. To demonstrate the I-V and P-V characteristics of PV module with varying radiation and temperature level. 2. To demonstrate the I-V and P-V characteristics of series and parallel combination of PV modules. 3. To show the effect of variation in tilt angle on PV module power. . To determine the Curie temperature of ferrite core and find out loss in energy. To determine the dielectric constant of three dices of plywood, glass and PZT samples. To determine the heat capacity of solid Aluminium, Brass and copper samples with reference to Silver. To investigate the Lattice dynamic for mono-atomic and diatomic chains. x To determine temperature coefficient of resistance for platinum by means of Carey Foster's bridge. . To determine the conductivity of glass by the method of Lees and Charlton. 740. To determine the coefficient of thermal conductivity of copper by using Searle’s apparatus. 41. To determine specific heat of solids. iCourse Outcomes EP216.1 | Describe the erystallographie structural properties of materials and their analysis for engineering and technological EP216.2 applications. = 7 Enable students with knowledge of lattices and dispersio analysis of atomic structure of different materials in engineering systems. EP216.3 Describe various electronic theories of electronic structure of materials with the knowledge of energy band structures of solids, EP216.4 Equip the students with knowledge, principle and analysis of dielectric and magnetic materials in engineering and technology for social applications. EP216.5 Impart theoretical knowled: superconducting materials i engineering and technology. ple and application science, Pa prprrpppp rae pp pheEXPERIMENT - 4 To demonstrate the I-V and P-V characteristics of PV module with varying radiation and temperature level.To demonstrate the LV and P-Y characteristics of PY module wi radiation and temperature level. varying module is characterized by its -Vand P-V characteristics, At a particular solar insolation and temperature, module characteristic curves are shown in Fig. Li(@)and 1.1(b) respectively. Veltagetvi Fig. t.(q), LV characteristicof PY module z Voksge Fig. 1.(0).P-V characteristic of PY module cur (rE characteristic maximum current at zerovoltage Is the short circuit current which can be measured by sherting the PY module and maximum voltage at zero current isthe open circuit voltage (Vz). In P-V curve the maximum power is achieved only ata single point which is called MPP (maximum poser point) and the valtage | and current comesponding to this point are referred 36 Vp and lpg. On increasing the temperature, Voc of module decreases as shown in Fig, 1.2, while lec remains the same which in tum reduces the power. For most crystalline silicon salar cells madules the reduction is about 05096/C. cureacet BREEEKEUS \ reatc| | fase AA am 3 em ow ‘ease Fig, 1.2.Variation in V...with change in temperatureVoltageinv ion in LV characteristic insolation Fill factor: The Fill Factor (FF)is essentially a measure of quality of the solar cell. It achieved with open circuit voltage and short circuit current together. FF can also be interpreted araphically as the tatio of the rectangular areas depicted in Fig.14. A larger fill factor is desirable, and comesponds to an [-Y’ sweep that is more square-like. Typical fil factors range from 05 to 0.62. Fill facter is also often fepresented as a percentage. Fig. 4. Graph of the Fill factor (FF) The circuit diagram to character iakle resistor (pot vith ammeter and voltmeter for surement. Pot meter in this circuit ks a5 4 variable load for the module. When load on the module is varied by pot meter the current and voltage of the module gets changed which Potmater ram for evaluation ‘and P-¥ charactersstics PV characteristics evaluation can be achieved by following connactio ns in control board (as shown in Fi PPSPDPDAPDseePEOHODHDADA@ANADARHR DDH HA Ha nHRAANObservations: Table for -V and P-V characteristics of PY module : se Se. Radin espa woe 4 4 oo The sua Bio, faballon —Tempertuie vk seus ‘he. Eaten temperatuer votor « as see : Sho. talon TTmprriute voue These 4 sets are for different radiation and ternperature levels but in one set the values of radiation and temperature will be constant. Results: 1. Draw the I-V curves ofall the sets ‘ona single graph and show the characteristics at different radiation and temperature levels,5 Craw the F-Y curves of all sets en asingle graph and show the characteristics at different radiation and temperature les Calculate the fill factor for the given