D 4.

1
Natural Selection
Guiding Questions:
“What processes can cause changes in allele
frequencies within a population?”

“What is the role of reproduction in the

process of natural selection?”
Learning Objectives
D4.1.1
Natural selection as the mechanism Students should appreciate that natural selection operates continuously and over
driving evolutionary change billions of years, resulting in the biodiversity of life on Earth.
Roles of mutation and sexual
D4.1.2
reproduction in generating the Mutation generates new alleles and sexual reproduction generates new
variation on which natural combinations of alleles.
selection acts
Overproduction of offspring and
competition for resources as
D4.1.3 Include examples of food and other resources that may limit carrying capacity.
factors that promote natural
selection

D4.1.4
Abiotic factors as selection Include examples of density-independent factors such as high or low temperatures
pressures that may affect survival of individuals in a population.
Differences between individuals in
Students are required to study natural selection due to intraspecific competition,
adaptation, survival and
D4.1.5 including the concept of fitness when discussing the survival value and
reproduction as the basis for
natural selection reproductive potential of a genotype.

Students should understand that characteristics acquired during an individual’s

Requirement that traits are life due to environmental factors are not encoded in the base sequence of genes
D4.1.6 heritable for evolutionary change and so are not heritable. Students are not required to know the term
to occur “Lamarckism” but it may be useful when discussing falsified theories about
evolution by inheritance of acquired traits.
Differences in physical and behavioural traits, which can be used as signs of
Sexual selection as a selection overall fitness, can affect success in attracting a mate and so drive the evolution
D4.1.7
pressure in animal species of an animal population. Illustrate this using suitable examples such as the
evolution of the plumage of birds of paradise.
Modelling of sexual and natural
D4.1.8 selection based on experimental Students should interpret data from John Endler’s experiments with guppies.
control of selection pressures
Natural selection drives evolutionary change
The theory of evolution by natural selection can be explained with the
following factors:

https://ib.bioninja.com.au/standard-level/topic-5-evolution-and-biodi/52-natural-selection/natural-selection.html
Roles of mutation and sexual reproduction
….in generating the variation on which natural selection acts

Charles Darwin observed that typical populations vary

in many respects, and that this variation is an
important factor for evolution. If all individuals in a
population were identical, there would be no way of
some individuals being favoured more than others.

http://www.naturkundemuseum-berlin.de/ausstellungen/evolution-in-aktion/baenderschnecken/?Lightversion=11%20or%201%3D%40%40version--%3Ftypo%3D1%3Ftypo%3D0%3Ftypo%3D2%3Ftypo%3D0%3Ftypo%3D2
Natural selection drives evolutionary change
Natural selection drives evolutionary change
Adaptations make an individual suited to its environment

How is each of these bird`s beaks

adapted to its source of diet?
Natural selection drives evolutionary change
The two different ideas (or paradigm) about evolution were developed
by Charles Darwin and Larmack.

https://www.studysmarter.de/schule/biologie/evolution/evolutionstheorie-lamarck/
Roles of mutation and sexual reproduction
….in generating the variation on which natural selection acts
Natural selection is based on variation between species, which makes some
being adaptated better to certain environmental conditions than others.

Variation between members of a species is a result of….

Mutation Sexual Reproduction

How does mutation contribute to variation? Which processes contribute to variation?

Roles of mutation and sexual reproduction
….in generating the variation on which natural selection acts

Mutation
Changes in DNA often
do not have an effect
on the phenotype of
the organism, but
often they can have
devastating effects on
the survival of
individuals.
Roles of mutation and sexual reproduction
….in generating the variation on which natural selection acts
Sexual Reproduction

Independent assortment
…of chromosomes in
metaphase I gives a huge
number of combinations
of maternal and paternal

ttps://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/208-meiosis-inheritance-and-variation
chromosomes in the
daughter cells.

Crossing over
…in prophase I creates
new combinations of
alleles on a chromosome
(recombination) by
swapping sections of
DNA.
Roles of mutation and sexual reproduction
….in generating the variation on which natural selection acts
Sexual Reproduction Random fertilization of gametes
Any of the gametes produced in meiosis can randomly fertilise any
one of the gametes from the other individual. Added to this, non-
fatal gene and chromosome mutations can create new alleles.
Overproduction of offspring
…and competition for resources as factors that promote natural selection

https://www.frogpets.com/frog-eggs-size-frequency-survival/
Breeding rate differs greatly from species to
species, but overall there is a trend for more
offspring to be produced than can be
supported by available resources such as food.
Overproduction of offspring
…and competition for resources as factors that promote natural selection
Individuals compete for limited
resources (Intraspecific competition)

The alleles for the

advantageous
characteristic becomes
more frequent in the
next generation and
Some have population
characteristic
that give them
a competitive These individuals are
advantage. consequently 'fitter'
in terms of freedom They are more likely to
from disease, food successfully reproduce
availability etc. (offspring survive).
http://evc-wp01.s3.amazonaws.com/wordpress01.entravision.com/2015/07/Nacen-mas-de-97.000-tortugas-Lora-en-playas-de-Tamaulipas.jpg
 https://www.ck12.org/biology/animal-competition/lesson/animal-competition-advanced-bio-adv/
Abiotic factors as selection pressures
Biotic factors such as competition for
https://www.nj.com/news/2022/07/new-growth-already-sprouting-after-massive-pinelands-wildfire-why-burning-can-be-good-if-done-right.html

access water, preying for food or reisting

diseases are density-dependent factors
which act as selection pressure. Only the
heritable characteristics which help an
individual to remain alive until
reproductive age will persist and become
more common in the population.

