

• Please make sure your recitation section is correct.

• Please put your name and section at the top of what you hand in.

Readings

• Griÿths, Chapter 6
• Cohen-Tannoudji, Chapter XI
• Shankar, Chapter 17
• Sakurai, Sections 5.1-5.3

Problem Set 1

1. The Joy of 2 × 2 Hermitian Matrices (10 points)

P
(a) Compute (~a·~σ )2 (using the formula σi σj = δij I + 3k=1 iǫijk σk ) and write down
its eigenvalues. Using also the fact that tr~a·~σ = 0, what can you conclude about
the eigenvalues of ~a·~σ ? What about the eigenvalues of a0 I + ~a·~σ?
(b) Let ~a = (α, 0, β). Write down the exact eigenvalues of ~a·~σ. Write down the
dominant terms and the first two correction terms in the cases when |α| ≪ |β|
and when |α| ≫ |β|. Compare with the results you obtain from second-order
perturbation theory.
a0 I+~a·~
σ
(c) Define the inner product hA, Bi ≡ tr[A† B]. Suppose that A = 2
. Write
down Hermitian matrices Q0 , Q1 , Q2 , Q3 such that ai = hA, Qi i.
2. Anharmonic Oscillator (15 points)
Consider the anharmonic oscillator with Hamiltonian
p̂2 1 2 2
√ x̂3
H= + mω x̂ + λ 2 ~ω 3 ,
2m 2 d
~
where d2 = mω
and we treat x̂3 term as a perturbation.

1
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 1

(a) Show that the first order shift in the ground state energy is zero. Calculate the
shift to order λ2 .
(b) Calculate the ground state wave function to order λ. (You may just write your
answer as a sum of harmonic oscillator states.)
(c) Sketch the potential V (x) as a function of x for small λ. Is the state you found
in (b) anything like the true ground state? What e ect has perturbation theory
failed to find?

3. Perturbation of the Three-Dimensional Harmonic Oscillator (25 points)

The spectrum of the three-dimensional harmonic oscillator has a high degree of degen-
eracy. In this problem, we see how the addition of a perturbation to the Hamiltonian
reduces the degeneracy. This problem is posed in such a way that you can work through
it before we even begin to discuss degenerate perturbation theory in lecture.
Consider a quantum system described by the Hamiltonian

H = H0 + δH (1)

where
1 2 1
H0 = p~ + 2 mω 2~x 2 (2)
2m
where ~x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) and p~ = (p1 , p2 , p3 ). The perturbing Hamiltonian δH is given by

δH = λωL2 (3)

where λ is a unit free constant and where L2 = x3 p1 −x1 p3 , is the component of angular
momentum in the y direction.
In parts (a)-(e) of this problem, we study the e ects of this perturbation within the
degenerate subspace of states which have energy E = (5/2)~ω when λ = 0.

(a) Set λ = 0. Thus, in this part of the problem H = H0 . Define creation and
annihilation operators for “oscillator quanta” in the 1, 2 and 3 directions. Define
number operators N1 , N2 , N3 . Denote eigenstates of these number operators by
their eigenvalues, as |n1 , n2 , n3 i. What is the energy of the state |n1 , n2 , n3 i? How
many linearly independent states are there with energy E = (5/2)~ω? [That is,
what is the degeneracy of the degenerate subspace of states we are studying?]
(b) Express the perturbing Hamiltonian δH in terms of creation and annihilation
operators.
(c) What is the matrix representation of δH in the degenerate subspace you described
in part (a)?
(d) What are the eigenvalues and eigenstates of δH in the degenerate subspace? What
are the eigenvalues and eigenstates of H = H0 + δH in the degenerate subspace?

2
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 1

(e) What is the matrix representation of H0 + δH in the degenerate subspace if you

use the eigenvectors of δH as a new basis? (i.e. instead of the original |n1 , n2 , n3 i
basis.)
[Note: As we shall see in part (f), this problem is “too simple” in important
ways. The aspect of this problem which will generalize when we consider more
generic perturbations is that if a perturbation breaks a degeneracy, then even an
arbitrarily small but nonzero perturbation has qualitative consequences: it selects
one particular choice of energy eigenvectors, within the previously degenerate
subspace. In the present problem, this can be described as follows: if λ were
initially zero and you were happily using the |n1 , n2 , n3 i states as your basis of
energy eigenstates, and then somebody “turns on” a very small but nonzero value
of λ, this forces you to make a qualitative change in your basis states. The
“rotation” you must make from your previous energy eigenstates to the new states
which are now the only possible choice of energy eigenstates is not a small one,
even though λ is arbitrarily small.]
(f) Suppose that |ψi and |φi are eigenstates of H0 with di erent energy eigenval-
ues. That is, |ψi and |φi belong to di erent degenerate subspaces. Show that
hφ|δH|ψi = 0 for any two such states. Relate this fact to a statement you can
make about the operators H0 and δH, without reference to states.
[The fact that hφ|δH|ψi = 0 if |ψi and |φi and belong to di erent degenerate
subspaces means that δH is a “non-generic” perturbation of H0 ; a more general
perturbation would not have this property. It is only for perturbations with
this property that the analysis you have done above — which focusses on one
degenerate subspace at a time — is complete. Notice also that in order to analyze
H = H0 + δH, we did not have to assume that λ was in any sense small. If δH
were “generic”, we would have had to assume that λ was small in order to make
progress.]

4. Polarizability of a Particle on a Ring; the Ethane Molecule (10 points)

Consider a particle of mass m constrained to move in the xy-plane on a circular ring
of radius a. The only variable of the system is the azimuthal angle, which we will call
φ. The state of the system is described by a wave function ψ(φ) that must be periodic

ψ(φ + 2π) = ψ(φ)

and normalized: Z 2π
|ψ(φ)|2dφ = 1 .
0

(a) The kinetic energy of the particle can be written:

L2z
H0 = (4)
2ma2
where Lz = −i~d/dφ. Calculate the eigenvalues and eigenfunctions of H0 . Which
of the energy levels are degenerate?

3
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 1

Figure 1: A cartoon of an ethane molecule in its most favorable orientation, seen end on.

(b) Now assume that the particle has a charge q and that it is placed in a uniform
electric field ε in the x-direction. We must therefore add to the Hamiltonian the
perturbation
δH = −qεa cos φ.
Calculate the new wave function of the ground state to first order in ε. Use this
wave function to evaluate the induced electric dipole moment in the x-direction:
hψ|qx|ψi. Determine the proportionality constant between the dipole moment and
the applied field ε. This proportionality constant is called the “polarizability” of
the system.
(c) Now turn o the electric field of part (b) and consider the ethane molecule CH3 —
CH3 . We will consider the rotation of one CH3 group relative to the other, about
the straight line joining the two carbon atoms, as sketched in figure 1. Here, the
solid circles represent the H atoms in one CH3 group, which rotate relative to the
open circles representing the H atoms in the other CH3 group.
To a zeroth approximation, this rotation is free, and the Hamiltonian H0 of (4)
describes the rotational kinetic energy. (The constant 2ma2 must be replaced by
some new constant times the moment of inertia of a CH3 group with respect to
the rotational axis. However, for simplicity, we will just keep calling the constant
2ma2 .)
We now take the electrostatic interaction energy between the two CH3 groups
into account as a perturbation. To take into account the threefold symmetry, we
add to H0 a term of the form

δH = b cos 3φ ,

where b is a real constant. Calculate the energy and wave function of the new
ground state (to first order in b for the wave function and to second order for the
energy). Give a physical interpretation of the result.

5. Energy Shift Due to Finite Nuclear Size (20 points)

When you studied the hydrogen atom in 8.04/8.05, you assumed that the Coulomb
potential extended all the way to the origin. In reality, the proton’s charge is smeared

4
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 1

out over a sphere of roughly 10−13 cm in radius. This has a small e ect on the energy
levels of the hydrogen atom. Let’s find out how small.
You will model the electric charge distribution of the proton as a uniformly charged
sphere of radius R. You may ignore the fine structure, Lamb shift, and hyperfine
splittings of hydrogen for this problem.

(a) Find the electrostatic potential energy of the electron for all r.
[Hint: Use Gauss’s law ∇~ ·E
~ = 4πρ to find the electric field everywhere and then
integrate F~ = −eE~ to obtain the potential energy.]
Your answer should have the features that for r > R you should have V (r) =
−e2 /r and for all values of r, V (r) is continuous.
(b) Use lowest order perturbation theory to calculate the shift in the energy of the
ground state of hydrogen due to this modification of the potential. Evaluate your
answer numerically, taking R = 10−13 cm, and express your answer as a fraction
of the binding energy of the ground state (13.6 eV). [Hint: You can simplify the
integrals by noticing that the unperturbed wave function varies only slowly over
the range 0 < r < R and can thus be replaced by the value at r = 0.]
(c) Why is this e ect most important for states with orbital angular momentum zero?
Without doing any calculation, make an estimate of the factor by which this e ect
is smaller for an ℓ = 1 state as compared to an ℓ = 0 state.
(d) Experimentally, the most precise measurement of the proton radius comes from
the PSI experiment:
R = 0.84184(67) × 10−13 cm. (5)
[R. Pohl et al., “The size of the proton,” Nature 466, 213 (2010).] This mea-
surement is controversial, since it di ers by 4% from the CODATA world aver-
age (R = 0.8768(69) × 10−13 cm). Putting the controversy aside, explain why
the PSI experiment could get such impressive accuracy using muonic hydrogen
(a muon-proton bound state) instead of ordinary hydrogen (an electron-proton
bound state). [Hint: Recall that the muon has basically the same properties as
an electron, except it is 206.8 times heavier.]

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 Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018
Assignment 2

Posted: Wednesday, February 14, 2018

Announcements

• Please put your name and section at the top of what you hand in.