module, |. Readings for one set should be taken within 1-2 minutes (for indace . Halogen lamp position should not be other: changed during one set on module: ‘onnections should be tight.EXPERIMENT - 2 To demonstrate the I-V and P-V characteristics of series and parallel combination of PV modulessolar insolation and temperature it showa unique FY and Ps These character l \ Doce eee a dy Vora) Fig, 2.Siq).l-V chatacteristic of series connected modules On increasing the temperature, Vec of modules decrease while |: rernains same which in turn reduces the pawer. Fig. 21BL LV \ characteristi | ofparaltel \ connected | modules was | Therefore, if modules are connected in series then power reduction is ti when connected in parallel, ice On changing the solar insolation, |,. of the module increases while the Ys. increases very slightly, therefore there is overall power Increase, In parallel connection power Increment is twice than when connected in series. Experimer al setup Thecircuit diagram ta evaluate |-Vand PY characteristics of modules connected in series and parallel are showen in Fig. 2.2(a) and 22(b) respectively.Forma PV system with modules in either series or parallel and a variable resistor (Pot meter) ¥ and voltmeter for measurement. Modules in series or parallel are connected to variable load (pot meter). The effect of load change on output voltage and current of the modules connected in serizs or parallel can be seen by varying load resistance (pot meter) ae Poxmee! Fig. 2.2(a). Circuit diagram forevaluationof I-Vand P-V characteristics of series connected modules CO) [rcemete Na 7 Fig. 2.2(0). Circuit diagram for evaluation of -V_ and P-¥ characteristics of parallel connected modules [-V and P-V characteristics of the modules connected in series or parallel can be achieved by connections shown in Fig. 2.3(a) and (b) respectively. waite wt: Fig. 2.3(a), Contol board connections for ‘modules connected in series| | = || (om) eT Fig. 2.3(). Control board connections for parallel connected modules Table for |-V and P-V characteristics of PY modules in series: Sia, fadiation Tespecttar vou These 3 sets are for different radiation and temperature levels but in oneset the values of radiation and temperature will be constant, Table for -V and P-V characteristics of PV modules in parallel:wee Kile, Reduthn ——Tempentare vue 6 te sea Sho, aguion ——_Tenperere we ‘ These 3 sets are fic rent radiation Is but in one set the mperature will be and temperature lew values of radiation and t constant. 1. Crawthe FY curves of all the 3 sets on aaingle arach for the modules nw . Draw the FA nected in series and parallel ow the characteris diff: radiation and temperature levels. Y curves of all the 2 sets onasingle graph for the modules connected in series and parallel anc Mw Halogen lamp pasiticn shauld not be changed during one set cthervese n modules will change. . Connections should be tight.EXPERIMENT - 3 To show the effect of variation in tilt angle on PV module powerTo show the effect of variation in tilt angle ‘on PY module power. Tilt is the angle between the plane surface under consideration and the horizontal plane. It varies between 0-90°, PY arrays work best when the sun's rays shine perpendicular to the cells. When the cells are directly facing the sun in both azimuth and altitude, the anale of incidence is normal. Therefore, tilt angle should be such that it faces the sun rays normally for maximum number of hours. Summer \ Titangleisset atlatitude minus VSdegrees Fig. 3.1. Tit angle settings for different seasons Speing & Fall Tittangle isset atlatitude a mE Titangleis set at latitude plus act WSdegrees Thetitt angle settings for different seasons ate shown in Fig. 3.1, PY systems that are designed to perform best in the winter, array should be tilted at an anale of equal to latitude +15° If the array is designed to perform best in the summer, then the array needs to betited at an angle of equal to latitude—-15° In this way the array surface becomes perpendicular of the sun rays. For best performance throughout the year, tift should be equal to the latitude angle.gen lamp 3 of the module ting the Fig. 3.2 Arrangement to varytilt of themodule To evaluate effect of titt on power output ofthe module, following connections are tobe done in the control board as sh in Fig, 3.3, The pot meter in this case has tobe fixed at constant position so that the effect of tik can be seen Fig. 3.3. Controtboard connections toevatuate effect of titTables for evaluating effect of tilt: Ea is for the different