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5.9 EOC
5.9.1 Summary
5.9.2 Notes
5.9.3 Exercises
6 Evaluating Classifiers
6.1 Baseline Classifiers
6.2.6 F1
6.8 EOC
6.8.1 Summary
6.8.2 Notes
6.8.3 Exercises
7 Evaluating Regressors
7.1 Baseline Regressors
7.5.3 Residuals
7.6 EOC
7.6.1 Summary
7.6.2 Notes
7.6.3 Exercises
8.5.1 Covariance
8.5.3 Performing DA
8.7.1 Digits
8.8 EOC
8.8.1 Summary
8.8.2 Notes
8.8.3 Exercises
9.6 EOC
9.6.1 Summary
9.6.2 Notes
9.6.3 Exercises
10.4 Discretization
10.6.2 Interactions
10.8 EOC
10.8.1 Summary
10.8.2 Notes
10.8.3 Exercises
11.6 EOC
11.6.1 Summary
11.6.2 Notes
11.6.3 Exercises
IV Adding Complexity
12 Combining Learners
12.1 Ensembles
12.3.1 Bootstrapping
12.4 Boosting
12.6 EOC
12.6.1 Summary
12.6.2 Notes
12.6.3 Exercises
13.4 EOC
13.4.1 Summary
13.4.2 Notes
13.4.3 Exercises
14.4 EOC
14.4.1 Summary
14.4.2 Notes
14.4.3 Exercises
15.6.1 Sampling
15.7 EOC
15.7.1 Summary
15.7.2 Notes
15.7.3 Exercises
A mlwpy.py Listing
Preface
1.1 WELCOME
From time to time, people trot out a tired claim that
computers can “only do what they are told to do”. The
claim is taken to mean that computers can only do what
their programmers know how to do and can explain to
the computer. Yet, this claim is false. Computers can
perform tasks that their programmers cannot explain to
them. Computers can solve tasks that their programmers
do not understand. We will breakdown this paradox with
an example of a computer program that learns.
I’ll start by discussing one of the oldest —if not the oldest
known —examples of a programmed, machine learning
system. I’ve turned this into a story, but it is rooted in
historical facts. Arthur Samuel was working for IBM in
the 1950s and he had an interesting problem. He had to
test the big computing machines that were coming off
the assembly line to make sure their transistors didn’t
blow up when you turned them on and ran a program —
people don’t like smoke in their workspace. Now, Samuel
quickly got bored with running simple toy programs and,
like many computing enthusiasts, he turned his
attention towards games. He built a computer program
that let him play checkers against himself. That was fun
for awhile: he tested IBM’s computers by playing
checkers. But, as is often the case, he got bored playing
two-person games solo. His mind began to consider the
possibility of getting a good game of checkers against a
computer opponent. Problem was, he wasn’t good
enough at checkers to explain good checkers stratgies to
a computer!
Samuel came up with the idea of having the computer
learn how to play checkers. He set up scenarios where
the computer could make moves and evaluate the costs
and benefits of those moves. At first, the computer was
bad, very bad. But eventually, the program started
making progress. It was slow going. Suddenly, Samuel
had a great two-for-one idea: he decided to let one
computer play another and take himself out of the loop.
Because the computers could make moves much faster
than Samuel could enter his moves —let alone think
about them —the result was many more cycles of “make
a move and evaulate the outcome” per minute and hour
and day.
Here is the amazing part. It didn’t take very long for the
computer opponent to be able to consistently beat
Samuel. The computer became a better checkers player
than its programmer! How on earth could this happen,
if “computers can only do what they are told to do”? The
answer to this riddle comes when we very carefully
express what the computer was told to do. Samuel did
not simply tell the computer to-play-checkers. He told
the computer to-learn-to-play-checkers. Yes, we just
went all meta on you. Meta is what happens when you
take a picture of someone taking a picture of someone
(else). Meta is what happens when a sentence refers to
itself; the next sentence is an example. This sentence has
five words. When we access the meta-level we step
outside the box we were playing in and we get an entirely
new perspective on the world. Learning-to-play-
checkers, a task that develops skill at another task, is a
meta-task. It lets us move beyond a limiting
interpretation of the statement: computers can only do
what they are told. Computers do what they are told, but
they can be told to develop-a-capability. Computers can
be told to learn.
1.2.1 Features
Let’s get a bit more concrete. For example —a meta-
example, if you will —a dataset focused on human
medical records might record several values for each
patient. Some relevant values are the height, weight, sex,
age, smoking history, systolic and diasystolic —that’s the
high and low numbers —blood pressures and resting
heart rate. The different people represented in the
dataset are our examples. The biometric and
demographic characteristics are our attributes.
We can capture this data very conveniently as in Table
1.1.
74. App., B. C., I, 27. La data della legge è indicata dalle parole:
πεντεχαιδέχα μάλιστα ἔτεσιν ἀπὸ τῇς Γράκχον (intendi Tiberio)
νομοθεσίας.
75. Sulla guerra così detta giugurtina, C. Sallustio Crispo, un democratico del
tempo di Cesare (86-31 a. C.), scrisse un’apposita monografia, De Bello
iugurtino; che è un bel libro, ma assai tendenzioso.
76. Sall., B. J., 86, 2; Plut., Mar., 2, 3, 1; Gell., N. A., 16, 10, 14.
78. Cfr. J. Marquardt, De l’organisation militaire chez les Romains (trad. fr.),
Paris, 1891, pp. 147 sgg.
80. Su questa grande figura storica ha scritto un assai bel libro Th. Reinach,
Mithridate Eupator roi du Pont, Paris, 1890.
82. Sulla battaglia di Aquae Sextiae, cfr. M. Clerc, La bataille d’Aix; études
critiques sur la campagne de Marius en Provence, Paris, 1906.
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