Readings

• Griÿths, Chapter 6 (Time-independent perturbation theory)

• Cohen-Tannoudji, Chapter XI and Chapter XII
• Shankar, Chapter 17 (very nice chapter!)

Problem Set 2

1. Higher order and normalization in non-degenerate perturbation theory (10

points)

(a) Calculate the second order state correction |n(2) i and the third order energy cor-
(3)
rection En .
(b) The state |niλ is not normalized. Use the expression for this state including
the first correction proportional to λ to calculate to order λ2 the quantity Zn (λ)
defined by
1
≡ λ hn|niλ . (1)
Zn (λ)
What is the probability that the state |niλ will be observed to be along its un-
perturbed version |n(0) i?

1
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 2

2. Polarizability of a particle on a ring revisited (15 points)

Consider again a particle of mass m constrained to move in the xy-plane on a circular
ring of radius a. The only variable of the system is the azimuthal angle φ. The state
of the system is described by a wave function ψ(φ) that must be periodic with period
2π. The energy eigenstates were found in the previous homework

1
ψn (φ) = hφ|ni = √ einφ , n ∈ Z (2)
2π
~2 n2 2 ~2
En = = E1 n , with E1 = . (3)
2ma2 2ma2
The ground state n = 0 has zero energy and is non-degenerate. All other states are
doubly-degenerate because the states with ±n have the same energy level.
The particle has a charge q and that it is placed in a uniform electric field ε in the
x-direction. We must therefore add to the Hamiltonian the perturbation

δH = −qεa cos φ.

Consider the degenerate | ± 1i states. Calculate the second order corrections to the
energy of the states and the corrected states to zeroth order in the perturbation.

3. 3-by-3 matrix and degenerate perturbation (Adapted from Schi , 15 points)

Sakurai calls this problem “a challenge for the experts.”
Consider the matrix  
E 0 ǫ1
 1 
 0 E1 ǫ2  (4)
 
 
⋆
ǫ1 ǫ2 E2


Where E1 = 6 E2 and the ǫi ’s are perturbations. The degeneracy of the E1 eigenvectors

is not lifted to first order in the perturbation.

(a) Calculate the exact eigenvalues and find their expansion to second order in the
perturbations. Calculate the corresponding eigenstates to first order in the per-
turbation.
(b) Use perturbation theory (both non-degenerate and degenerate) to reproduce the
above results for the eigenvalues, and the zeroth-order result for the eigenvectors.

2
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 2

4. Feynman-Hellman (FH) for hydrogen atom expectation values (Adapted

from Griÿths Problem 6.33, p.288, 10 points)
The e ective Hamiltonian for radial wavefunctions is given by

~2 d 2 ~2 ℓ(ℓ + 1) e2
H = − + − . (5)
2m dr 2 2m r 2 r
The hydrogen atom energies are

e2 1 ~2
En = − , a0 = . (6)
2a0 n2 me2
In solving the radial equation one sets n = N + ℓ + 1, where N is the degree of the
radial polynomial. (The Feynman-Hellmann lemma is explained in Problem 6.32, and
in the posted lecture notes from 8.05 (Chapter 14))

(a) Use the FH lemma for parameter λ = e2 to derive h1/ri.

(b) Use the FH lemma for parameter λ = ℓ to derive h1/r 2i (Imagine, not so rigor-
ously, that ℓ can be treated as a continuous variable. Otherwise consult Shankar,
p. 470, exercise 17.3.4).

5. Stark E ect (Adapted from Griÿths Problem 6.36, 30 points)

~ ext , the energy levels are
When an atom is placed in a uniform external electric field E
shifted, a phenomenon known as the Stark e ect. This is the electrical analog to
the magnetic Zeeman e ect. In this problem, you will analyze the Stark e ect for the
n = 1 and n = 2 states of hydrogen. Let the electric field point in the ẑ direction, so
the electrostatic potential of the electron is

δHStark = eEext z (7)

Treat this as a perturbation on the Bohr Hamiltonian

~p 2 e2
H0 = − , (8)
2m r
for now ignoring spin and fine structure e ects.

(a) [This part is just math, but will make the later calculations much easier.] Suppose
that a, b, c are nonnegative integers and f (r) is a function. Prove that
Z
dx dy dz xa y bz c f (r) = 0 (9)
p
unless a, b, c are each even. Here r ≡ x2 + y 2 + z 2 and you may assume that
f (r) is a function such that the integral in (9) is always defined.
(b) Show that the ground state energy E1,0,0 is not a ected by the perturbation in
(7), to first order in perturbation theory.

3
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 2

(c) The second-order shift to E1,0,0 is nonzero and is not so easy to calculate. In this
part you will compute a bound on the shift.
2
P
i. Calculate α |hα|z|1, 0, 0i| , where α runs over all states of the Hydrogen
atom, bound or unbound. [Hint: Dimensional analysis can be a good sanity
check of this result.]
ii. The quantity
1
0
(10)
E1,0,0 − Eα0
is always negative for all α 6= (1, 0, 0). What is the lowest (i.e. closest to −∞)
possible value for (10)?
iii. Conclude by arguing that the second order shift
E12,0,0 ≥ −Ca30 Eext
2
, (11)
for some C. What is C?
Discussion: This calculation shows an upper bound on the ground-state po-
larizability of the Hydrogen atom. Why? A system has polarizability α if
applying field E ~ induces dipole moment ~p = αE.~ A dipole ~p in an electric
~ ~
field E has energy −p~ · E; thus polarizability α corresponds to energy −αE 2
in an electric field with E = |E|. ~ Conversely, if the term −αE 2 appears in a
Hamiltonian, it corresponds to a system with polarizability α. Carrying out
the calculation of E12,0,0 exactly requires integrating over the unbound states,
which is doable using 8.06 methods but a lot of work. This leads to the value
Cexact = 94 . The value of C that you calculate should be consistent with this!
Calculating the polarizability is a step towards calculating the van der Waals
force.
(d) The first excited state of H0 is 4-fold degenerate, with |n, ℓ, mi states |2, 0, 0i,
|2, 1, 1i, |2, 1, 0i, |2, 1, −1i. Using degenerate perturbation theory, determine the
first-order corrections to the energy. Into how many levels do these n = 2 states
split? (Ignore spin.)
(e) What are the “good” wave functions for part (d)? Find the expectation value of
the electric dipole moment (p~e ≡ −e~r) in each of these “good” states.
(f) Now we consider electron spin, and the fine-structure splitting between the 2S
and 2P levels. Calculate the electric field strength (in V/cm) at which the energy
of the Stark shift calculated above becomes equal to the fine-structure splitting
between the 2S and 2P energy levels.
A common household electric field strength is roughly 100V/cm. For example,
the live and neutral wires in an electrical socket have a voltage di erence of 110V
and if they are 1.1cm apart then there will be a field of 100V/cm between them.
In this case, a hydrogen atom that happened to be between the two wires would
experience a field of strength 100V/cm. At this field strength would this atom
become polarized according to your result in part (d), or would the fine-structure
splitting be dominant? [Regardless of what you calculate, please do not try any
version of this at home.]

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 Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018
Assignment 3

Posted: Wednesday, February 21, 2018

Announcements

• Please put your name and section at the top of what you hand in.

Readings

• Griffiths, Section 6.3, 6.4, and 6.5.

• Cohen-Tannoudji, Chapter XII
• Shankar, Chapter 17.

1. Griffiths 6.15, p.270 (15 points) Here is the problem statement with minor modi-
fications! (Beware this was only corrected in the Cambridge University Press Second
Edition (2016))

(a) Show that p2 is hermitian for hydrogen states with ` = 0. For such states ψ is
independent of θ and φ so

2 ~2 d  2 d 
p ≡− 2 r
r dr dr
Using integration by parts, show that Hermiticity works up to a boundary term
 dg df  ∞
hf |p2 gi = −4π~2 r2 f − r2 g + hp2 f |gi .
dr dr 0
Consider the wavefunction for a state ψn00 , which goes like
 r 
n−1
ψn00 (r) ∼ N (1 + c1 r + . . . + cn−1 r ) exp − ,
na0
where N and the ci ’s are constants. Check that the boundary term vanishes when
g = ψn00 and f = ψn0 00 .
(b) The case of p4 is more subtle. The laplacian of 1/r picks up a delta function.
Show that  4k 3 
r2 r2 e−kr = − + k 4 e−kr + 8πk δ 3 (r) .
r
4
Use this relation to verify that p is Hermitian when evaluating the inner product
0
he−k r |p4 e−kr i.

1
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 3

2. Wavefunction at the origin for spherically symmetric eigenstates (15 points)

(based on Sakurai’s Modern Quantum Mechanics)
For a particle in a zero angular momentum (` = 0) bound state of a central potential
V (r) a rather surprising result relates the value of the wavefunction ψ(0) at the origin
to the expectation value of a derivative of the potential:
D dV E
|ψ(0)|2 ∼ .
dr
Derive such relation and fix the coefficient precisely. (Hints: Begin with the radial
equation for u(r), multiply the equation by u0 (r) and integrate the equation from
r = 0 to r = ∞.)
Use the result to calculate |ψn00 (0)|2 for the nS states of the hydrogen atom. Verify
you got the right answer for n = 1.

3. Numerical estimates (5 points)

(i) Find the value of an external magnetic field that acting on a free electron produces
energy levels that have a separation equal to the splitting between 3P1/2 and 3P3/2
states.
(ii) Estimate the internal magnetic field at the electron in the 3P states. (You may
use Griffiths eqns. (6.59) and (6.64)).