positions of pot-meter but during one set its position will be fixed. Radiation on module will be calculated by taking an average of the radiations recorded at three difference locations on the module (viz. upperend, middle and lowerend), sett So, Tt Radatlon Vt Buwds tates femceen sees No, ats Draw the graph between tilt (as x-axis) and Radiation and Power (on left and right y-axis). Relation between radiation and power a/p will be linear. WS: |. Readings for one set should be taken within 1-2 minutes (for indoor exp.) otherwise temperature of the module may vary as radiation source used is halogen lamp. 2, Observations for tilt angle should be taken as correct as possible. we i. Always take radiation reading after module current and voltage readings. 4, Connections should be tight.EXPERIMENT - 4 To determine the Curie temperature of ferrite ce and find out loss in energyExperiment No.4 AIM: To determine the Curie temperature of ferrite core and find out loss in energy. Apparatus used: Curie Temperature THEORY Ferrite Coil, Oscilloscope for measurement of Hystersis loop This unit enables one to trace the B-H loop(hysteresis) of a ferromagnetic specimen (ferrite in this case) using a cathode ray oscilloscope and to observe the effect of temperature variation. Measurement of the area of the B_H lgop leads to the evaluation of energy loss in the specimen. The experimental arrangement is shown in the figure given below: —— [> Vertical CRO Ra SPECIMEN Horizontal CRO Fig 1. Experimental Arrangement for Curie Temperature Kit The specimen used in this unit is made using a ferrite core. There are two windings on the specimen namely primary (P) and secondary (S). The primary is fed to low alternating Voltage (S0H2). This produces a magnetic field (H) in the specimen. The voltage across Ra (resistance connected in series with the primary) is proportional to the magnetic field. It is given to the horizontal input of the CRO. The alternating magnetic field induces a voltage in the secondary coil. The voltage is applied to a passive integrating circuit. The output of the integrator is proportional to B and fed to the vertical input of the CRO. E As a result of the application of a voltage proportional to H to the horizontal (input) axis and a voltage proportional to B to the vertical (input) axis, the loop is formed as shown in figure 2.Fig2.’ Hysteresis Loop 2, Determination of the energy loss in the ferrite at room temperature. a. The top view of the unit is shown in the figure given below | Primary ‘SECONDARY | Ri ' VERT. CRO HOR. CRO on i There are ten terminals on the panel. Two BNC-BNC.cords and one connecting cable is supplied with the Kit. Th lue_of Ri can be selected by connecting terminal D to A or B or1@ between terminals C - D = 50 ohm), Connect A to D. onnect the primary minals of the specimen to "PRIMARY" and secondary to "SECONDARY" terminals Adjust the C.R.O. to work on external mode (the time base is switched off). Connect terminal "VERT. CRO" to the vertical input of the CRO, « Connect terminal "HOR, CRO" to the horizontal input of the CRO. Switch ON the power supply of the unit, The Hysteresis loop is formed. Adjust the horizontal and vertical gains such that the loop occupies maximum area on the sereen of the CRO, Once this adjustment is made, do not disturb the gain controls. The 2osition of Horizontal gain knob will give horizontal sensitivity Sy (Volts/m). Similarly the rosition of Vertical gain knob will give Vertical sensitivity Sy (Volts/sn) ‘race the loop on @ translucent sheet (butter paper) and reproduce the same on graph saper. Estimate the area of the loop in sq. meter. the energy loss is given by Ny Re Cy —l=— X — xX —x Sv, X SH X Area ofloop C x wy pert.) Ne Ry AL : in Joules/eycle/unit volume where = /N, = _No. of turns in primary “Nz = No, of turns in secondary * ) = Resistance between terminals D te A or B or C (whichever is connected) . Re = 68K C, = Sut L = Length of Specimen A = Area of Cross-section of ferrite Specimen »- and L will be calculated as follows: of ferrite sample (sq meteri A= (ch ~ ch) x Thickness of sample ength of the ferrite sample (meter) L=?