Abiotic factors such as extreme

temperatures, drought, flooding,
earthquakes, fire, pollution are density-
independent factors which cause selection
pressure on plant and animal populations.
They are aspects of the physical
environment and not due to other
organisms. The plants (or their seeds)
which survive a forest fire owing to
“stronger” genes show natural selection.
Abiotic factors as selection pressures

The extreme temperature of a drought

is an example of an abiotic factor
which is density-independent. The
selection pressure acts on all species in
the same way, no matter whether the
population density is high or low.
Abiotic factors as selection pressures
Better adapted individuals survive and can therefore reproduce and pass on
characteristics to their offspring. Individuals that are less well adapted have
lower survival rates and less reproductive success. The proportions of
individuals in a population with characteristics that make them well adapted
increases. This is evolution by natural selection.

http://katiephd.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/pepps.jpg
Abiotic factors as selection pressures
Using the example of the peppered moth, explain how natural selection increases the
frequency of characteristics, making individuals better addapted. Watch the video.

https://youtu.be/q64iUBPC8Mo
Differences between individuals
…in adaptation, survival and reproduction as the basis for natural selection
Charles Darwin observed that
typical populations vary in many
respects, and that this variation is
an important factor for evolution.
If all individuals in a population
were identical, there would be no
way of some individuals being
favored more than others.

https://evolution.berkeley.edu/survival-of-the-fit-enough/
”Fitness” means how well
adapated an individual is
to increase its changes of
natural selection. It is
specific to its purpose.
Differences between individuals
…in adaptation, survival and reproduction as the basis for natural selection
Some traits are adaptations to abiotic factors in the environment, others help

https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolution-101/mechanisms-the-processes-of-evolution/evolutionary-fitness/
an organism in their response to biotic factors. In a sexually reproducing
population some individuals will be fitter than others. Fitness influences
whether or not an individual survives for long enough to be able to reproduce.

Can you explain why the brown beetle has a higher fitness than the green one?
Differences between individuals
…in adaptation, survival and reproduction as the basis for natural selection
Requirement that traits are heritable
….for evolutionary change to occur
Adaptations acquired during the
lifetime of an organism are not

https://theg-cat.com/tag/natural-selection/
inherited by offspring. This
includes random mutations
which occur in traits. These traits
may be caused by the
environment, or by an interaction
between genes and environment.

Natural selection may favour one type of allele so over time that it increases
in frequency. The difference between these two alleles is at least one base
pair of DNA sequence; this often arises by mutation processes.
Requirement that traits are heritable

https://www.freepik.com/premium-photo/andean-flamingo-is-preening-lagoon-hedionda-potosi-bolivia-south-america_12874476.htm
….for evolutionary change to occur

Acquired or inherited trait?

Pink flamingos are not pink because of pigments generated by their DNA. The
pink color comes from ingesting plankton which contains beta-carotene, a red
pigment. This is not a heritable trait and will not be passed on to the offspring.
Individuals that reproduce pass on characteristics
Many behavioral features,
such as migration patterns in

http://www.markhancoxbirdphotography.co.uk/pages/galleries/warblers.php?gall_id=134
blackcaps are heritable and
can be passed on from
individuals to their offspring.
Overwintering birds either
migrate from Germany to
Spain, or to England. The
behavior is inherited.

Other variations, such as skincolor, can also be passed on from one individual to its
offspring. However, not all features are passed on: Features acquired during the
lifetime of an organism (e.g. broken leg) can not be passed on.
Sexual selection as a selection pressure in animal species
Sexual selection is form of natural selection showing physical or
behavioral adaptation of an individual to increase its reproductive success
or fitness. If genes persist in a population and increase the likelihood of
sexual reproducion, then the genes are going to persist longterm.

https://www.openaccessgovernment.org/sexual-selection-theory-research/40535/
Sexual selection as a selection pressure in animal species
Read this article and answer the questions on your sheet!

https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/sexual-selection-13255240/
Sexual selection as a selection pressure in animal species
Sexual selection in alpine ibex demonstrated by Male wrenchs often show exaggerated traits to
overpowering a potential competitor and therefore increse their reproductive success with a female.
showing sexual fitness.

https://www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/why-do-animals-fight-and-what-do-they-fight-about

Males ducks have a similarily shiny The nose of a male

plumage to impress a mating partner. proboscis monkey
advertises its
quality to
conspecific
females.

https://avianhybrids.wordpress.com/2022/01/08/does-sexual-selection-promote-speciation/
https://open.lib.umn.edu/evolutionbiology/chapter/10-4-can-we-see-markers-of-sexual-selection-in-animals/
Sexual selection as a selection pressure in animal species
One of the most remarkable
examples of sexual selection is
found in the birds-of-paradise
living in New Guinea.

Watch the videos and note

down some of the examples of
exaggerated traits! https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YTR21os8gTA

Darwin explained such traits in

terms of mate selection.
Females prefer to mate with
males that have exaggerated
traits, as this shows good fitness.

Can you explain how these

traites indicate overall health? https://youtu.be/rX40mBb8bkU
Modelling of sexual and natural selection
…based on experimental control of selection pressures