4. Hydrogen medley (25 points) Let me denote the mass of an electron and e its
charge. The 8.04 version of the Hydrogen Hamiltonian is

p2 e2
H0 = − .
2m r
In this problem we will consider the spin of the electron (whose corresponding operator
~ but we will ignore the spin of the proton.
we call S)

(a) Complete sets of commuting observables (CSCO). A CSCO is a set of

commuting operators whose simultaneous eigenspaces are each one dimensional.
Equivalently, specifying all the eigenvalues of all the operators in a CSCO uniquely
specifies a state (up to multiplication by a scalar). You may use without proof that
~ 2 , Lz , Sz form a CSCO with eigenbasis {|n, l, ml , ms i}, and ii) H0 , L
i) H0 , L ~ 2 , J~2 , Jz
is a CSCO with eigenbasis {|n, l, j, mj i}. (In fact, using the rules for addition of
angular momentum, ii) follows from i)). For each of the following sets of operators,
either (a) explain why they are CSCOs or (b) explain why they are not CSCOs.
For simplicity, consider only bound states.
~ 2, L
i. H0 , L ~ · S,
~ Jz .
~ 2 , Lz , Sx .
ii. H0 , L
~ 2 , Jz , Sz .
iii. H0 , L
iv. H0 , J~2 , Jz , Sz .
v. H0 , J~2 , L~ · S,
~ Jz .

2
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 3

(b) Strong-field Zeeman effect. In the strong-field Zeeman effect, the unperturbed
eigenstates are the uncoupled states |n, l, ml , ms i whose energies have been shifted
by an amount proportional to ml + 2ms due to the Zeeman Hamiltonian. The
more challenging part of the computation is to take care of the fine structure,
which can be thought of as contributing a term
me c2 α4
 
1 3
Hfs = − − ,
2n3 ĵ + 1/2 4n

where ĵ is an operator satisfying J 2 = ~2 ĵ(ĵ + 1). To compute the first-order

energy shifts here we need to evaluate
1
hn, l, ml , ms | |n, l, ml , ms i. (1)
ĵ + 1/2
i. Use the following strategy to evaluate (1). First compute the expectation
value of J 2 on the |n, l, ml , ms i state. Now imagine that we measure ĵ. Use
your calculation to find the probabilities of the two outcomes j = l + 1/2 and
j = l − 1/2. Finally use the fact that(1) equals
Pr[j = l + 1/2] Pr[j = l − 1/2]
+ (2)
l+1 l
to reproduce the known result for Ef1s in the strong-field Zeeman effect (see
Griffiths (6.82)). The full Zeeman effect includes the contribution from the
external magnetic field.
ii. The shifts in (1) used non-degenerate perturbation theory. But even with the
unperturbed energies a function of ml +2ms there are still degeneracies (it may
help you understand things better if you display those degeneracies for the
n = 2 level). Explain carefully and in detail why, despite these degeneracies,
the above argument is still correct.
5. Identities with vector operators. (20 points)
Suppose you have a set of angular momentum operators Jˆi , i = 1, 2, 3 that define an
angular momentum Ĵ. A set of operators Ŵi , with i = 1, 2, 3 is said to form a vector
operator Wˆ if
[ Jˆi , Ŵj ] = i~ ijk Ŵk .
Note that Ĵ itself is a vector operator.
(a) Show that when Ĵ is taken to be the orbital angular momentum L̂ the position
operator x̂ is a vector operator.
(b) Show that if Û and V̂ are vector operators, so is the cross product Û × V̂.
(c) Show that if Wˆ is a vector operator then

ˆ = 2i~ W
[Ĵ2 , W] ˆ ×J ˆ − i~ Wˆ
�

ˆ = J.
Check that this formula holds when we choose W ˆ

3
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 3

(d) Show that for V̂ a vector operator the following formula holds
1h 2 2 i
1
Jˆ2 V̂ + V̂ Jˆ2 ,
�

Ĵ , [Ĵ , V̂] = (V̂ · Ĵ) Ĵ − 2
α
with α a constant you must determine.

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 Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018
Assignment 4

Posted: Thursday, March 1, 2018

Readings

• Griÿths Chapter 8 on WKB approximation

• Shankar Section 16.2.

Problem Set 4

1. The equation satisfied by the approximate WKB solution (10 points)

In trying to solve the equation

−~2 ψ ′′ = p2 (x)ψ , (1)

we wrote the approximate solution ψa (x) given by

1 i Z x 
′ ′
ψa (x) = p exp p(x )dx .
p(x) ~

(a) Find the exact di erential equation satisfied by the approximate solution and
show it can be written as
h i
−~2 ψ ′′a = p2 (x) + · · · ψa ,

where the dots represent extra terms not present in (1) that you must determine
and are functions of p(x) and its derivatives.
(b) Consider the extra terms you found and explore the condition that each one is
much smaller than p2 (x). Express the resulting conditions as constraints on the
local de Broglie wavelength λ(x) and its derivatives.

2. Airy functions and bound states in linear potentials (10 points)

Consider the Schrödinger equation for a particle of mass m in a potential
(
gx , for x > 0
V (x) = (1)
∞ , for x ≤ 0

Here g > 0 is a constant.

1
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 4

(a) Remove the units from the Schrödinger equation by letting x = Lũ, with ũ unit
free and L a length scale constructed as
~2
L3 = .
2mg
With a further transformation to a variable u, also unit free, reduce the di erential
equation to the form
d2 ψ
= uψ. (2)
du2
(b) The Schrodinger equation (2), extended to u ∈ (−∞, ∞), is tailored for a solution
in momentum space! Using a unit-free momentum variable k we write
Z ∞
ψ̃(k) = e−iku ψ(u)du ,
−∞

which goes together with the inverse relation

Z ∞
1 ˜
ψ(u) = eiku ψ(k)dk .
2π −∞

Find the di erential equation satisfied by ψ̃(k) and solve it choosing ψ̃(0) = 1.
Write your answer for ψ(u) in terms of an integral
1 ∞
Z  
ψ(u) = dk cos · · · ,
π 0
where the dots represent some function of k and u that you should determine.
The result is an integral representation for the Airy function: ψ(u) = Ai(u).
[As a check on your result, confirm that your (numerical) integral gives Ai(1) =
0.135292] One can use the integral representation to show that the Airy function
Ai(u) decays quickly for large positive u and is oscillatory for u < 0.
(c) Determine the first two zeroes of the Airy function. Use those to give the values
of the energies E for the lowest two energy eigenstates of the original potential
(1) with a wall at x = 0. Express your answers as
 ~2 g 2 1/3
E=# ,
2m
where # are pure numbers.

3. Quantum Mechanics of a Bouncing Ball (10 points)

The semiclassical approximation can also be used to estimate the energy eigenvalues
and eigenstates for potentials that cannot be treated exactly so easily. This problem
is loosely based on Griÿths 8.6.
Consider the quantum mechanical analogue to the classical problem of a ball of mass
m bouncing elastically on the floor, under the influence of a gravitational potential
which gives it a constant acceleration g.

2
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 4

(a) Find the semiclassical approximation to the allowed energies En , in terms of m,

g, and ~.
(b) Estimate the zero point energy of a neutron “at rest” (i.e. in the quantum me-
chanical ground state) on a horizontal surface in the earth’s gravitational field.
Express your answer in eV. [This may sound artificial to you, but the experi-
ment has been done. See V. V. Nesvizhevsky et al., Nature 415, 297 (2002)
and arXiv:hep-ph/0306198 for an experimental measurement of the quantum me-
chanical ground state energy for neutrons bouncing on a horizontal surface in the
earth’s gravitational field. This experiment got a lot of press at the time, because
it involves both gravity and quantum mechanics, which made for an eye catching
press release. It of course has nothing to do with quantum gravity.]
(c) Now imagine dropping a ball of mass 1 gram from rest from a height of 1 meter,
and letting it bounce. Do the 8.01 “calculation” of the classical energy of the ball.
The quantum mechanical state corresponding to a ball following this classical
trajectory must be a coherent superposition of energy eigenstates, with mean
energy equal to the classical energy. How large is the mean value of the quantum
number n in this state?

4. Semi-classical approximation of the potential V (x) = αx4 (10 points)

Consider the Schrödinger equation

~2 d 2 ψ
− + αx4 ψ = Eψ.
2m dx2
En
Let the energies be E0 < E1 < . . . and define the dimensionless energies en = γ
where
1/3
~4 α

γ≡ .
m2

In an 8.05 problem set we explored numerical solutions of this potential and found that
the first few energies were
e0 = 0.667986
e1 = 2.39364
e2 = 4.69680
e3 = 7.33573
e4 = 10.2443
e5 = 13.3793
In this problem we will show how to estimate these energies using semiclassical meth-
ods.

(a) Assume that the turning points are at −x0 , x0 with x0 > 0. Express the energy
E in terms of α and x0 .

3
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 4

(b) Use the connection formulae to show (assuming the WKB approximation is valid)
that
1 x0 p
 
1
Z
2m(En − V (x))dx = n + π (1)
~ −x0 2
for n = 0, 1, 2, . . ..
(c) In what follows, we will use Ẽn to denote the estimate of the nth energy that is
obtained from (1) while En represents the true energy. Compute the integral in
(1) to obtain a formula for ẽn ≡ E˜n /γ in terms of n. The answer should be of
the form ẽn = β(n + δ)ǫ for β, δ, ǫ constants to be determined. You may find the
following expression useful:
Z 1√ √
4
π�( 14 )
1 − t dt = ≈ 0.874019.
0 8�( 74 )

e˜0 −e0 e˜2 −e2 e˜5 −e5

Write down ẽ0 , ẽ1 , ẽ2 , ẽ3 , ẽ4 , ẽ5 and the relative errors e0
, e2
and e5
.