/ SAMPLE CALCULATIONS L FERRITE CORE Thickness of the specimen = Liem. Average radius (r) = 1,805 cm. 4 2x 3.14x1.805x107 m 11.33564 x 107m Area of cross section of specimen = (tr) - 1) x Thickness = (2.235 ~ 1.375) x 1.1 sq. cm = 0.946 x 10% sq.m Length of specimen Nz =800, N; = 200, © =3uf, R: =68KQ, R) =1509 Sy a Vin O5xi9 1 —— W 10.5x 107 Area ofthe loop = 1.5 x 10° sq. meter Energy loss =9.05 Joules/cycle/unit volume /mEXPERIMENT - 5 To determine the dielectric constant of three dices of plywood, glass and PZT samplesExperiment No.5 AIM: To determine the dielectric constant of three dices of plywood, glass and PZT samples. ‘Apparatus Used: Dielectric constant measurement kit, Sample holder of Brass, Glass and plywood samples, oscilloscope. THEORY A dielectric is a material having electrical conductivity low in comparison to that of a metal. It is characterized by its dielectric constant. Dielectric constant is measured as the ratio of the capacitance C of an electrical condenser filled with the dielectric to the capacitance Co of the evacuated condenser i.e. FRONT PANEL DESCRIPTION: Front panel SC; SC, SC; Fig. 1 comprises of i. Digital Volt meter (DVM), that measures the voltage across the dielectric cell (DC) or standard capacitor (SC). ii, Switch S; to select di-electric cell or standard capacitor. iii, Switch $ to select one of the standard capacitors SC1, SC2, SCa.The Co capacitance of the dielectrie cell without the sample and the plates seprated by air ( of same thickness as the sample) then Co is given by relation: .G) = Mint C= BAe Fe nf. Because sy = 8.854 x10"! and A= wy? , and dielectric constant of the sample is (4) given by 5 Experimental Procedure: (1) Connect the C. R, O to the terminals provided on the front panel of main unit. If no sinusoidal‘wave from appears on then adjust “CAL” to change the frequency of audio oscillator such that waveform appear. (2) Connect the dielectric cell assembly to the main unit and insert the sample in between gold plated SS plates. ° : (3) Switch on the unit, (4) Chose.the standard capacitor (with the help of switch S;) SCI for the materials having low dielectric constant ( Like Bakelite, Glas, Plywood samples) or SC? for materials having high dielectric constant (PZT) sample. : (5) Change ; towards DC to measure the voltage across the dielectric cell, say Voc and towards SC to measure the voltage across standard capacitor, say Vsc. Calculate the capacitance using relation given below: Precautions: 1. Sample surface must be flat so that there will be no air gap between sample and disc, 2. Dielectric cell should be placed on insulating surface in humid weather conditions. 3. Do not apply any pressure on‘dielectric.cell.Material Thickness of disc (mm) Radius of disc (mm) Capacitance of Standard Capacitor (Cs) Voltage across dielectric cell (Voc) Voltage across Standard Capacitor ( Ys) Dielectric Constant Glass 48 pt 48 pt Plywood 48 pf 8 pf PZT 13.6 nf 13.6 nf Result: Dielectric constant of glass, plywood and PZT arebbb 04000000999 0% 0 ON NOTE ; DIAMETER OF THE SAMPLES SHOULD NOT BE LESSER THAN THE GOLD PLATED DISCS. 6) Measure thickness of the sample using the cell holder and calculate the value of Co(air) using relation (5). 7) Determine the dielectric constant of the sample using the relation c es C, (air) COMPONENT VALUES 1112292 L= 25m SC) =45 py SCo=14.58 nf PRECAUTIONS 1. Sample surface must be flat so that there is no air gap between the sample and the dise. 2. Dielectric cell should be placed on insulating surface in humid weather conditions. 3. Least pressure should be exerted on the brittle samples. PARTS LIST 1. MAINUNIT 2. DIELECTRIC CELL (2Nos) 3. SAMPLES (3 Nos) 4, BNC-BNC cable (1 no) 5. INSTRUCTION MANUAL. Tl ; Instruction Manual of Dielectric Constant KitvsvvwvvuevevevwT,F 8 NTN SAMPLE READINGS/CALCULATIONS: 4] PLYWOOD: SC =55.5 pf Voc = 0.75 V Vsc = 1.51 V a 2.8 mmy r =3.8x10?m, c= Y&xsc =10791pf Voc 2 _ (8107) “36d 36%2.8x10 =14.3pf Spf PZT-SAMPLE: Vsc = 1.83 V Pose 50 =11.5I0f Voc ; 0 7 _ (ex10 J as.7x10¢f 36d 36x1.08x10 c TST ese 317 Cy 37x10 ” NOTE: These readings are of particular samples and may vary for sample to sample. Instruction Manual of Dielectric Constant KitEXPERIMENT - 6 To determine the heat capacity of solid Aluminum, Brass and copper samples with reference to Silver“see es S38 8846444646666 G6464646G6 G66 GEGGEGG INSTRUCTION MANUAL HEAT CAPACITY KIT Welly } kExperiment No.6 ‘AIM: To determine the heat capacity of the solid Aluminium, Brass and copper samples with reference to Silver. ‘Apparatus Used: Heat capacity kit, cylindrical sample of Silver (standard sample), aluminium, copper and Brass. THEORY Heat capacity is one of the important thermal properties of solids. The kit is designed to determine the heat capacity of solids like metals, alloys and polymeric materials taken in the form of cylindrical rods of size (length = 3 to 4 cm and diameter = 6mm). The experimental set up is