5. Application of the Semiclassical Method to the Double Well Potential (20

points)
Do Griÿths Problem 8.15.
This is not as diÿcult a problem as its length would indicate. Griÿths leads you
through all the steps. This is an instructive problem in quantum dynamics. You
should recall that this is the potential that we used to describe the physics of the
ammonia molecule, early in 8.05. Back then, we had to wave our hands a little when
we talked about tunneling splitting the degeneracy between the even and odd states.
Now, you can do this calculation for real.
Hint for (a) and (b): The steps suggested by Griÿths are: work out the wave function
ψ1 in region (i); from ψ1 use the connection formulae at x2 to obtain the wave function
ψ2 in regions (ii); use ψ2 and the connection formulae at x1 to obtain the wave function
ψ3 in region (iii). Equation (8.59) can be found by requiring that ψ3 should satisfy
ψ3 (0) = 0 or ψ3′ (0) = 0 at x = 0.
It is a bit easier (and more transparent) to use a slightly di erent approach from what
Griÿths suggests. Given that the wave function should be an even or odd function of
x, the wave function in region (iii) can be written down immediately. For example in
the even case,
 Z x 
C 1
ψ(x) = p cosh dy κ(y) , −x1 < x < x1 (2)
κ(x) ~ 0

using our standard notations. (2) is an example where by symmetry, the exponentially
small piece in a classically forbidden region is known exactly. The wave function ψ2 in
region (ii) then can be obtained using two ways: from ψ1 in region (i) via connection
formulae at x2 , or from ψ3 in region (iii) via connection formulae at x1 . The consistency
of two wave functions leads to equation (8.59) of Griÿths.

4
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 4

6. Tunneling from perturbation theory (20 points) A key feature of tunneling is

that the rate is suppressed exponentially by an amount that scales with the width of
the barrier and the square root of the height of the barrier. We will see in this problem
how exponential suppression can arise from high-order degenerate perturbation theory.
In this problem we consider a particle localized on a line with a potential equal to zero
at the endpoints and a potential barrier of height V0 and width W in the middle. Thus
the WKB transmission coeÿcient √ (or tunneling probability) for particle with energy
much smaller than V0 is exp(−2W 2mV0 /~).

(a) First suppose the positon of the particle is restricted to sites 0, 1, . . . , N. The
Hamiltonian consists of two terms. There is a “barrier” term H0 which is a
potential of height V0 on all sites except 0 and N; i.e.
N
X −1
H0 = V0 |xihx|, (3)
x=1

and a “hopping” term

N
X
δH = −λ |x − 1ihx| + |xihx − 1|. (4)
x=1

Assume that λ ≪ V0 .

V0
barrier
H0
0
hopping
0 1 2 3 4 5
δH −λ −λ −λ −λ −λ

Figure 1: A particle is constrained to occupy one of N + 1 nodes (here N = 5) with a barrier

potential H0 from (3) and a hopping term δH from (4).

If there were no hopping term, there would be a two-dimensional space of zero-

energy degenerate ground states spanned by |0i and |Ni, or by the more useful
linear combinations
|0i + |Ni |0i − |Ni
|g+ i = √ and |g− i = √ .
2 2
In the absence of hopping, the other states |1i, . . . |N − 1i are also degenerate
with energy V0 .
At suÿciently high order of perturbation theory the hopping term will lift the
degeneracy between the ground states so that: Eg+ 6= Eg− . The formula for the

5
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 4

k th -order correction to the energy of the |g± i states is

X X δHg± ,mk−1 · · · δHm2 ,m1 δHm1 ,g±
Eg(k) = ··· 0 − E 0 ) · · · (E 0 − E 0
+ other terms. (5)
±
m1 m
(Eg ± m 1 g ± m k−1
)
k−1

Here m1 , . . . , mk−1 range over all states outside the degenerate subspace |g± i and
we have used the fact that a similar term does not couple |g+ i to |g− i.
What is the smallest value of k for which Egk− − Egk+ is nonzero? It turns out that
the other terms not shown begin to contribute only for higher values of k, and
one may ignore them for the purposes of this problem.
Evaluate the energy splitting for this value of k. Your answer should decrease
exponentially with N, since N is analogous to W , but the scaling with V0 will not
look like the WKB case.
(b) Now suppose that the discrete approximation above came from a 1-D Hamiltonian
in which we discretized space and replaced the p2 /2m with a finite di erence op-
erator. If the lattice spacing is ℓ then the finite-di erence operator corresponding
d2
to dx 2 is
1 X
Dℓ2 = 2 −2|xihx| + |xihx + 1| + |xihx − 1|.
ℓ x
2
If we ignore the diagonal part, the kinetic energy term 2pm is equivalent to δH
from (4). What is the corresponding value of λ?
Suppose that the potential term is a square barrier of width W and take ℓ = W/N
so this corresponds to N lattice sites.
We see that as we reduce ℓ the energy splitting in (a) goes down since N = W/ℓ
increases as ℓ → 0. This is an artifact of our approximation scheme since the
physics of the system should not depend on the “regulator” ℓ that we hope to
take to zero. But we cannot make ℓ arbitrarily small because λ would diverge
and we could not keep the ratio λ/V0 small, spoiling the perturbation-theory
argument. Let us impose the perturbation condition explicitly by setting
λ
= ǫ≪1
V0

with ǫ a fixed small constant. Verify that this means that ℓ2 V0 is kept constant
as ℓ → 0. Eliminate ℓ to estimate the energy splitting as a function of ǫ, W , V0 ,
m and ~.
(c) Part (a) and (b) have given estimates of the splitting in energies of |g± i but have
not directly addressed tunneling. In this part, suppose that the Hamiltonian is
simply
H = E+ |g+ ihg+ | + E− |g− ihg− |
and define
= E− − E+ . Suppose that we begin at time 0 in the state |0i, and
after time t we measure whether the particle is in state |0i or |Ni. At what time t
will we find the state in position N with probability 1? Using the energy splitting

6
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 4

from (b) above, give the tunneling rate (tunneling probability per unit time) and
find how it scales with W and V0 . How does your answer compare with the WKB
prediction?

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 Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018
Assignment 5

Posted:Friday, March 9, 2018

Readings and Announcements

• Time-dependent perturbation theory: Griÿths, Chapter 9.

• Cohen-Tannoudji, Chapter 13 and/or Shankar, Chapter 18.
• This week we have the library sessions of Wed. Mar. 14 and Thurs. Mar. 15 at
7pm.
• Read the term paper information to make sure you know what to expect. Start
thinking about topics to work on.

1. Tunneling and the Stark E ect (15 points)

The Stark e ect concerns the physics of an atom in an electric field. In this problem,
you will explore the possibility that in an electric field the electron in an atomic bound
state can tunnel out making the state unstable. We consider this e ect in a simpler
one-dimensional analog problem.
Suppose an electron is trapped in a one-dimensional square well of depth V0 and
width d: (
−V0 for |x| < d/2
V (x) = .
0 for |x| ≥ d/2
Suppose a weak constant electric field in the x-direction with strength E is turned on.
That means the potential is changed as

V (x) → V (x) − eEx .

Assume throughout this problem that eEd ≪ ~2 /2md2 ≪ V0 .

(a) Set E = 0 in this part of the problem. Estimate the ground state energy (i.e. the
amount by which the ground state energy is above the bottom of the potential
well) by pretending that the well is infinitely deep. (Because ~2 /2md2 ≪ V0 ,
this is a good approximation.) Use this estimate of the ground state energy in
subsequent parts of the problem. Note that the true ground state energy is lower
than what you’ve estimated, why?

1
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 5

(b) Sketch the potential with E 6= 0 and explain why the ground state of the E = 0
potential is no longer stable when E =6 0.
(c) Use the semiclassical approximation to calculate the barrier penetration factor for
the ground state. [You should use the fact that eEd ≪ ~2 /2md2 to simplify this
part of the problem.]
(d) Use classical arguments to convert the barrier penetration factor into an estimate
of the lifetime of the bound state.
(e) Now, let’s put in numbers that are characteristic of an atomic system. Calculate
the lifetime for V0 = 20 eV, d = 2 × 10−8 cm and an electric field of 7 × 104 V/cm.
Compare the lifetime you estimate to the age of the universe.
(f) Show that the lifetime goes like exp(1/E), and explain why this result means that
this “instability” could not be obtained in any finite order of perturbation theory,
treating E as a perturbation to the Hamiltonian.

2. A Time-Dependent Two-State System (15 points)

Consider a two-state system with Hamiltonian
 
+E v(t)
H(t) =  
v(t) −E
R∞
where v(t) is real and −∞
|v(t)| is finite. We will label the states as
   
1 0
|1i =   , |2i =   . (1)
0 1
(a) Suppose that at t = −∞ the system is in the state |2i. Use time-dependent
perturbation theory to determine the probability that at t = +∞ the system is
in the state |1i, to lowest order in v.
(b) If E = 0, the eigenstates of H(t) can be chosen to be independent of t. Use this
fact to calculate the probability of a transition from |2i to |1i exactly, in this case.
What is the result obtained from time-dependent perturbation theory in this case?
What is the condition that the perturbative result is a good approximation to the
exact result?
In both parts, your answers can be left in terms of integrals involving v(t).
3. Atom and photon (15 points) Model an atom as a two-level system with ground
state |gi and excited state |ei and energy splitting ~ωa . Suppose it interacts with
an electromagnetic field of frequency ωp , which we model as a harmonic oscillator.
Without interactions the Hamiltonian would be
 
~ωa † 1
H0 = (|eihe| − |gihg|) ⊗ I + ~ωp I ⊗ â â +
2 2
 
~ωa 1
= σz ⊗ I + ~ωp I ⊗ ↠â +
2 2

2
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 5

Since the electric field strength is proportional to â + ↠, we can model an atom-photon
interaction by �

δH = α (|gihe| + |eihg|) ⊗ â + â†
for some constant α.

f (t) = eiH0 t/~ δH e−iH0 t/~ . Compute δH(t).

(a) In the rotating frame, we have δH f
Rt ′
(b) Set ωa = ωp ≡ ω. Compute 0 dt δH(t f ′ ). If t ≫ 1/ω, then which terms can
we neglect? [Hint: You should be left with one term that can be interpreted
as absorption and another that can be interpreted as spontaneous/stimulated
emission.]

4. Gaussian pulse (10 points) Let H0 be a Hamiltonian with spectrum and energies
given by H0 |ni = En |ni for n = 0, 1, 2, . . .. Suppose we apply a perturbation
 2
exp − 2˝t 2
δH(t) = √ Vˆ
2πτ 2

where V̂ is an arbitrary time-independent Hermitian operator and τ > 0 is a constant

with units of time. If our system starts in state |0i at time −∞, using first-order time-
dependent perturbation theory, what is the probability that our system is in state |ni
at time ∞? What happens in the limits τ → 0 and τ → ∞? You should express your
answers in terms of the matrix elements Vmn ≡ hm|V̂ |ni.

5. Vibrational Modes of Carbon Dioxide (25 points)

This problem will consider the absorption of infrared radiation by CO2 . Carbon dioxide
is a (nearly) linear molecule, and we will treat it as a collection of three point masses
(at positions x1 , x2 , x3 ) connected by springs each with spring constant k. We will
make a somewhat less justifiable approximation as well by supposing that each atom
has the same mass m. (This approximation simplifies the calculations while leaving
the physics still qualitatively valid.)

spring constant k k

O C O

position x1 x2 x3

mass m m m

Thus the Hamiltonian is

p1 2 p2 2 p3 2 k k
H0 = + + + (x1 − x2 )2 + (x2 − x3 )2 (2)
2m 2m 2m 2 2

3
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 5

We can also write H0 = T + V , where

p1 2 p2 2 p3 2 k k
T = + + and V = (x1 − x2 )2 + (x2 − x3 )2 (3)
2m 2m 2m 2 2
Here all motion is in the x̂ direction and p1 , p2 , p3 and x1 , x2 , x3 refer to the momenta
and positions respectively of the three di erent atoms.

(a) We can rewrite V in terms of a matrix K as

   
x 1 −1 0
   1 k  
   
V = ~xT K~x = x1 x2 x3 K x2  where K = −1 2 −1
  2 
x3 0 −1 1

Diagonalize K. That is, find a diagonal matrix  (with 11 ≥ 22 ≥ 33 ) and
a rotation matrix R (i.e. RT R = I) such that K = RRT . You may find it
convenient to √use a computer for this step; however, your answers should be exact
(e.g. write 1/ 2 instead of 0.70711 . . .). The columns of R are the eigenvectors
of K, and are also called the normal modes. One of the eigenvalues of K is zero
(so by our convention 33 = 0). What is the physical significance of this?
P
(b) Define normal mode displacement operators ~y = RT ~x (i.e. yi = 3j=1 Rji xj for
i = 1, 2, 3). Write V in terms of ~y .
P
(c) Define normal mode momentum operators ~π = RT p~ (i.e. πi = 3j=1 Rji pj ). Show
that
[yi , πj ] = i~δi,j .
Write T in terms of ~π . [Hint: You may find it helpful to use the fact that
(RT R)ij = (RRT )ij = δij .]
(d) You should now find that H0 breaks up into three pieces that depend separately on
π1 , y1 , on π2 , y2 , and on π3 . Show that the first two of these pieces are equivalent
to harmonic oscillators and the third corresponds to a free particle. That is, find
frequencies ω1 , ω2 (in terms of k and m) and operators a1 , a2 (in terms of ~y , ~π and
the other parameters) such that
   
† 1 † 1 π2
H0 = ~ω1 a1 a1 + + ~ω2 a2 a2 + + 3
2 2 2m

and a1 , a2 satisfy the commutation relations

[ai , a†j ] = δij and [a1 , a2 ] = [a†1 , a†2 ] = 0.

For the rest of the problem, we will work in the energy eigenbasis of H0 . This basis
can be written |n1 , n2 , π3 i = |n1 i ⊗ |n2 i ⊗ |π3 i, where n1 , n2 , π3 label eigenstates
of a†1 a1 , a†2 a2 , π3 respectively.

4
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 5

(e) We are now ready to add radiation. Unlike the most common gases in the at-
mosphere (N2 , O2 , Ar), CO2 has covalent bounds that are weakly polar. This is
because the oxygen atoms attract electrons more strongly than the carbon atom
(i.e. have higher electronegativity). We model this by assuming that the oxygen
atoms each have charge −q and the carbon atom has charge 2q. (The Coulomb
interaction is e ectively already included in (2) so there is no need to modify H0 .)
Thus the dipole moment d~ is

d~ = (−qx1 + 2qx2 − qx3 )x̂.

Write d~ in terms of the ai , a†i operators. If an oscillating electric field is applied,

which mode, if any, will contribute to the absorption of light?

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 Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018
Assignment 6

Posted: Monday, April 2, 2018

Readings and Announcements

• See in Materials the PDF and LaTeX files for the proposals you will have to submit.
• Griffiths: Sections 9.2 and 9.3 for interactions of atoms with light. Chapter 10 for the
adiabatic approximation.

1. Decay of the Three Dimensional Harmonic Oscillator (15 points)

The object of this problem is to calculate the lifetime of a particle with charge q and
mass m in the first excited states of a three-dimensional isotropic harmonic oscillator
of frequency ω.
By analogy with the hydrogen atom, we refer to the states |1, 0, 0i, |0, 1, 0i, |0, 0, 1i as
the 2p states, and we call the ground state |0, 0, 0i the 1s state. An alternate basis for
the 2p states is given by eigenstates of Lz .

|1, 0, 0i + i|0, 1, 0i
|m` = 1i = √
2
|m` = 0i = |0, 0, 1i
|1, 0, 0i − i|0, 1, 0i
|m` = −1i = √
2

(a) Calculate the transition rate Γ(2p, m` → 1s) per unit time for the particle to
spontaneously emit electromagnetic radiation and make a transition to the ground
state. Show that the transition rate is independent of m` and give your formula
for Γ(2p → 1s) in terms of m, ω, q, and fundamental constants.
(b) What is the lifetime of the 2p state? Thinking of this as a model of hydrogen,
let the particle be an electron and set ~ω = 34 ERy to give the lifetime in seconds.
(ERy = Rydberg = 13.6eV)

1
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 6

2. 1D model of ionization (15 points)

Consider an electron in the ground state of a deep one-dimensional square well:
⎧
⎨ 0
⎪ for x < 0
V (x) = −V0 for 0 < x < a, V0 > 0
⎪
0 for x > 0.
⎩

A very deep well means

~2 2ma2 V0
V0  → ≡ z02  1 .
ma2 ~2

An electromagnetic plane wave with electric field E(t) = 2E0 cos(ωt) parallel to the
x axis acts on the electron. The electron can then escape the well in an “ionization”
process.

(a) Find the relevant density of final states in the continuum. Use momentum eigen-
states unmodified by the well. What is the condition on ω for this to be a reason-
able approximation?
(b) Calculate the transition rate from the ground state to the continuum of momen-
tum states. You will do the following approximations:
– Use the infinite square-well ground state wavefunction as the initial state.
– Assume the energy of the electron on the ground state is −V0 .

3. Comparing rates for spontaneous and stimulated emission (10 points)

For downward transitions with energy difference ~ω0 consider the unit-free ratio r
formed by dividing the spontaneous emission rate by the stimulated emission rate,
where blackbody radiation at a temperature T is the stimulus:
spontaneous emission rate
r ≡
stimulated emission rate
(a) What is the ratio r as a function of ω0 and T ?
(b) Consider a single mode of frequency ω0 of the electromagnetic field, associated
to a photon of fixed polarization and fixed direction of propagation. Calculate
(using statistical physics) the expected number n̄ of such photons in the radiation
at temperature T . Express r in terms of n̄ and interpret the result.
(c) At room temperature, what is the frequency ν0 (in Hz) for which both rates are
the same? Which process dominates for frequencies associated with visible light?
Which process dominates at the frequency 1010 Hz used in masers?

4. Griffiths 9.11, p.359. (20 points) Decays of 2S, 2P states of hydrogen.

5. Griffiths 9.14, p.363. (20 points) Decays of 3S state of hydrogen.

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 Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018
Assignment 7

Posted: Friday, April 13, 2018

Readings

The current reading assignments are:

• Cohen-Tannoudji has a nice treatment of Landau levels, in Ch. VI Complement E.

• Sakurai pp. 130-139.
• Shankar’s treatment of Landau levels begins in p. 587.

Notes

In this p-set the cyclotron frequency ωc and the magnetic length lB are given by:
r s
qB ~ ~c
ωc ≡ , lB ≡ = . (1)
mc mωc qB

The velocity operator v̂ with components (v̂x , v̂y , v̂z ) is defined as

1  q 
v̂ = p− A . (2)
m c
Gauge transformations generated by a function (~x, t) take the form:
 
′ iq
ψ (x, t) ≡ U()ψ(x, t) = exp (x, t) ψ(x, t)
~c
~
A′ (x, t) ≡ A(x, t) + ∇(x, t), (3)
1 ∂
′ (x, t) ≡ (x, t) − (x, t) .
c ∂t

Problem Set 7

1. Gauge Invariance and the Schrödinger Equation (10 points)

(a) Prove the gauge invariance of the Schrödinger equation (SE) by showing that
the SE for ψ with the original potentials implies the SE for ψ ′ with the gauge
transformed potentials.