most elegant and accurate. The important feature of the setup is that the temperature change of the specimen kept inside the silver calorimeter is detected using an iron-constant an uni-junction thermocouple. The resulting thermo-emf is amplified and displayed on a digital panel meter using suitable electronic circuitry. A built-in power supply (for calorimeter heater) leads is provided in the kit. This set up will be useful for students of PG courses in Physics, Chemistry, Polymer Science, Materials Science and Engineering Physics. Experimental Details: The diagram of the experimental set up is given below: PS Th . Pi DPM. INPUT OP-AMP-The set up consists of the following parts: (a) Amplifier with Digital displey assembly and power supply (For calorie meter heater) in series with current meter (A) and potentiometer P; with provision for connecting calorimeter heater leads (b) Silver Calorimeter (C) - Fig. B: and samples (Standard sample —Silver ,Test sample — Brass, Aluminium.) (©) 500 mA current meter (A) — provided in the Heat Capacity Kit. (4) Stop watch 0.1 sec. accuracy. (ce) Al-Cr thermocouple. BACKGROUND INFORMATION : The specimen is taken in the form of a cylindrical rod (Length - 3.4 cm., diameter - 6 mm) with 1 mm dia and 3 mm deep hole at one end along the axis. The specimen is inserted into the calorimeter. Thermocouple (Uni-junction thermocouple) is inserted into the specimen hole provided to detect the temperature of the sample. By connecting the heater leads of the silver calorimeter to the terminals marked “ CALORIEMETER’ provided on the front panel of the Heat Capacity Kit, adjust the current control potentiometer P,, so that a current of approx 300 mA passed through the heater. The thermocouple output leads are connected to the terminals marked “SENSOR” provided on the front panel of the Heat Capacity Kit. If lis the current flowing through the heater of resistance R for a time t sec. then, P Rt=(W+ms) «(Tz -T) Where / is the current flowing through the calorimeter heater, R is the resistance of the heater, where W is the water equivalent of calorimeter and its contents, m is the mass of the sample and S is its specific heat. (T2 - T1) is the temperature change . Instruction Manual of Heat Capacity KitEXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE : 1 Instruction Manual of Heat Capacity Kit Measure the masses of Silver (standard sample), Aluminium, Copper, Brass (Test sample) Insert the thermocouple junction into the hole of the specimen kept tightly fixed into the silver calorimeter (Silver calorimeter is attached to the lid of the teflon flask) Connect thermocouple to the main unit. Connect the Calorimeter heater leads to the terminals provided on the front panel of the Kit (Heater). Suppose that we have to measure the heat capacity of the material at T° C (say 27.5° C). Choose Temperature T; as (T- 2.5° C) (25° C) and Tz as (T + 2.5° C) (30° c). Adjust the heater current control potentiometer P; so that a current | of 250 - 300 mA passes through the heater as can be read on the current meter. Due to the current flow in the calorimeter heater, the temperature of the specimen increases and as a result the thermo-emf of the thermocouple increases and hence the display reading. When the display reading reaches T;, start the stop watch and note the time t for the temperature to build to Ta. Using the relation PRt=(W+mS) (Tp -T) Determine W employing a standard (Silver) specimen. The specific heat of the test sample at temperature T can be determined using the value of W calculated above by determining the time required to heat the specimen from T; to Tz when the same current | passes through the calorimeter heater.ovruluUuFrerlUhUTCrrorrvrlh rllUvTrlUm Precautions 1, While switching the stop watch and switching off the stop watch to determine the time required to heat the sample from temperature T; to Tz °C, It is desirable to see that the conditions are identical, When the panel reading is just displaced T; start the stop watch and stop the stop watch when the display is just T2. Manufacturer’s Notes Thermocouple Type: Al- Cr Calorimeter Heater Resistance: 5,20 Mass of the Standard Sample: 7.8 gm (Silver) Mass of the test sample : 7.08 gms. (Brass), 2.24 gms. (Aluminium), 7.18 gm (Copper) SPECIFIC HEATS OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS Material Specific Heat (J Kg! K") Copper 385 Aluminium 913 Brass (70 Cu/30 Zn) 370 tron (pure) 106 Quartz (Fused silica) 788 Glass (crown) 1400 Rubber ; 1600 Silver 232 Instruction Manual of Heat Capacity Kit 4PART LIST 1. MAIN UNIT 2, SILVER CALORIEMETER WITH TEFLON FLASK 3 THERMOCOUPLE STANDARD SAMPLE (Silver) TEST SAMPLES (Al, Brass) 4, 5. 