1
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 7

(b) Physical observables are Hermitian operators O that are gauge covariant: Under
a gauge transformation with parameter (x, t) taking O → O′ we find that

O′ = UOU −1 ,

where U = U(). Explain why gauge covariant observables have gauge invariant
expectation values:
hψ ′ |O′ |ψ ′ i = hψ|O|ψi .
Answer with brief explanations:
i. Is the sum of gauge covariant operators a gauge covariant operator?
ii. Is the product of gauge covariant operators a gauge covariant operator?
iii. Is x̂i gauge covariant?
iv. Is p̂i gauge covariant?
v. Is v̂i gauge covariant?
vi. Is the Hamiltonian H gauge covariant under arbitrary gauge transformations?
If yes, show it. If no, find the class of gauge transformations for which H is
gauge covariant.

2. Classical Motion in a Magnetic Field (10 points)

Consider a particle of mass m and charge q moving along a trajectory x(t) through a
constant magnetic field along the z-direction Bz = B.

(a) Consider motion restricted to the (x, y) plane and use the Lorentz force law

dv q
m = v ×B,
dt c
to show that the general solution for the motion represents circular motion with
angular velocity
qB
ωc = . (4)
mc
Write your general solution for x(t) and y(t) letting (X, Y ) denote the “center of
orbit” coordinates, that is, the coordinates of the center of the circle.
(b) Show that X, Y can be expressed in terms of the (time dependent) coordinates
(x, y) and the (time dependent) velocities (vx , vy ) of the particle as
vy vx
X = x+ , Y =y− . (5)
ωc ωc
Show (by di erentiating (5)) that X, Y are constants of motion.

3. General Aspects of Quantum Motion in a Magnetic Field (10 points)

The questions in this problem should be derived without explicitly choosing a gauge.
Assume the electric field is zero and all motion is in the (x, y) plane.

2
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 7

(a) Consider arbitrary magnetic field (not necessarily constant). Find the commuta-
tor [v̂x , v̂y ] of the velocity operators.
(b) Let the magnetic field be B = Bẑ, with B constant. Motivated by the classical
expressions (5) for the center of orbit coordinates, we introduce quantum operators

ˆ ≡ x̂ + v̂y ,
X Yˆ ≡ ŷ −
v̂x
. (6)
ωc ωc
Are X̂ and Yˆ gauge covariant? Find the commutator [X, ˆ Yˆ ]. The X
ˆ and Yˆ
operators are the simplest example in physics of non-commutative coordinates!
(c) Show that the coordinates X̂ and Ŷ are conserved:
ˆ H] = [Yˆ , H] = 0 .
[X, (7)
This, together with the non-commutation of X̂ and Ŷ imply that at most one
ˆ and Ŷ can be diagonalized together with the Hamiltonian. [Hint: It is
of X
convenient to write the Hamiltonian in a form H = 12 m(v̂x2 + v̂y2 ) and first find the
commutators between X, ˆ Ŷ and v̂x , v̂y .]
(d) Define the operator R̂2 as the distance square of the orbit center to the origin
ˆ 2 ≡ X̂ 2 + Yˆ 2 .
R
Find the spectrum of the operator R̂2 . [Hint: Think of R̂2 as a harmonic oscillator
Hamiltonian.]
(e) Define the orbit radius operator rc via the classically inspired relation
rc2 ≡ (ˆ ˆ 2 + (ŷ − Yˆ )2 .
x − X) (8)
Find the spectrum of rc2 . [Hint: Write rc2 in terms of velocities].
(f) The angular momentum operator L̂z = x̂p̂y −ŷp̂x is not gauge covariant. To define
a gauge invariant version L̂z we take
L̂z = xˆ mˆ
vy − yˆ mˆ
vx + · · · (9)
where the dots are terms that you should determine in terms of B, x̂, ŷ and other
constants, using the condition that L̂z reduces to the familiar L̂z in the circular
gauge (Ax , Ay ) = 12 B(−y, x).
One way to see that this “angular momentum” L̂z is a constant of the motion is to
show it is related to other constants of the motion. Show that L̂z is proportional
to R̂2 − rc2 .

4. Electromagnetic Current Density in Quantum Mechanics (10 points)

The probability flux in the Schrödinger equation can be identified as the electromag-
netic current density, provided the proper attention is paid to the e ects of the vector
potential. Without electromagnetic fields the probability current J is
~ ∗ 1 h ∗ ~ i 1 h ∗ i
J(x, t) = Im [ψ ∇ψ] = Re ψ ∇ ψ = Re ψ (p̂ ψ) , (10)
m m i m
3
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 7

using Im(z) = Re(z/i) and noting that p̂ is acting on the wavefunction to the right.
The probability current J(x, t) is not an operator, it is a function of position and time.
In the presence of electric and magnetic fields, the probability current is modified to
~ q ∗ 1 h ∗ ~ q  i
J(x, t) = Im [ψ ∗ ∇ψ] − ψ ψA = Re ψ ∇ − A ψ = Re (ψ ∗ v̂ ψ) . (11)
m mc m i c
This probability flux is conserved and when multiplied by the particle charge q it can
be interpreted as the electromagnetic current density j ≡ qJ.

(a) Derive the expression eq. (11) for the probability flux. [Hint: The derivation of
eq. (11) is parallel to that of (10), i.e. you begin with the conservation equation

∂ρ
+∇· J = 0,
∂t
use ρ = ψ ∗ ψ and determine the current J that makes it work.]
(b) Show that j = qJ has units of electric current density.
Show that J(x, t) is a gauge invariant function of x and t: J′ calculated in terms
of A′ and ψ ′ is identical to J calculated in terms of A and ψ.

5. The Aharonov-Bohm E ect on Energy Eigenvalues(10 points)

The Aharonov-Bohm e ect modifies the energy eigenvalues of suitably chosen quantum
mechanical systems. In this problem, we work out the example that Griÿths discusses
in 385-387.
Imagine a particle constrained to move on a circle of radius b (a bead on a wire ring,
if you like.) Along the axis of the circle runs a solenoid of radius a < b, carrying a
magnetic field B = (0, 0, B0). The field inside the solenoid is uniform and the field
outside the solenoid is zero. The setup is depicted in Griÿths’ Fig. 10.10.

(a) Construct a vector potential A which describes the magnetic field (both inside
and outside the solenoid) and which has the form Ar = Az = 0 and A° = α(r)
for some function α(r). We are using cylindrical coordinates z, r, φ.
(b) Now consider the motion of a “bead on a ring”: write the Schrödinger equation
for the particle constrained to move on the circle r = b, using the A you found in
(a). [Hint: the answer is given in Griÿths.]
(c) Solve the Schrodinger equation and find the energy eigenvalues and eigenstates.
(d) Plot the energy eigenvalues as a function of the enclosed flux . Show that the
energy eigenvalues are periodic functions of  with period 0 , where you must
determine 0 . For what values of  does the enclosed magnetic field have no
e ect on the spectrum of a particle on a ring? Show that the Aharonov-Bohm
e ect can only be used to determine the fractional part of /0 .

4
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 7

(e) Suppose we introduce a defect on the ring at φ = 0, which can trap the particle,
i.e. in addition to the states you worked out above, there now exist trapped states
in which the wave function of the particle is localized around φ = 0. For simplicity,
assume the trapped state wave functions vanish outside an interval (−φ0 , φ0) for
some φ0 < π. Show that the energy of a trapped state does NOT depend on the
existence of the solenoid.
[Hint: Find a gauge in which the vector potential vanishes identically in the region
where the trapped state wavefunctions are supported. You should also explain
why the same argument does not apply to states of part (c).]

[Moral of problem: even though the bead on a ring is in a region in which B = 0, the
presence of a nonzero A a ects the energy eigenvalues of states whose wave functions
cover the whole circle. The vector potential does not a ect the energies of localized
states. This is the counterpart for the energy spectrum of the statement that the
Bohm-Aharonov interference pattern is shifted if and only if the relevant paths enclose
the solenoid.]
6. Adiabatic Spin Rotation (15 points)
Consider a spin one-half particle at rest, with its spin free to rotate in response to a
time-dependent magnetic field. The Hamiltonian of the system is
2µ0
H =− S · B(t) . (1)
~
Assume µ0 > 0. We will start at time t = −T with a large magnetic field mostly in the
−ẑ direction which we will slowly decrease to zero and then increase in the opposite
direction until time t = T . At the same time, we will assume that there is a constant
small field in the (x, y) plane. The magnetic field is then
B(t) = (Bx , By , γt) for − T ≤ t ≤ T. (2)
Here γ > 0 is the rate at which the magnetic field in the z direction grows and we
assume that q
γT ≫ Bx2 + By2 , (3)
so that for t = ±T the magnetic field is mostly along the z axis. Denote the ground
state at time t by |ψ+ (t)i and the excited state at time t by |ψ− (t)i. These correspond,
respectively, to spins that are either aligned or anti-aligned with the magnetic field.
Suppose that at time t = −T , the spin is in state |ψ+ (−T )i.

(a) Use the adiabatic theorem to argue that the particle initially in the state |ψ+ (−T )i
finishes in the statep|ψ+ (T )i (up to an overall phase) with nearly unit probability,
as long as |δB| ≡ Bx2 + By2 = 6 0. Find the inequality satisfied by γ needed for
the adiabatic theorem to apply.
(b) Explain why condition (3) implies |ψ+ (−T )i ≈ |−i and |ψ+ (T )i ≈ |+i. In this
case the adiabatic process in (a) will convert the state from ≈ |−i to ≈ |+i. Use
condition (3) and the adiabatic condition you found in part (a) to find T ≫ . . . ,
where the quantity in dots does not depend on γ.