6. CONNECTING WIRES. 7. STOP WATCH ; 8. INSTRUCTION MANUAL SOs Instruction Manual of Heat Canacitu Kit~PROOEOHHHVYBHOOCKOGGHEGEGDEHKEEEEGDaGEEHEAAAAAM APACAITY KIT Sample Calculations Using Standard Sample (Silver) I = 300mA R = 449 S (silver) 353g K m(silver) = 7.85gm T 9 Th 4 t = 133. Substituting above values in relation PRe W +m S)(T:-T)) We get W=8.95 For Test sample Copper m (Copper) = 6.5 gm t #137 sec, W — =8.95 (from calculations above) Substituting in relation (1) we get S (copper) =313 Standard value of S (copper) = 385 J/kg K For Test Sample Aluminium m (Aluminium) = =2 gm t = 135 sec. Substituting in relation (1) we get $ (Aluminium) — =942 Standard valueof $ =913J/kgK For Test Sample Brass m (Brass) =63 gm t = 136 sec. Substituting in relation (1) S (Brass) “= 289 Standard value ofS (Brass) = 370 /Kg K.robb eeLee ee edd dered dros oeese GUUE <' sb EXPERIMENT - 8 To determine temperature coefficient of resistance for platinum by means of Carey Foster’s bridge-yeI NU SUNS VI VVYV VwevVTueTFTVFVvwvvwwrTerlmUaerlTelerellTe TY OT OOS” | Where R is the resistance of the platinum resistance thermometer. Dividing Eq. (2) by Eq. (3), | we have, | ReSt = eh | R-S2 1’y—l’ | or RU~ UI § = W= RG W- Sb- Which gives Si ’~ W)- Sb~ Get W o The resistance R of the platinum resistance thermometer can also be determined graphically without requiring the knowledge of p. It is evident that if the known resistance $ in the outer gap of the Carey Foster's bridge is given different value S;. Sz, $3. efc., and the corresponding values of (12 —11) determined, then the plot of (li — 12) against $ will come out to be a straight line as shown in Fig, 1. The intercept of this straight line on the resistance-axis equals R, the resistance of the thermometer, for if we put (12- 11) = 0 in Equ. (2) Evidently $ =R. Fig.1RPvLVVVOOVVVIDIOOOCWBVSE FS FFF FOES By placing the platinum resistance thermometer first In melting ice and then in steam and determining the values of Ry and R from Eq. (4) or graphically, a can be calculated from Eq. (1), tbeing the temperature of steam, Method —Connect the leads from the platinum resistance thermometer lettered PP to the outer left gap of the Carey Fostet’s bridge and those lettered CC in series with a decimal-ohm box Fig.2 to the outer right gap of the bridge. Next connect two approximately equal resistance coils in the inner gaps of the bridge and the weston galvanometer between A and C. Finally, connect the cell between B and D. : Adjust the decimal-om box to S equal to about one ohm. Place the platinum resistance thermometer tube in a thermos flask containing ice and, after about half-an hour when the thermometer tube has attained the steady temperature of 0°C, pass the jockey on the bridge wire and note down the direction of immediate deflection in the gelvanometer on depressing the jockey. Then shift the jockey to another point on the bridge wire and find by trial the null point, as close to the middle of the bridge wire as possible by adjusting Si, if necessary, where there is no immediate deflection of the galvanometer on depressing the jockey. Note down the reading l on the scale of the position of the null point on the bridge wire.Next transfer the platinum thermometer to the outer right gap and the compensating leads in series with Sj to the outer left gap of the bridge, and determine as before the reading 12 on the scale of the position of the null point on the bridge wire. Now adjust the decimal-ohm box to S2 and determine the values of 1°; and 1°, as for 1; and 1 above and calculate the value of Ro from Eq, (4). Take at least three sets of observations with slightly different values of S; and S2 and find the mean value of Ro Also plot a graph between (12- 1) and the various values of S. This will be a straight line as shown in Fig, 1. Find its intercept OP on the resistance-axis. This will give Ro. Next, place the platinum resistance thermometer in a hypsometer and after some time when the temperature of the thermometer tube has become steady, determine the value of Rras of Ro above, both by calculation and graph. Then note down the barometric pressure and correct it for the expansion of the brass scale. Finally, find the temperature of the steam t°C at the corrected barometric pressure from Regnault’s tables and calculate the value of a from Eq. (1). Sources of error and preeautions—(1)The decimal ohm-box should be preferably of dial pattern and should be connected by thick copper strips. (2) The usual positions of the cell and the galvanometer should be interchanged, i.e., the galvanometer should be connected between A and C and the cell between B and the jockey. The contact of the jockey with the bridge wire should not be more than momentary. This will prevent heating of the platinum spiral due to prolonged flow of current and consequent change in its resistance. (3) As the usual positions of the cell and the galvanometer have been interchanged, the latter will remain permanently connected in the’ circuit and hence unless all the resistances used are non- inductive, a throw due to induction effects will be produced in the galvanometer when the jockey is pressed over the bridge wire. Accordingly both the resistances P and Q in the inner gaps of the bridge should be non-inductive and the connecting wires should never be coiled. (4) In order that the bridge may have high sensitiveness, the resistance of the four arms of the bridge should be of the same order of magnitude. : (5) The balance point should be determined by noting the immediate deflection of the galvanometer when the jockey Is passed over the bridge wire, for when the current continues to flow a deflection will be produced in the galvanometer' on account of change of resistance of theplatinum spir |, due to heating by the current, even when the br ‘idge was balanced before pressing the jockey over the bridge wire. (©) The null point should be as close to the middle of the bridge wire as possible. (7) The galvanometer should be shunted by a low resistance wire to avoid excessive deflections in it when the bridge is out of balance, the shunt being removed when the exact position of the null point is being determined. (8) The jockey should be pressed gently over the bridge wire and the contact between the jockey and the bridge wire should not be made while the jockey is being moved along, (9) While the positions of the mull points for the measurement of RO and R are being determined, the temperature of the platinum thermometer should remain steady. (10) The graph between (12 — 1) and S$ is a straight line and must be smoothly drawn, While plotting the graph the sign of (12— ly) should be carefully taken into account. Observations—[A] Determination of R, and R,. pre ON OF ES Temp. of | S. -| Resistance | Position of null pt. with Resistance platinum No. in seriés: platinum resistance resistance _ with thermometer in the thermometer compens- ; ating teads | Lett gap | Right aap 'S ohms. baie oan 1 S,= l 4 °c iy ly 2 3 4 fe 2IB] For determination of t Barometric pressure H = cm. : Room temperature. 0 Tc Goepietent of linear expansion for brass = 0.0000189 per °C vei ~ 2 G'- W)- Sb-W) Y= GFh = “ohms Similarly, calculate R. © Barometric pressure corrected for expansion of the scale = H (1+0.0000189 = om, Temperature t of steam at the above corrected barometric ssure Gia Regnault’s tables = *C. Ro Rot = perc Calculations—R, From the above graph Intercept OP on resistance axis = « ohms Intercept OQ on resistance axis = s R# ‘ohms 2 aS ee Result—The leqperatie coefficient of resistance « for Platinunt = Accurate vale as ax Percentage error = be3 Criticism of the method—The charge In resistance (Ry - Ro) of the platinum resistance thermometer is a very small quantity hence the accuracy in the determination of a depends upon the accuracy with hich this change in resistance is measured. By means of Carey Foster's bridge the value of Ro and R can be measured sufficiently accurate. The use of compensating leads running along the thermometer leads has eliminated errors due fo any variations of temperature and consequent alteration In the resistance of the leads. a eae eee re ee ereneeeeeeeeThe result is slightly affected by a certain rise in temperature of the platinum spiral which occurs owing to the passage of current through it, quite apart from that due to the heat supply In which the thermometer tube Is placed. The Eq. (1) used to calculate « is true for small ranges of temperature only and hence the value of a obtained by this method will represent only the mean value of a between the melting point of Ice and the boiling point of water. For more accurate value of a. exact expression Ry = Ro (1 + a t + Bt?) should be used and the resistance Ro and R, measured more accurately by Callendar and Griffith's bridge.re Te r: T: 1 Tt. T? Tt TT 2 Lip EXPERIMENT - 10 To determine the coefficient of thermal conductivity of copper by using Searle’s