5
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 7

(c) Instead of a time-varying magnetic field, consider a spatially varying magnetic

field. We can use the adiabatic theorem to understand the magnetic traps used by
MIT atomic physicists to trap very cold gases of spin-polarized atoms. Classically,
the force on a dipole µ from a magnetic field gradient is
F = (µ · ∇)B(x). (4)
One can design magnetic field gradients such that an atom which has its spin
antiparallel to the local magnetic field B(x) experiences a force toward the center
of the trap. Those atoms with spins parallel to B(x) feel a force which expels
them from the trap. This way, one can trap only atoms of one polarization state.
But this raises a question: Since B(x) varies in space, how can we ensure that
the thermal movements of the atoms within the trap preserve the property that
their spins are always anti-aligned with the local magnetic field?
Assume that the atoms have mass m and temperature T . Let B denote the
magnitude of the magnetic field and |∇B| denote the magnitude of its gradient.
State an inequality in terms of m, kB , ~, T, µ0, B, |∇B| that must be satisfied for
the adiabatic condition to be valid. [Hint: Since B varies in space, the thermal
motion of the atoms implies that the spins experience time-dependent magnetic
fields.]
(d) Since it is magnetic gradients which exert the trapping forces, you might think
that there would be no problem if at one point in the trap B = 0. In fact, this
does cause problems, and the traps are designed to have B =6 0 everywhere. Use
your result in (c) to explain why.

7. Landau-Zener transitions (15 points)

Consider the Hamiltonian
   
1
E1 H12 αt H 12
H =   = 2 , α > 0,
1
H12 E2
∗
H12 − 2 αt
∗

with α and H12 time-independent constants, and the “diabatic” basis

   
1 0
|1i =   , |2i =   .
0 1

We have the natural ansatz for a time-dependent solution

i
Rt i
Rt
E1 (t′ )dt′ E2 (t′ )dt′
|Ψ, ti = A(t)e− ~ 0 |1i + B(t)e− ~ 0 |2i .
Here A(t) and B(t) are functions of time to be determined.
(a) Use the Schrödinger equation to derive a set of linear, first-order, coupled di er-
ential equations for A(t) and B(t). You can leave you answer in terms of H12 , H12∗

and E12 (t) ≡ E1 (t) − E2 (t). Derive a second-order linear di erential equation for
B(t).

6
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 7

(b) Assume that at t = −∞, the system is in state |2i, so we have

B(−∞) = 1 . A(−∞) = 0.

Verify that constant A and constant B is a solution for H12 = 0. This is a

zeroth-order solution. Consider now H12 as a very small perturbation. Find the
first-order in H12 equation for A(t) and determine A(t = ∞) in terms of H12 , α, ~
and numerical constants. To this approximation, what is the probability P that
the system remains in |2i at t = ∞? (Hint: in calculating A(t = ∞) you will
encounter the Fresnel integrals).
(c) Reconsider the second-order di erential equation for B(t) derived in part (a).
Construct a unit-free time parameter τ in terms of t, α, and |H12 | (and no extra
numerical constants) and show that the di erential equation for B(τ ) becomes

d2 B dB |H12 |2
2
+ iγ τ + γ2B = 0 , γ= .
dτ dτ ~α
Solve numerically this equation for γ = 0.1, and integrating your solution in the
interval τ ∈ (−25, 25). Plot the value of |B(τ )|2 which represents the probability
for the system to have made a non-adiabatic transition by time τ . Compare the
value of |B(∞)|2 that you can glean from your graph, with the prediction that
the probability for a non-adiabatic transition is exp(−2πγ).

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 Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018
Assignment 8

Posted: Thursday, May 3, 2018

Readings and Announcements

• Scattering Theory: Griÿths, Chapter 11,

• Cohen-Tannoudji, Ch. VIII, and/or Shankar, Chapter 19.

1. Which phase? (10 points)

In the adiabatic theorem we define En (t) and |ψn (t)i according to

H(t)|ψn (t)i = En (t)|ψn (t)i. (1)

Unfortunately, this equation does not have a unique solution, even if there is no degen-
eracy. This is clear because multiplying |ψn (t)i by an arbitrary time-dependent phase
still gives a solution.
Suppose that Alice solves (1) and obtains solutions {|ψnA (t)i} and Bob solves (1) and
obtains solutions {|ψnB (t)i}. Assume that they agree at time t = 0, so that

|ψnA (0)i = |ψnB (0)i.

At later times their solutions of (1) may be di erent. As mentioned above, we may
have a time-dependent phase αn (t) such that

|ψnA (t)i = eiαn (t) |ψnB (t)i , with αn (0) = 0 .

Will this lead Alice and Bob to get di erent predictions from the adiabatic theorem?
More concretely, suppose that at time t = 0 a system is in state

|Ψ(t = 0)i = |ψnA (0)i = |ψnB (0)i .

Suppose that for times 0 ≤ t ≤ T the Hamiltonian changes adiabatically. Both Alice
and Bob predict the state at time T using the adiabatic theorem, but each follows their
own basis conventions. Write down Alice and Bob’s predictions |ΨA (T )i and |ΨB (T )i
for the state at time T . Are these in fact the same state or are they different? Since in
the adiabatic theorem we care about phases, equality means equality including phases.
Explain your answer.

1
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 8

2. Partial Waves (15 points)

Suppose the scattering amplitude for a certain potential is given by
 
1 �k 2iβk 3 3
f (θ) = + 3e sin(2βk ) cos θ ,
k k0 − k − ik�
where �, k0 , and β are constants characteristic of the potential which produces the
scattering. As usual, ~k denotes the momentum of the particle.

(a) What partial waves are active and what are the corresponding phase shifts? Do
they have the proper behavior as k → 0? (The rule of thumb is that δl ∼ k 2l+1 ,
which is true for scattering o a hard sphere.)
(b) What is the di erential cross section dσ/d for general values of k?
(c) What are the partial wave cross sections σℓ ?
(d) Assume βk03 ≪ 1. What is the total cross section σ(k) for k ≈ k0 .
(e) Find the total cross section for arbitrary k and the imaginary part of the forward
scattering amplitude? Do they satisfy the optical theorem?

3. Scattering from a spherical well (20 points) For some parameters γ and b, con-
sider the following spherically symmetrical potential:
( 2
~
− 2m γ2 r ≤ b
V (~r) = V (r) =
0 r>b

We consider s-wave (ℓ = 0) scattering of an incoming plane wave with momentum ~k.

(a) Calculate the phase shift δ0 . Leave your answer in terms of k, b, and the real and
positive constant q defined via the relation q 2 ≡ k 2 + γ 2 .
(b) Find the scattering length a ≡ − limk→0 tan(δ
k
0)
, and plot a/b as a function of γb.
Your plot should have many zeros. For these values of γb we have σ0 = 0 and
there is no s-wave scattering. This is known as the Ramsauer-Townsend e ect.
Numerically find the smallest positive value of γb for which a = 0.
Your plot should also have infinities when γb = (n + 1/2)π for n a nonnegative
integer. What happens to δ0 and σ0 at these points? Is this consistent with the
bound from partial-wave unitarity?
(c) Let’s try to explore these infinities more. In the above we took the E → 0
limit from above, i.e. considering E to be positive and very small. Now con-
sider limE→0− ; i.e. suppose E < 0 and take the limit as E approaches zero.
Now solutions to the Schrödinger equation correspond to bound states. We can
equivalently think of k as iκ for some κ > 0.
A bound state with E very close to zero is called a “threshold” bound state.
Which values of γb correspond to threshold bound states? For each such value of
γb how many bound states (i.e. not only including threshold bound states) does
the potential support?

2
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 8

[Comment: For partial-wave scattering at fixed ℓ, the S-matrix element is the

extra phase e2iδℓ in the outgoing wave relative to the incoming wave. When we
let k = iκ with κ > 0, the outgoing wave becomes a decaying exponential and
the ingoing wave becomes a growing exponential. If for such k the S-matrix
element e2iδℓ (k) = ∞, the growing exponential e ectively vanishes and we have
the description of a bound state.]
(d) Sketch the radial solution u(r) as a function of r/b for k = 0 and γb = 0, π/4, π/2, π.
(e) Suppose γb is slightly larger than π/2, so there is a threshold bound state with
energy −EB , with EB positive. Show that for incoming waves of small positive
energy E,
c
σ0 ≈
E + EB
for some constant c. Find c. This result shows that low-energy scattering can be
used to detect low lying bound states.

4. Scattering from a δ-shell (15 points)

Consider s-wave scattering from the potential

~2
V (r) = λ δ(r − R) ,
2mR
with λ a large positive constant.

(a) Let u denote the radial solution. By comparing u′ (r)/u(r) just inside and just
outside r = R, find a formula to determine δ0 .
(b) Find the scattering length a ≡ − limk→0 tank δ0 .
(c) Assume λ ≫ 1. Sketch δ0 (k). Show that for kR just below nπ, with n a positive
integer, δ0 (k) increases very rapidly by π (as kR increases towards nπ). Sketch
the s-wave cross-section σ0 . Show that the s-wave scattering from this potential
is the same as that from a hard sphere of radius R for all values of kR except
those such that kR is close to nπ. What is the significance of these values?

5. Born Approximation for Scattering From Yukawa and Coulomb Potentials,

plus a Practical Example of the Latter (15 points)
Check Griÿths’ Examples 11.5 and 11.6 (p.415). He’s done some of the work for you.
Consider a Yukawa potential
e−µr
V (r) = β
r
where β and µ are constants.

(a) Evaluate the scattering amplitude, the di erential cross section dσ/d , and the
total cross section in the first Born approximation. Express your answer for the
total cross section as a function of the energy E.

3
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 8

(b) Take β = Q1 Q2 and µ = 0, and show that the di erential cross section you obtain
for scattering o a Coulomb potential is the same as the classical Rutherford
result. Use this di erential cross section in part (d) below.
(c) Di erential cross sections ddσ are what physicists actually use to calculate the rate
at which scattered particles will enter their detectors. The number of particles
scattered out into solid angle d per second by a single scatterer is given by
d2 N∗out dσ d2 N inc
= × ,
dtd d dtdA
2 inc
where the ∗ is for single scatterer, and ddtdA
N
is the incident flux in units of
particles per second per unit area transverse to the beam.
inc
Consider a uniform beam of dNdt particles per second with a cross sectional
area A. This beam strikes a target with n scattering sites per unit volume and
thickness T .
Give an expression for the number of particles
d2 N out
dtd
scattered into a detector with angular size d per unit time.
Show that your result is independent of the cross sectional area A of the beam
even if the beam is not uniform across this area. This is important because it is
inc
typically easy for an experimenter to measure dNdt but hard to measure the cross
sectional area A or to assess the uniformity of the beam across A.
(d) Consider a beam of alpha particles (Q1 = 2e) with kinetic energy 8 MeV scattering
from a gold foil. Suppose that the beam corresponds to a current of 1 nA. [It is
conventional to use MKS units for beam currents. 1 nA is 10−9 Amperes, meaning
10−9 Coulombs of charge per second. Each alpha particle has charge 2e, where
e = 1.6 × 10−19 Coulombs.] Suppose the gold foil is 1 micron thick. You may
assume the alpha particles scatter only o nuclei, not o electrons. You may also
assume that each alpha particle scatters only once. You will need to look up the
density of gold and the nuclear charge of gold (Q2 ). How many alpha particles
per second do you expect to be scattered into a detector which occupies a cone
of angular extent dθ = dφ = 10−2 radians, centered at θ = π/2?

6. Born for 1D problems (15 points) Based on Griÿths’s 11.16, 11.17, 11.18).
Consider the one-dimensional Schrödinger equation for a particle of mass m moving in
a potential V (x). For convenience define the rescaled potential function U(x) from
~2
V (x) = U(x)
2m
(a) Find the explicit form of the Green’s function G(x) that will allow you to write
the following integral form of the Schrödinger equation for the wavefunction ψ(x):
Z ∞
ψ(x) = ψ0 (x) + dx′ G(x − x′ )U(x′ )ψ(x′ ) ,
−∞

4
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 8

where ψ0 (x) is a solution with zero potential. Use an outgoing type Green’s
function in analogy to our 3D case.
(b) Consider one-dimensional scattering on the open line with a potential V (x) that
is non-zero only for x ∈ [−x0 , x0 ] for some positive x0 . Consider the above integral
equation setting ψ0 (x) equal to a wave Aeikx incident from the left:

ψ0 (x) = A eikx

Show that to first order in the Born approximation the reflection coeÿcient R for
this potential takes the form
 m  2 Z x0 2
′ 2ikx′ ′
R ≃ dx e V (x ) .
~2 k −x0

(c) Evaluate the above expression for R for the case of the delta function potential

V (x) = −αδ(x) ,

with α > 0. Write your answer for R in terms of the particle energy E, m, α, and
~. Compare with the exact reflection coeÿcient given in Griÿths [2.141], p.75.

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 Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018
Assignment 9

PRACTICE PROBLEMS
Posted: Thursday, May 15, 2018

Readings

• Griÿths, Chapter 5.
• Optional: Shankar, Ch. 10; Cohen-Tannoudji, Ch. XIV

Problem Set 9

1. The “Exchange Force” (15 points)

(a) Spatial wavefunctions: Let |αi, |βi be two orthogonal single-particle states for par-
ticles in 1-d. with ψ (x) = hx|αi and ψ (x) = hx|βi. Define the distinguishable,
symmetric and antisymmetric states to be

|ΨD i ≡ |αi ⊗ |βi (1)

|αi ⊗ |βi + |βi ⊗ |αi
|ΨS i ≡ √ (2)
2
|αi ⊗ |βi − |βi ⊗ |αi
|ΨA i ≡ √ (3)
2
Using tensor product notation, the position of the first (resp. second) particle is
given by the operator x̂1 ≡ x̂ ⊗ I (resp. x̂2 ≡ I ⊗ x̂). Define DD = hΨD |(x̂1 −
x̂2 )2 |ΨD i, Ds = hΨS |(x̂1 − x̂2 )2 |ΨS i and DA = hΨA |(x̂1 − x̂2 )2 |ΨA i. Calculate
DS − DD and DA − DD . Give a brief intuitive explanation of the signs of your
answers.
(b) Spins: Now consider two spin-s particles. For a single particle, let |s, ma i be the
~ma eigenstate of the Sz operator. Suppose ma = 6 mb . Define

|ΨD i ≡ |s, ma i ⊗ |s, mb i ~1 − S

DD ≡ hΨD |(S ~2 )2 |ΨD i (4)
|s, ma i ⊗ |s, mb i + |s, mb i ⊗ |s, ma i ~1 − S
~2 )2 |ΨS i
|ΨS i ≡ √ DS ≡ hΨS |(S (5)
2
|s, ma i ⊗ |s, mb i − |s, mb i ⊗ |s, ma i ~1 − S
~2 )2 |ΨA i
|ΨA i ≡ √ DA ≡ hΨA |(S (6)
2

1
Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 9

Calculate DD , DS , DA in terms of ma , mb . Order them from smallest to largest;

i.e. write down an expression of the from DX ≤ DY ≤ DZ with {X, Y, Z} some
permutation of {D, S, A}.
~1 · S
[Hint: You will find it useful to express S ~2 in terms of the appropriate raising
and lowering operators.]

2. Two Electrons: Spin-dependent Interaction and Heisenberg Hamiltonian

(20 points)
Consider two electrons with the spatial wave function of one of them given by ψ1 and
that of the other one by ψ2 . We will first ignore the interactions between the electrons.
That is, the Hamiltonian of the system can be written as

H = H0 (~r1 ) + H0 (~r2 ) (7)

where H0 denotes the Hamiltonian for a one-electron system (which is spin-independent).

Assume for simplicity that ψ1 and ψ2 are distinct (i.e. orthogonal) eigenstates of H0
of the same energy.
The spatial wave function of the full system may be either symmetric or antisymmetric
under the interchange of the electrons’ coordinates. Since the electrons are spin- 12
fermions, the overall wave function must be antisymmetric under the simultaneous
interchange of both space coordinates and spin.

(a) Suppose the spatial wave function is antisymmetric, write down the full wave func-
tions for the system. For these states, what are the eigenvectors and eigenvalues
~tot = S
of the square and the z-component of the total spin operator S ~1 + S
~2 ? (S
~1,2
are the spin operator for each electron respectively.)
(b) Repeat part (a) in the case where the spatial wave function is symmetric.
(c) So far all the states enumerated in parts (a) and (b) have the same energy. Now
add the following term to the Hamiltonian (7):

H′ = CS ~2 .
~1 · S (8)

That is, the electrons interact by a spin-spin force due to the interaction of the
magnetic moment of each with the magnetic field generated by the other. What
are the eigenstates of the system including the interaction H′ ? What are the
energies of the states in parts (a) and (b)?
(d) Now suppose we ignore the interaction (8) and consider the following Coulomb
repulsion between the two electrons
e2
H′′ = (9)
|~r1 − ~r2 |
Using perturbation theory, compute the first-order contribution of H′′ to the en-
ergy di erence ǫ between the states in (a) and (b). You may leave your answer in
integral form since the explicit spatial wave functions are not given.

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Quantum Physics III (8.06) — Spring 2018 Assignment 9

(e) Suppose that the system has no spin-spin interaction H′ but does have the
Coulomb repulsion H′′ . Argue that such a two-electron system can be described
by an e ective Hamiltonian of the form
~1 · S
He = −JS ~2 (10)

and express J in terms of ǫ. From your answer to 1(a), what do you think the
sign of J will be? [Note: You do not need to do a detailed calculation or a
rigorous proof here. Instead it is enough to give a hand-wavy argument: from
1(a), (anti)symmetric wavefunctions yield particles that are (closer or farther) to
each other, which should (increase or decrease) the Coulomb repulsion.]

[Another note: This exercise tells us that the Hamiltonian for a two-electron (or more
generally many-electron) system which depends only on space and not on spin variables
can in fact be mimicked by an e ective spin-spin interaction. This is a direct conse-
quence of the Pauli exclusion principle: spin space and real space are interconnected
quantum mechanically. Equation (10) was first realized by Heisenberg who used it to
understand the origin of ferromagnetism. Note that in a solid, direct spin-spin inter-
actions (8) are also present, but are much weaker (about one hundred times smaller)
than (10) which arises from electrostatic interactions.]

3. Three particles on a three-level system (10 points) (Inspired by Cohen-Tannoudji,

Problem 1, p.1447.)
Consider a Hamiltonian H0 for the orbital degrees of freedom of a particle, with normal-
ized eigenstates ψ0 (x) of energy zero, ψ1 (x) of energy ~ω, and ψ2 (x) with energy 2~ω.
If the particle has spin s, each of the above eigenstates is degenerate with multiplicity
2s + 1.
Now consider three identical particles with Hamiltonian
(1) (2) (3)
H = H 0 + H 0 + H0 ,

where the superscript denotes particle label.

(a) Assume the three particles are electrons. Find the energy levels of the Hamiltonian
and the degeneracies. Write out the wavefunction for the state (or states) in which
the three electrons have their spin up.
(b) Assume the three particles are spin zero bosons. Find the energy levels of the
Hamiltonian and the degeneracies.
(c) Assume the three particles have Maxwell-Boltzman statistics (no spin). Find the
energy levels of the Hamiltonian and the degeneracies.

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8.06 Quantum Physics III

Spring 2018

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