apparatusGale's apparatiy tor coneuctssity at metals, thermometers reading "C, (vo thermometers reading “C, ler for yenerating steam, Sonstant-head water flow arrangement, “3. Bea nnd balance, an ad about a fof \ength has a copper si¢am heater incorporated at one end and a copper spital at the Gb: shrough whieh cold wé Description of apparatus -Cylindsival copper bi Sireulatwes (Fig. 1), Ata known distance apart on the copper bar, two thermometers are inserted to Record the temperatures there so that value of the tempeniture gradient may be calculated, For rent thermal contact between the bar and thermometers. the latter are pliced in the cups in othe bur containing mereury, ‘These cups should be well above the axis of the bar otherwise the: fate oF flow of heat is likely to be utfected, The temperatures of the inflowing and the outflowing§ Watley can be observed by the thertometers inserted in the cups for that purpose at ends of the spital. hy whole piece 6 from. ALL this is tu cusure that the wat is alony thy axis of the bur and normal to the ieutbernial surface yo apparatits is tell-lined and covered ina wooden case with a removable4 pif mn be the mass of water Hossiny: though the copper spirad per seeund and ts and 1 ate [ee steady temperatures of the inflowing aml the utflowing water as indicated by the two iStmometers, the quantity of heat taken up by water per second fy m (te ty) calories. low, in the steady state of the bur, the quantity oF heut flowing across any normal seetion per second re Te i P r Where & isthe coefficient of thermal conductivity of the niturial of the bur, of is thy urea of ‘eruss-section of the eircukir of radius rand ty ad ts sire the steady temperatures ut two poitits, sistance ef apart atong the lenyth of the bar. In the steady state, this heat lowing: setuss a eran. tion of the bar is taken up by the water eiteuating past the copper pital Hence, bn ty Rent ae =m (y- &) Mite~ td ) Kz : Rh = t the vislue of K can be evaluated by recordiry the Aline equation, Method—-Pass a steady current of steam trom te all the factors ecvurting on the right ad state ont boiler inte the steam eb mber to heat the end a steudy current of water fem, a constant level = arrangement to circulate past the cupper spitsl surroundii of the copper bar, At the other end, allow Ww the bar, Te have a measutable ditference of temperatures between the Incoming and outgoing water through the copper spicat uljust the rate of Now of ster ta be low, ives trickle E T? 3 T of water should corae out of the spiral, As the tempersture difference (ty—-ty involved is small, use the thermometers reading te 1S. 4 | ? Sofa | - ‘erally takes avout halt’ an hour or so Tor the ‘bar a attain it, In the steady state read the four thermonteters. ‘The fact that the bar has attained th TT Pstenty slate Is confirmed by secarding the an hen: whereas, le record the temperatures ty aod ton the bar ata distance d apart. use the dhecinonieter reading to 4 of a degn Wait till the steady state Is reached; it ge(7) Fite diameter should bo resins at cor shotld be made aleny svetually. jrerpenalicular tsamieters Observations [A] Femi otthes achetween the feo fixed thermometers Vand Ty am (BE Determination of the diameter of the bar Vernier constant am Zero error ni Roading along ono | Reading along a diameter parpondicular diamotor b om. [7 S.No, | Mass of | Timo ; water) taker | towed | min am ON INTERCHANGE OF THERMOMET RS Mein corrected value of the diameter: cm. sey betore interchange 7 Value obit: tp after Interchange Value of Gr ty, before interchanysValue of tte GQ) ater interchange Mean value artis 4 0 ott Mean value of (yy) ‘ 2 MG Bd | nib t) Result [he coetticient of thermal conductivity uf copper calories pet see, per sq. em. per amt temp, gradient, Ceiticivar of the method ‘The method is straightforward although iC takes some time to carry sot In practive Tt is suitable only for materials which are suod conductors of heat and ean be dade avibible the form of «baror a estinder Phe mereuty-in glass thermometers are in good seal contact with the har siawe they are dipped mu ueigars contuined fa thy cups made in the wth m mometer. emplosed, sytes tise said puapose, for clintinate sy erturs date td toe thermometers a1 each pair ate atterelnaged ait the readings repeated Fer more accurate ising platinshd resistance wire fae heatiny should be dane by at etectrceat {anon the end af the bar, und the teripsratives stiowkd he measured by platinum weaprred sootunge thermumeters. ree UOC CCC Cb OEM td MMMM CCK beh